FiRST TERM EXAMINATION [FEB-MARCH 2017] EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.] ; POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL [ETEE-406] Time : 1% hrs. M.M.: 30 Note: Attempt Q. no. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from remaining. Q.1. Attempt any five of the following: Q.1. (a) What do you mean by load frequency control. Ans. Refer Q.1. (a) End Term Examination 2017. Q.1. (6) What do you mean by speed governor dead band. Deseribe its effects on AGC. (4) Ans. Speed Governor Dead band and its Effects on AGC ‘The effect of the speed governor dead-band is that for a given position of the governor control valves, an inerease/decrease in speed can occur before the position of the valve changes. The governor dead-band can materially affect the system response. In AGC studies, the dead-band effect indeed can be significant, since relatively small signals are under considerations. . ‘The speed governor characteristic, though non-linear, has been approximated by linear characteristics in earlier analysis. Further, there is another non-linearity introduced by the dead-band in the governor operation. Mechanical friction and backlash and also valve overlaps in hydraulic relays cause the governor dead-band. Due to this, though the input signal increases, the speed governor may not immediately react until the input reaches a particular value. Similar action takes place when the input signal decreases. Thus the governor dead-band is defined as the total magnitude of sustained speed change within which there is no change in valve position. The limiting value of dead-band is specified as 0.06%. It was shown that one of the effects of governor dead- band is to increase the apparent steady-state speed regulation R. ‘The effect of the dead-band may be included in the speed governor control loop block diagram as shown in Fig. 1. Considering the worst case for the dead-band, (i.e., the system starts responding after the whole dead-band is traversed) and examining the dead-band block in Fig. 1, the following set of equations completely define the behaviour of the dead-band. (2) yo = xifx — xr < dead-band xt) — dead-band; ifx*Y — x > 0 = xls ipett arc P (ris the step in the compulation) > <2) /7 I> Gi Cre rel ® y* : ‘Speed governer Dead-band . Waa OR ne ae“g-a017 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control ‘The presence of governor dead-band makes the dynamic response oscillatory. In the presence of GRC and dead band even for small load perturbation, the system becomes highly non-linear and hence the optimization problem becomes rather complex. Q.1. (c) What do you mean by automatic load dispatching. (Ce Ans, An energy system is normally controlled by a central control centre which coordinates the operations of several area centres. The objective is to minimise the cost | of supplying electricity to the load points while ensuring security of supply against loss | of generation and transmission capacity and also maintaining the voltage and frequency of the system within specified limits, Since the interconnection is growing bigger and | bigger in size with time, the control engineer has to make adjustments to various parameters in the system, Hence it has become imperative to make use of automatic control for load dispatch problem. ‘The chosen control system is invariably based on a digital computer working on. line. The presence of the control engineer is required only to enter certain data. The rest of the control calculations can proceed and the generation instructions calculated, transmitted and implemented at the power stations automatically. Theblock diagram of an automatic control system used for load dispatching is shown. in Fig. 1. Telemeters, of le— power flows Operator| | Console | Computer| switch states | Start-up, 1 Required generator G ' jenerator ‘ output output Plant t constraints Telephone - | Telecommand | 1 Telemetry 1 Generator | + set point j Station Machine operator }¢——— controller Power outpiit frequency Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of automatic load dispatching components. Computer: The computer predicts the load and suggests economic loading, It transmits information to machine controllers. : Data Input: The computer receives a lot of essential data from the telemetering system and from the paper tape. Telemetering data comes to the computer either as analog signals representing line power flows, plant outputs or as signal bits indicating switch or isolator positions. The system is entirely automatic. Paper tape stores all the basic data required, e.g., the system parameters, load prediction, security constraints, ete. and finally asking the stations to switch the i i machi tic control. Console: The console is the comp achine controllers to automat writh the computer, Hi onent through which the operator can converse) The calculations Sah the facilities of security checking and load flows for the networ "Such a facility can be called manually at almost any instant of time an\LP. University-[B.Tech.]-AB Publisher 2017-3 the results may be recorded automatically ater a specified interval of time, if required. The security check (loss of generator or loss of one or more than one transmission links) reveals and displays that if one or more than one particular branches suffer outage, at east one of the remaining branches will be overloaded, Machino Controllers: The computer sends instructions regarding the optimal Seneration to the machine controller at regular intervals which in turn implements them. Control on each machine is applied by a closed loop system which uses a measure of actual power generated and which operates through a conventional speeder motor. These are referred to as controller power loops. In the power frequency loop an error signal proportional to the difference between ine derived and actual frequeney and power is developed. A summed error signal is formed from these two components and is converted in the motor controller to a train of Pulses that are applied to a speed governor reference setting motor called the speeder motor, The duration and amplitude of these pulses are fixed but the pulse rate is made Proportional to the summed error signal. The pulses are applied as ‘raise’ or ‘lower’ command to the speeder motor in accordance with the error signal and thus the output of the generators is increased or decreased accordingly. . Q.2, Discuss load frequency control for single area case. (10) Ans. Lond Frequency Control for Single Area Case Considering the problem of controlling the power output of the generators of a closely knit electric area so as to maintain the scheduled frequency. All the generators in such an area constitute a coherent group s0 that all the generators speed up and slow down together maintaining their relative power angles. Such an area is defined as a control area. The boundaries of a control area will generally coincide with that of an individual Electricity Board. To understand the load frequeney control problem, generator system supplying an isolated load. Figure 3 shows the schematic dia the real power flow in the power s; following parts: gram of a speed governing system which controls system. The speed governing system consists of the 1 Speed Governor: This is a fly-ball type of speed governor and constitutes the heart of the system as it senses the change in speed or: frequency. With the increase in speed the fly-balls move outwards and the point B on linkage mechaniem moves downwards and vice-versa. 2, Linkage Mechanism: respectively. The mechanism p1 to change in speed, Link 4 (1,) 8. Hydraulic Amplifier: power level pilot valve move: movement which is necessary steam, ABC and CDE are the rigid links pivoted at B and D rovides a movement to the control valve in the proportion provides a feedback from the steam valve movement. This consists of the main piston and pilot value. Low ment is converted into high power level piston valve to open or close the steam valve against high pressure 4. Speed Changer: The speed changer provides a steady state power output sétting for the turbine. The downward movement of the speed changer opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the turbine under steady condition, The reverse happens when the speed changer moves upward. considering a single turbo-, nes4-2017 _Bighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control eenone » Direction of positive i iF PN. avh coil Speed governor Hydraulic ampiitier {Speed contro! mechanism) Fig. 3. Turbine speed governing system. Q.3. Discuss optimum load dispatch including transmission loses. (10) Ans. Optimum Load Dispactch Including Transmission Losses Consider Fig. which consists of two identical generators i.e., generators with identical incremental production cost. If generator 2 has a local load, according to equal incremental production criterion, the total load must be shared equally by both the generators, i.e., each generator should supply half of the total load. The common sense tells us that it is more economical to let generator 2 supply most of the local load because generator 1 has to supply in addition to the load, the transmission losses also. Therefore, the criterion of sharing load by equal incremental production cost does not hold good under such situation and a strategy must be evolved which takes into account the transmission losses also. vic Load Fig. Two identical generators connected through a transmission link. The optimal load dispatch problem including transmission losses is defined as MinF, = 27 Cad nal n Subject to Pp+Py- YP, 2.0 2) n=l where P, is the total system loss which is assumed to be a function of generatior and the other term have their usual significance.LP. University-(B.Tech.-AB Publisher 2017-5 Making use of the Lagrangian multiplier A, the auxiliary function is given by : F = Fp+MPp+P,-LP) The partial differential of this expression when equated to zero gives the condition for optimal load dispatch, i.e, 2 44( 8-1) 20 @, (a, ak, or wet ok (8) a . Here the term 3p" is known as the incremental transmission loss at plant n and i is known as the incremental cost of received power in Rs. per MWhr. ‘The equation (3 ;) is a set of n equations with (n + 1) unknowns. Here n generations are unknown and 4 is also unknown. These equations are known a coordination equations because they coordinate the incremental transmission losses with the incremental cost of production. To solve these equations the loss formula equation (4 ) is expressed in terms of generations and is approximately expressed as Py = DLE nBnk (4) . where P,, and P,, are the source loadings, B,,,, the transmission loss coefficients. 1 The formula is derived under the following assumptions: + 1 1, The equivalent load current at any bus remains a constant complex fraction of x the total equivalent load current. E 2. The generator bus voltage magnitudes and angles are constant. d 3. The power factor of each source is constant, ¥ The solution of coordination equation (8) requires the calculation of @P, /@P, which ot is obtained from equation (4) as nt 7 2S Ban Py Ec (8) dk, Also @P, = FuPathy -: The coordination equations can be rewritten as FyaP,+f,+A22B,,P, = 2 : 6 Collecting all coefficients of P,, we obtain , P,(Py,+2AB,,) = = x Bann) en Solving for P, we obtain oD) ara A /6-2017 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control | ‘Tp arrive at an optimal load dispatching solution, the simultaneous solution of the coordination equations along with the equality constraint ( 2) should suffice and any standard matrix inversion subroutine could be used. But, because of the fact that plants might go beyond their loading conditions, it becomes necessary to solve a new set of equations and thus by the process of elimination this could be done. This would be very time consuming in a large interconnected system. Therefore, an iterative procedure would be used. The iterative procedure involves a method of successive approximation which rapidly converge to the correct solution, The following steps are required for the iterative procedure: It is t zeroth ite | | | iterations in the pre’ [Betornine P,, corresponding to incremental cost of production a of that ger [ow 4. Che iterations = | + [sans | 5. Cal SoNeTorP, >] 1 fy/h-2 BrP and ca - 6.ira | Yalues of p | 7.Upd Q4.D | Ans. L The los the restric steam plan | generation | buses nave eat sectgied 4 ft km, Must ¢ generation is likely to | the controll the design. a ee | ike ops ¥ of generation cos CED j Ifthe g i | APP = YP ~~ Po’ order will b may be veri + R= +A), 20 v . for both ar = rate of valy Power rate Caleulate Py = SD P.BanPn : and aP =|5(Po Pi ~ Fo) + Teo Fig. Flow chart of the solution of coordination equations,LP. University-(B.Tech.|-AB Publisher 2017-7 1. Assume a suitable value of !. This value should be more than the largest intercept of the incremental production cost of the various generators. 2. Calculate the generations based on equal incremental production cost, 3. Calculate the generation at all the buses using the equation 1-f.- J. Baa Fr —A men : Fin + 2B, It is to be noted that the powers to be substituted on the right hand side during zeroth iteration correspond to the values as calculated in step 2. For subsequent iterations the values of powers to be substituted correspond to the powers as calculated in the previous iteration. In case any of the generations violates the limit the generation of that generator is fixed at the limit violated. 4. Check if the difference in power at all generator buses between two consecutive iterations is less than a prespecified value. If not, go back to step 3. 5. Calculate losses using the relation Pp, = LLP BnnFn mn and calculate 4P = [2 -P,- Pol 6. If AP is less than ¢, stop calculation and calculate cost of generation with these values of powers. 7. Update value of 2. and go back to step 3. The flow chart is given in. Fig. Q.4. Discuss load frequency control with GRC, (10) Ans, Load frequency control with GRC ‘The load frequency control problem discussed so far does not consider the effect of the restrictions on the rate of change of power generation. In power systems having steam plants, power generation can change only at a specified maximum rate. The generation rate (from safety considerations of the equipment) for reheat units is quite km. Must of the reheat,units have a generation rate around 3%/min, Some have a generation rate between 5 to 10%/min. If these constraints are not considered, system is likely to chase large momentary disturbances. This results in undue wear and tear of the controller. Several methods have been proposed to consider the effect of GRCs for the design of automatic generation controllers. When GRC is considered, the system dynamic model becomes nonlinear and linear control techniques cannot be applied for the optimisation of the controller setting. If the generation rates denoted by Pg; are inchided in the state vector, the system order will be altered. Instead of augmenting them, while solving the state equations, it may be verified at each step if the GRCs are violated, Another way of considering GRCs for both areas is to add limiters to the governors as shown in Fig. i.e;, the maximum rate of valve opening or closing speed is restricted by the limiters, Here, T,, ma, i8 the power rate limit imposed by valve or gate control. In this model |a¥el < maxEighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control Fig. Governor model with GRC The banded values imposed by the limiters are selected to restrict the generation rate by-10% per minute. ‘The GRCs result in larger deviations in ACEs as the rate at which generation can change in the area is constrained by the limits imposed. Therefore, the duration for which the'power neéds to be imported increases considerably as comipared to the case where generation rate is not constrained. With GRCs, R should be selected with care so as to give the best dynamic response. In-hydro-thermal system, the generation rate in the hydro area normally remains below the safé limit and therefore GRCs for all the hydro plants can be ignored.ion an for ase so in the END TERM EXAMINATION [MAY-JUNE 2017] EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.] POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL [ETEE-406] : Time :3 hrs. MLM. : 75. Note: Attempt any five questions including Q.no, I which ia compulsory. Select one question from each unit. Q.1. Attempt any five of the following: Q.1, (a) Explain the concept of Lond Frequency Control? (6) Ans, Concept of Lond-frequency Control (LFC) ‘The block schematic for such a control is shown in Fig. +O [Eonres ] +| Turbo-ger| tg —— Actual output ‘Sensor +e) Control | —»Turbo-gen 4 —+{ en | foto Actual output ‘Sensor PG, System load Py totie lines Fig. Block diagram for load frequency control In order to understand the mechanism of frequency control, consider a small step increase in load. The initial distribution of the load inerement is determined by the system impedance; and the instantaneous relative generator rotor positions. The energy required to supply the load increment is drawn from the kinetic energy of the rotating machines. As a result, the system frequency drops. The distribution of load during thie period among the various machines is determined by the inertias of the rotors of the generators partaking in the process, After the speed or frequency fall due to reduction in stored energy in the rotors has taken place, the drop is sensed by the governors and they divide the load increment between the machines as determined by the droops of the respective governor characteristics. Subsequently, secondary control restores the system frequency to its normal value (50 Hz) by readjusting the governor characteristics, Q.1. (6) What is GRC and explain its significance in LFC? (6) Ans. In a power system, power generation can change only at a specified maximum. rate known as Generation Rate Constraint (GRC) : The optimal load frequency control does not include the effect of the limits on the rate of change of power generation. If these limits were not included in the control, there will be a tendency for the system to chase large momentary disturbances, This causes ne iia F/“10-2017 Bighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control undue wear and tear of the controller. Even a telemetering outage may cause problems to the system in operation. Several methods are proposed to include the effect of generation rate constraints in the computation of the control. : The generation rate constraints result in larger deviations in area control errors, As the rate at which generation can change in the area is constrained by the limits power import via tie lines becomes imperative. Under generation rate constrained conditions, the selection of governor speed regulation coefficient R requires careful consideration. In practice, a low value, of the order of 2 to 4%, is chosen for R. With a proper, supplementary control, the steady state error can be reduced to zero, whatever may be the value of R. However, itis desirable that a proper value of R be selected s0 as to give the best dynamic response. Improper selection of R may lead to instability whatever may be the integral controller gain settings. In systems with hydro-thermal combination, the generation rate in the hydro area generally remains below the safe, permissible generation rate, and as such the rate constraints for generation at all the hydro plants can be omitted. ‘The presence of governor dead-band introduces oscillations in the dynamic response. It has been reported that the governor dead band does not influence the selection of integral controller gain settings in the presence of generation rate constraints. QL. (c) Write an equation for transmission loss. ) Ans, Equation for transmission loss is- a3 Pigg 2s LP Bran Pa malas £0508, ~ 8) : ee Sin bs Ban Woy Val(esin)(e084q) 5 Stn P,, P, and P, are the active power supplied by the generators 1, 2 and 8 at voltages IV,1, [V,1 and 1V,| and power factors at the generator buses being cos},, cos, and cos6, respectively. 8,, 8p, 8, are the phase angles of individual generator currents w.r.t reference axis th the 4, J,» Akg = 7, 74nd soon. where, Ups ip tiytenetipgs Heré, considering generator 1 alone supply the entire load current I, R,, is the resistance of the element K. Q.1. (d) What is meant by economic dispatch? (8) Ans. Economic dispatch : Whenever load changes the initial frequency correction is achieved by the speed governor and this control can be treatéd as primary load frequency control. The adjustment of frequency by the primary control loop may take a few seconds. After the speed governor response is over, the steady state frequency error is reduced to zero so that system frequency is mairitained constant by the integral controller action. This will be after the primary control action is over and can take a time period up to one minute. This is the secondary control, The adjustment of frequency error to zero by.changing the generation schedules that are determined earlier by economic criterion again requires readjustment of generation. This tertiary control can be implemented by using economic dispatch computer which works on the costLP. University-{B.Tech.]-AB Publisher 2017-11 characteristics of various generating units in the area. The speed changer settings are once again operated in accordance with ecdnomic dispatch computer programme. Q.1. (e) Define Exciter stability, Excitation ceiling voltage (5) Ans, Exciter Stability: The exciter stability depends upon the field resistance and the charging ofits value by cutting or adding. The greatest possible control effort is the complete shorting of the field rheostat when maximum current value is-reached in the field circuit. This can be done by closing the contactor as shown in Fig. ruff h 69) in ie Suter Alternator field Pile Exeter Main Exciter roam Fig. Excitation Ceiling Voltage: It is defined as the maximum voltage that may be attained by an exciter with specified conditions of load. : Q.1. (f) Define vongestion. (5) Ans. Congestion Whenever the physical or operational constraints in a transmission’network become active, the system is said to be ina state of congestion. The possible limits that may be hit in case of congestion are: line thermal limits, transformer emergency ratings, bus voltage limits, transient or oscillatory stability, ete. These limits constrain the amount of electric power that can be transmitted between two locations through a transmission network. Flows should not be allowed to increase to levels where a contingency. would cause the network to collapse because of voltage instability, etc. The peculiar chara¢teristics associated with electrical power prevent its direct comparison with other marketable commodities, First, electrical energy can not be stored in large chunks. In other words, the demand of electric power has to be satisfied on a real time basis. Due to other peculiarities, the flexibility of directly routing this commodity through a desired path is very limited. The flow of electric current obeys laws of physics rather than the wish of traders or operators. Thus, the system operator has to decide upon such a pattern of injections and take-offs, that no constraint is violated. : UNIT-I Q.2. (a) Draw and explain the simplified diagram of the primary Automatic Load Frequency Control Loop? (6.5) Ans. Refer Q. No 2 of First Term 2017. * Q.2. (b) Two generators are supplying power to a system their ratings are 60 and 500 MW respectively. The frequency is 50 HZ and each generator is half- loaded. The system load increase by 110 MV and as a result the frequency drop. to 49.5 HZ. What must the individual regulations be if the two generators should increase their powers in proportion in their rating? (6) Ans. Py = 110MW AP,+AP, = 50:500= :1012-2017 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control 110 . AP, = Fy = 10MW; AP, = 100 MW Af = 50 ~49,5 = 0.5 Hz Af 08 Ry = Ay 7 79 = 0.05 Haw 0.5 R= ag = Top = 0.005 Ha/MW 0.05 x 50° Fp = 0.05 pu = 5% 0.005 x 500 R, = Gy = 0.05pu = 5% Q.3. (a) Draw the diagram for closed loop Automatic Load Frequency Control and derive the transfer function model of each component? (6.5) Ans. Model of Speed Governing System We consider the steady state condition by assuming that the linkage mechanism is stationary, pilot valve closed, steam valve opened by a definite magnitude, the turbine output balances the generator output and the turbine or generator is running at a particular speed when the frequency of the system is f°, the generator output Pg, and let the steam valve setting corresponding to these conditions be X°,, (Fig.). We now proceed to obtain the linear model of the system around these operating conditions. Let the point A of the speed chariger lower down by an amount AX, as a result the commanded increase in power is AP, then AX, = K,AP,. The movement of linkage point A causes small position changes AX, and AX, of the linkage points C and D. With the movement of D upwards by AX, high pressure oil flows into the hydraulic amplifier-from the top of the main piston thereby the steam valve-will move downwards a small distance AX, which results in increased turbine torque and hence power increase APs. ‘This further results in increase in speed and hence the frequency of generation. The increase in frequency Af causes the link point B to move downward a small distance AX, proportional to Af. We assume that the movements are positive if the points move downwards. Since all the movements are small, we have the linear relationship. ‘Two factors,contribute to the movement of C: (i) Increase in frequency causes B to move by AX,, when the frequency changes by Af as then the fly-ball moves outward and Bis lowered by AX, Therefore, this contribution is positive and is given by K,Af. , (ii) The lowering of the speed changer by an amountAX, lifts the point C upwards‘ by an amount proportional to AX,, ie, let this be K’,AX, or KAP. AX, = K,Af-K,aP, @ The positive constants K, and K, depend upon the length of the linkage arms AB and BC and upon the proportional constants of tho speed changer and the speed governor. ‘The movement of D is contributed by the movement of C and E. Since C and Z move downwards when D moves upwards, therefore, AX, = K,AX,+K,AX, wn)LP. University-(B.Tech.|-AB Publisher 2017-13 * Dirgction of tivo Riso frovement Hydraulic amplifier (speed control mechanism) Speed governor Fig. Turbine speed governing system. ‘The positive constants K, and K, depend upon the length of the linkage CD and DE. Assuming that the oil flow into the hydraulic cylinder is proportional to position AX, of the pilot valve, the value of AX, is given by i AXp = K,{;“(Xp) de (3) The constant K, depends upon the fluid pressure and the geometries of the orifice and the cylinder. ‘Taking Laplace transform of equations we obtain AX<(s) = K,AF(s)~ K,AP(s) (4) AXy(6) = KyAXe(s) +K, AXg(6) n(5) K, AXg(s) = -—BAXp(s) (6) Eliminating the variables AX;, and AX, we obtain , KKyAP,(s) ~ KyKgAF(s) AXg(s) = Ky +s/K, Malan - Lares] ED = T¥st % where R = K, speed regulation of the governor.Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control a | K4K; S35 . Ke = —K, =8ainof speed governor 14-2017 1 KK, = "ne constant of speed governor AF(s) Fig. Block diagram representation of speed governing system for steam turbine. Turbine Model: The model requires a relation between changes in power outputot the steam turbine to changes in its steam valve opening AX,. We consider here anon- reheat turbine with a single gain factor K;, and a single time constant T', and thus in the crudest model representation of the turbine the transfer function is ‘given as AR(s) -_ Kp Gi) = Ax) "Te sTp (8) ‘Typically the time constant 7, lies in the range 0.2 to 2.0 sec. Fig. shows the linearized model of a non-reheat turbine controller including the speed governor mechanism. APS(S) #7 Ko Kr TFstel ak, [tFsT| "APis) 1R AF(s) Fig. Transfer function representation of power control mechanism of turbine, Generator-load Model: The model gives relation between the change in frequent as a result of change in generation when the load changes by a small amount. Let AP, t the change in load, asa result the generation also swings by an amount APg. The m power surplus at the bus bar is AP, ~ AP, and this power will be absorbed by the syste! in two ways: ; aw : + (i) By increasing the kinetic energy of the generator rotor at a rate “Where is the new value of kinetic energy. Let W® be the K.E. before the change in load occu when the frequency is /? and let W be the K.E. when the frequency is? + Af, Since the K.LP, University-{B.Tech, AB Publisher 2017-15 ia proportional to square of the speed of the generator, therefore, the two kinetic energies can be correlated as 5 any 0 of f+ AF w-W (Ae } (9) 2af We ws 2f) (10) neglecting the higher terms as. Pp is small. , aw aw? d i Sy en de 5. fae. es (an) (Gi) The load on the motors increases with increase in speed. The load on the system being mostly motor load the rate of change of load with respect to frequency can be : ap, regarded as nearly constant for small changes in frequency, i.e:/ D = 7 , where D can be obtained empirically. Therefore, the net power surplus at the bus bar is given by 2w? d ; APG-AP, = ee athe D.af 5 w(12) J Tis the inertia constant of the generator in MW-see/MVA andP is the rating in MVA, W, = HP. Rewriting the balance equation 2HP d APG AP = pO gy AN) + Df ~(18) Dividing throughout by P we get 2H APo(pu.)-APyipu) = “A SAFC) + Danis) or AF@) = K ‘ = [A%(s)- aPy(sy}Ke_ or AFG) = [AFG(s)- ar, ee, Eta) 2H =" (pf = power system time constant where16-2017 Bighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control and . Kp = ie power system gain ‘The block diagram representing equation (14 ) is given in Fig. AP, (5) APols) > Kp > : 1+sTp! aF(s) Fig. Generator load model. ‘The complete block diagram representing the load frequency control of an isolated power system is given in Fig. 4 Fig. Isolated power system load frequency control block diagram. Q.3. (b) Draw the block diagram of linear model to 'Iwo-area system? (6) Ans. The block diagram for a two area system is shown below. Each area can bé represented by a block diagram as in the case of a single area’system, but with suffixes 1and 2, The block diagram for the tie-line power deviation can be iiSed to inter conned both the areas as shown. . : | a 4 R, RAT) L_ Cd Pra 1 —W a * I ; Paez —-@—>[Ga]} — ra = ‘ eT) i 1 3 Fig. Block diagram for 2-area systemsLP. University-[B.Tech.]-AB Publisher 2017-17 . UNIT-IL Q44. (a) Draw the explain the flow chart for economic dispatch including transmission losses using } iteration? 6) Ans. The economic dispatch problem is defined as A Minky = Fn j oD) nel ‘ : . Subject toP,) = 2 Fa (2) nal where Fy is total fuel input to the system, F, the fuel input to nth unit, P, the total load demand and P,, the generation of nth unit. By making use of Lagrangian multiplier the auxiliary function is obtained as Fs Fr i(- ia] hel where 2 is the Lagrangian multiplier. . Differentiating F with respect to the generation P, and equating to zero gives the condition for optimal operation of the system. FL Ry #F, a, Since Py and therefore the condition for optimum operation is dR = dP, 13) dk, F Here qp- = incremental production cost of plant n in Rs. per MWhr. The incremental production cost of a given plant over a limited range is represented by dk, dP, = FunPa thy ‘The equation (3) mean that the machines be so loaded that the incremental cost of production of each machine is same. It is to be noted here that; the active power generation constraints are taken into account while solving the equations which are derived above. If these constraints are violated fer any generator it is tied to the corresponding limit and the rect of the load is distributed to the remaining generator units according to the equal incremental cost of production. ‘The simultaneous solution of equations (2) and (3) gives the economic operating schedule. Therefore, any good technique for solving a Set of linear equations can be used but since the inequality constraints have also to be taken inté account, the following iterative method is used:4g-2017 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control 41, Assume a suitable value of 2°, This value should be more than the largest in ofthe incremental cost, characteristics of the various generators. 2. Compute the individual generations P, P, , ..., P, corresponding to incremen cost of production from equation . In case generation at any of the buses is violated, generation ofthat generator is fixed at the limit violated during that iteration andi gq remaining load is distributed among the remaining generators. « 3. Check if the equality j | Fim oy | and re DLA. = Py is satisfied. | . nal * 4. Ifnot, make a second guess 2’ and repeat the above steps. The selection of i this step must of course be guided by the result in step (3). For example, if we find thd, Ans. the total generation is less than P, then correct value of 2 to be selected would be ceo > A? If equality is satisfied, the generations as calculated in step (2) give the optim operating strategy. The flow chart is given in Fig. 1 Reedin Fa faba ‘Assure a suitable vave of and ak starting ~ then the = sett continuin SAE | j SP The converg With these ¢ i | } | | — | and cleiaie cost | >CERDD | Total generatio Total power rece 25. ¢ ) Draw MSmission losse, ANS. Refer Q.4.(q Fig. FI hart for economic scheduling: transmission loss neglecte ‘ig. Flow cleee ee ee ee a LP. University-{B.Tech.|-AB Publisher 2017-19 unit system, the loss coefficients are: B,, = 0.01 5 Qa. (6) For a simple two Ut MW-!. The incremental production costs of MW", B,, = 0.0005 MW", By, = tho two units are. AC; dC, 2 , a GR = 0.08P, +16 Re MW hour and py 0.08P, + 12 Rs. MW ~ hour Find the generation P, and P, for 2 = 20. Also compute the transmission loss (6.5 and received power. ) 6 1-5 2p rh 1- 16 _1-0.0005)P 02+ 0.001P, t Ans. pe ht, 0 Eee * 4 ' SB ~ + 2(0.001) a 1-2 2Bh, 1 a 0.08 Pt Bao 99, * 210.9024) starting with P, = 0,P,=33.8 then the value of P, is computed as 49.2 continuing the iterations the values obtained are tabulated Iteration —P Py 1 33.8 49.2 a) 41.5 50.2 3 4.7 50.2 4 47 50.2 The converged values are P, = 41.7MW; and P, = 50.2 MW * With these generations, the total transmission losses are = 8 = & if = B,,P?, + 2B ,pP,P, + By»P,? = (0.001) x (41.7)? + 2(-0.0005) (41.7) (50,2) + (0.0024).(50.2)? = 5.7MW : Total generations = 2 = 2p =41.7+ 50.2 = 919Mw Total power received Py=Py-P, =91.9-5.7 = 86,2MW, Q.5. (a) Draw and explain the flow chart for e ‘Tansmission losses using ) iteration? console Hennich eens Ans. Refer Q.4.(a) End Term 2017. cted20-2017 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control Q.5. (b) Discuss the importance of proper load allocation in power plants What information must be available for optimum load allocation? @ Ans. Importance of proper load allocation in Power Plants ‘The economic load dispatch problem involves the solution of two different proble ‘The first of these is the Unit Commitment or pre-dispateh problem wherein itis requi to select optimally out of the available generating sources to operate, to meet expected load and provide a specified margin of operating reserve over a specified period of time. The second aspect of economic dispatch is the online economic dispatch, wherein it is required to distribute the load among the generating units actually, paralleled with the system in such manner as to minimize the total cost of supplying the minute-to-minute requirements of the system, With large interconnection of the, electric networks, the energy crisis in the world and continuous rise in prices, it is very essential to reduce the running charges of the electric energy i.e., reduce the fuel consumption for meeting a particular load demand. : In case of economic load dispatch the generations are not fixed but they are allowed to take values again within certain limits so as to meet a particular load demand with, minimum fuel consumption. This means economic load dispatch problem is really the| solution of a large number of load flow problems and choosing the one which is optimal in the sense that it needs minimum cost of generation. It is clear from this that since] total cost of generation is a function of the individual generation of the sources which) can take values within certain constraints, the cost of generation will depend upon the system constraint for a particular load demand. This means the cost of generation is not fixed for a particular load demand but depends upon the operating constraints of the sources. In fact the modern power system has to operate under various operational] and network constraints. It is, therefore, best to understand the various constraints} before actually taking up the economic load dispatching problem. | Information availability for Optimum Load Allocation. | Modern power system has grown quite complex. The awareness of power systett| engineer for a good quality of reliable supply has forced him to adopt some automatic means so that he not only operates his system reliably but most economically. For this he has to know the state of the system so that he can regulate the system in that direction. The state (frequency, voltage, active power, reactive power flows, position of C.B., switches ete.) of such a complex system can be obtained by telemetering only. No manual method can handle such a complex job, j For the sake of convenience, the whole system is divided into a number of areas ot groups each area having an area (or group) control station and finally these stations art centrally controlled (or coordinated) by what are known as master controlled stations These different control stations are located at suitable points in the network and the, control such items as voltage, power, frequency on getting information from distan points regarding condition of the systeni by telemetring. ‘There are some informations which are to be telemetered to group control station only; others are to be telemetered to master control station only; yet there are othe informations to be telemetered to both the stations. Informations telemetered to group control station: (i) Generated active and reactive power of each station in the group. (ii) Net active and reactive power transfer from the group. (iii) Active and reactive power flow through the tie lines, along with direction of fc and an overload alarm. *LP. University-[B.Tech.]-AB Publisher 2017-21 i Information to be telemetered to control station: (i) Voltage and frequency from selected points. (ii) Total generated active and reactive power of the system. (ii) Tie-line loadings (active and reactive powers) from selected points. Informations to be telemetered to both group and central control stations: (i) System frequency and rate of change of frequency. (ii) Generated active and reactive power area wise. (iii) Aren-interconnection active and reactive power. All the above information are sent by telemetering to the control stations where they are displayed by suitablé meters and some of these information are fed to the computer for processing and generating commanding signals to be followed by various equipments (c.g., automatic voltage regulators and other controller) for good quality of reliable and economic supply. UNIT-IL Q.6. Explain the importance’ and features of congestion management in deregulation market? (12.5) Ans. Importance of congestion management in'the deregulated market (environment) = If the network power carrying capacity is infinite and if there are ample resources to keep the system variables within limits, the most efficient generation dispatch will correspond to the least cost, operation. Kirchhoff s laws combined with the magnitude and location of the generations and loads, the line impedances and the network topology determine the flows in each line. In real life, however, the power carrying capacity of a line is limited by various limits as explained earlier. These power system security constraints may therefore necessitate a change in the generator schedules away from \. the most efficient dispatch. In the traditional vertically integrated utility environment, 2 the generation patterns are-fairly stable. From a short term perspective, the system S__ operator may have to deviate from the efficient dispatch in order to keep line flows t_ within limits. However, the financial implications of such re-dispatch do not surface xf because the monopolist can easily socialize these costs amongst the various 1 ‘© participants, which in turn, are under his direct control. From planning perspective | also, a definite approach can be adopted for network augmentation. xx However, in deregulated structures, with generating companies competing in an S ce open transmission access environment, the generation / flow patterns can change s. drastically over small time periods with the market forces. In such situations, it becomes ay necessary to have a congestion management scheme in place to ensure that the systern ni stays secure. However, being a competitive environment, the re-dispatch will have direct = financial implications affecting most of the market players, creating a set of winners and losers. Moreover, the congestion bottlenecks would encourage some strategic players to exploit the situation. The effects that congestion is likely to cause are discussed next, Desired Features of Congestion Management Schemes Tackling the congestion problem takes different forms in different countries. It really depends on. what type of deregulation model is being employed in a particular region. Certain network topologies, demographic factors and political ideologies influence the implementation of congestion management schemes in conjunction with overall market design. 4 Any congestion management scheme should try to accommodate the following features; nt re! lo22-2017 Bighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control ‘ i i \d minimize its interventi « Economic Efficiency: Congestion management shoul: t ention {into a competitive market. In other words, it should achieve system security, forgoing ay little social welfare as possible. The scheme should lead to both, short term and Tong 4 term efficiency. The short term efficiency is associated with generator dispatch, while - Jong term efficiency pertains to investments in new transmission and generation facilities « Non discriminative: Each market participant should be treated equally. For this, the network operator should be independent of market parties and he should not | derive any kind of benefit from occurrence of congestion. Otherwise it provides perverse | signals for network expansion. | * Be transparent: The implementation should be well defined and transparent _ for all participants. * Be robust: Congestion management scheme should be robust with respect to strategic manipulation by the market entities. This again refers back to principle of _ economic efficiency ‘Though a variety of forms of congestion management schemes are practiced throughout the power markets of the world, the nodal pricing or the optimal power flow based congestion management scheme is said to satisfy most of the desired features of | the same, especially the feature of economic efficiency. Each practiced method has strengths and flaws and also interrelationships to some extent. Each maintains power | _System purity but differs in its impact on the economics of the energy market. Q.7. Explain the structure and different entities in deregulation electricity. I 5 (12.5) Ans. Structure in deregulation electricity r ‘The process of deregulation has taken different formats in different parts of the [ world. Also, the reasons for power sector to adopt the reforms vary from country to $1 country. For the developed countries, introduction of competition to achieve social welfare was probably the most important reason. On the other hand, the developing countries mainly banked on the capacity addition through entry of private players. It is observed that neither, there is one reason for driving deregulation of power industry nor is there a single objective of the same. i ‘The restructuring process starts with the unbundling of the originally vertically integrated utility. This essentially leads to separate the activities involved in an integrated power system leading to creation of functional partition amongst them. For example, the unbundling of power industry involves separating transmission activity from the generation activity. Further, distribution can be separated from transmission. ‘Thus, these three mutually exclusive functions are created and there are separate entities or companies that control these functions. Then, the competition can be introduced in the generation activity by allowing other private participants in this segment. In contrast to the vertically integrated case where all the generation is owned by the same utility, there-is a scope for private players to sell their generation at jt competitive prices. The generators owned by the earlier vertically integrated utility will then compete with these private generators. The transmission sector being a natural n monopoly is most unlikely to have competing players in the sector. This is because for fe natural monopolies like transmission companies, the business becornes profitable only? when output is large enough. Figure below shows the representative structure off { deregulated power system. In contrast to the vertically integrated utility structure, it?! can be seen that there are many alternative paths along which the money flows. It is evident that there are many more other entities present, apart from the verticall integrated utility and the customers. It should be noted that there can be many mo! versions of deregulated structure. eer oe 3LP. University-[B.Tech.)-AB Publisher 2017-28 Independent Systent Oporator 1 1 ' Ieee —> : --> Power Flow’ \nformation Flaw Money Flow Different Entities Involved in Deregulation Electricity The introduction of deregulation has introduced several new entities in the electricity market place and has simultaneously redefined the scope of activitios of many of the existing players. Variations exist across market structures over how each entity is particularly defined and over what role it plays in the system. However, on a broad level, the following entities can be identified: 1, Genco (Generating Company): Genco is an owner-operator of one or more generators that runs them and bids the power into the competitive marketplace. Genco sells energy atts sites in the same manner that a coal mining company might sell coal n bulk at its mine. 2. Transco (Transmission Company): Transco moves power in bulk quantities tom where it is prodiced to where it is consumed. The Transco owns and maintains the ransmission facilities, and may perform many of the management and engineering ‘unctions required to ensure the smooth running of the system. In some deregulated ndustries, the Transco owns and maintains the transmission lines under the monopoly, aut does not operate them. That is done by Independent System Operator (ISO). The Transco is paid for the use of its lines. 8. Discom (Distribution Company): It is the owner-operator of the local power delivery system, which delivers power to individual businesses, and homeowners, In some places, the local distribution function is combined with retail function, i.e. to buy wholesale electricity either through the spot market or through direct contracts with Gencos and supply electricity to the end use customers. In many other cases, however, the Discom does not sell the power. It only owns and operates the local distribution system, and obtains its revenue by wheeling electric power through its network. 4. Resco (Retail Energy Service Company): It is the retailer of electric power. Many of these will be the retail departments of the former vertically integrated utilities. Resco buys power from Gencos and sells it directly to the consumers. Resco does not own any electricity network physical assets. 5. Market Operator! Market operator provides a platform for the buyers and Sellers to sell and buy the electricity. I runs a computer program thatmatches bids and ters of sellers and buyers. The market settlement process is the responsibility of the | arket operator. The market operator typically runs a day-ahead market. The near- |Teal-time market, if any, is administered by the system operator. Js“24-2017 _Bighth Semester, Power System Gporation and Control 6. System Operator (SO): The SO is an entity entrusted with the responsibility g ensuring the reliability and security of the entire system. It is an independent authori and does not participate in the electricity market trades. It usually does not ow, generating resources, except for some reserve capacity in certain cases. In order maintain the systom security and reliability, the SO procures various services such ag supply of emergency reserves, or reactive power from other entities in the system, Iq some countries, SO also owns the transmission network. The SO in these systems i generally called as Transmission System Operator (TSO). In the caso of a SO being ¢s completely neutral of every other activity except coordinate, control and monitor the 24 doe: . 1 ii system, it is generally called as Independent System Operator (ISO). nana 7, Customers: A customer is an entity, consuming electricity. In a completel; supply of deregulated market where retail sector is also open for competition, the end custome some eo has several options for buying electricity. It may choose to buy electricity from the spot generally market by bidding for purchase, or may buy directly from a Genco or even from the local complete! retailing service company. On the other hand, in the markets where competition existi system, it only at the wholesale level, only the large customers have privilege of choosing thelr 7, Cy, supplier. deregulat has severa ONTDAY, market by Q.8. (a) Review the development of excitation entities. in deregulation™étailing se electricity. (63)Dly at the pee Ans. Different Entities Involved in Deregulation Electricity aoe a The introduction of deregulation has introduced several new entities in tl rae electricity market place and has simultaneously redefined the scope of activities pen 8, Th many of the existing players, Variations exist across market structures over how ead" de mn entity is particularly defined and over what role it plays in the system. However, ont ator e sy broad level, the following entities can be identified: sane complex, With the fiers a.c, de. curre 1, Genco (Generating Company): Genco is an owner-operator of one or mo generators that runs them and bids the power into the competitive marketplace. Gendoces, sells energy atits sites in the same manner that a coal mining company might sell cotye in bulk at its mine, \ reuitry is 2. Transco (Transmission Company): Transco moves power in bulk quantiti&citation is on from where it is produced to where it is consumed, The Transco owns and maintains tIrctifier. The { transmission facilities, and may perform many of the management and engineeriNstants invo functions required to ensure the'smooth running of the system. In some deregulatd Another industries, the Transco owns and maintains the transmission lines under the monopabes not requir but does not operate them. That is done by Independent System Operator (ISO). Tith the shaft. Transco is paid for the use of its lines. i 8, cominute 3. Discom (Distribution Company): It is the owner-operatir of the local pow_ The excitat delivery system, which delivers power to individual businesses and homeowner’. !8in exciteris some places, the local distribution function is combined with retail function, i.e. to b¥e Stator. The « wholesale electricity either through the spot market or through direct contracts wipich controls a Gencos and supply electricity to the end use customers. In many other eases, howevftich is a perm the Discom does not sell the power, It only owns and operates the local distributiPPlifiers, The o system, and obtains its revenue by wheeling electric power through its network. pore f 4. Resco (Retail Energy Service Company): It is the retai ic POM ie a 7 i tailer of electric P bitter ox aitart a Many of these will by the retail departments of the former vertieally, bility ep ecera A Resco buys power from Gencos and selle i 3 the conan cath aes eee ee own any electricity network physical asseie, ee . i:3 LP. University-[B.Tech.|-AB Publisher 2017-25 sponsibility of 5. Market Operator: Market 0; dent authority iors to sell and buy the electricity. It runs a com does not OWN offers of sellers and buyers. The market settlement s. In order to fharket operator. The market operator typical, srvices stich as yql-time market, if any, is administered by th the system. In 6, System Operator (SO): The SO is ese systems is ensuring the reliability and security of the: Jota SO being — and does not participate in the clectrici nd monitor the gonerating resources, except for some re an entity entrusted with the responsibility of entire system. It is an independent authority ity market trades. It usually does not own ; serve capacity in certain cases. In order to maintain the system security and reliability, the SO procures various serviees such ac in a completely supply of emergency resorves, or reactive power from other entities in the aystem, In ne end customer some countries, SO also owns the transmission network.‘The SO in these aystems is ty from the spot _ generally called as Transmission System Operator (TSO). In the case of a SO being sn from the local completely neutral of every other activity except coordinate, control and monitor the mpetition exists system, itis generally called as Independent System Operator (ISO), choosing their 7. Customers: A customer is an entity, consuming electricity. In a completely deregulated market where retail sector is also open for competition, the end customer has several options for buying electricity. Itmay choose to buy electricity from the spot market by bidding for purchase, or may buy directly from a Genco or even from the local ;gulation Tetailing service company. On the other hand, in the markets where competition exists n dere! (6.5), only at the wholesale level, only the large customers have privilege of choosing their supplier. : y Q.8. (6) Discuss modern trends in exciation system (6) ventities inthe Ane The first step in the sophistication of the primitive excitation system was the eof activities of introduction of an amplifier in the feedback path which amplified the ereor signal and es over how each 46 the system fast acting. With the increase in size of the units and growth in the m. However, °".@ interconnection of the system, the excitation systems have become more and more complex. r of one or more — With the advent of solid state technology and availability of reliable high current irketplace. Genc*rectifiers a.c. exciters have been developed, the output of which is rectified to provide ny might sell co2lthe d.c. current required by the alternator field through the slip rings. Since the control cireuitry is also solid state in these cases, the overall response is quite fast. The n bulk quantitietexcitation is controlled by electronically adjusting the firing angle ofthe silicon controlled d maintains thtrectifier. The firing angle can be controlled very quickly compared to the other time rai .d engineerinsconstants involved, some deregulatet Another system that has been developed is unique in that it is brushless i.e., it der the monopolidoes not require slip rings since the alternator-exciter and diode rectifiers are rotating erator (ISO). Thwith the shaft, With this the problems of cooling and maintenance associated with slip rings, commutators and brushes are thus avoided. of the local pow? The excitation system consists of pilot exciter, main exciter and the SCRS. The d homeowners. ain exciteris an a.c. generator, the armature and field windings of which are located in ion, i.e. to buhe stator. The stationary field of the main exciter is fed through a magnetic amplifier eco tracts witvhich controls and regulates the output voltage of the main alternator. The pilot exciter a jhowevethich is a permanent magnet alternator supplies excitation power to the magnetic er cor Giatributio™Dlifiers, The overall response of the system to controlling signals (voltage correction ca raat Signals) is very fast. te oie e pows,, High Frequency Excitation System: The response of the system with alternator r of electric Fit jectifier exciters is improved by designing alternators for operation at frequencies higher integrated uti" han that of the main alternator. Recently frequencies of 400 to 500 Hz have been used ers. Resco does *ind excellent Tesponse characteristics have been obtained. Murer26-2017 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control ‘The high frequency excitation system is derived from a.c. main exciter (600 Hy). pilot exciter and a rectifier unit. Both the exciters are mounted on the main shaft of alternator. The main exciter is an induction type alternator having three phase a ene winding the field windings on the stator and ithas no winding on its rotor. This increagg,| 0°04 the reliability of the system and reduces the maintenance problem, The pilot exciteri, magna a permanent magnet type which has a rotating field and stationary armature and} current Serves a, source of stable supply to power magnetic amplifiers of automatic voltage | normal regulators and manual excitation of main exciter. The rectifier init is a three phase | negligib static converter which converts the main exciter output and feeds the turbo-alternato, | Piers Min field. A schemetic diagram of the system is shown below. below a limiter 9 Permanent . 4 magnet Magnetic AC.main SCRs mounted Alternator | | Magnetii alternator amplifier exciter or rotor shaft field | Voltage ; limiter ¢ Sckematic diagram of high frequency excitation system. Mat The excitation of the alternator is regulated by varying the main exciter output| alongwit voltage. The excitation of the main exciter is varied by means of the transistorized) With the automatic voltage regulator having power magnetic amplifiers as its output stage. control fr Automatic voltage regulator consists of the following components: Q.9. G) Power magnetic amplifiers, (ii) Voltage corrector, (iii) Bias circuit, (iv) Feedbak| Shunt ca circuits, (v) Maximum excitation limiter. (vi) Minimum excitation limiter. (vii) Matching] 224 Boos circuit heey Q.9. (a) What are the various factors that govern the rate of response of an| line keepin excitation system of a generator? (6.5)| “ariations Ans. Various factors that govern the rate of Response of an exitation system of| was generator are as follows: eee Power Magnetic Amplifiers, There are two types of magnetic amplifiers, vz,| eonsenen boosting and bucking amplifiers. Both the amplifiers are fed from the pilot exciter. The| bus underg boosting amplifier provides additional excitation during variation of alternator load| . and in case of abnormal drop of alternator voltage. The bucking amplifier provides de} excitation when there is sudden drop of load and the generator voltage has a tendency to, shoot up. The amplification factor of the amplifiers is increased by providing internal fee: back with the help of SCR connected in series with the a.c. series winding of the solid Voltage Corrector: It is a solid state device and provides the control current to the magnetic amplifiers. The control current is a function of the alternator terminal volta; and the load current of the alternator. The smaller the terminal voltsige and larger th load current the alternator excitation should be increased to bring back the nor The met terminal voltage. The voltage input to the voltage corrector is the sum of the voltage (leapacitors; (i proportional to the terminal voltage and (ii) proportional to the load current to théttansformers alternator. The former is obtained through potential transformers and the latter acrost Shunt cs a resistor connected between the terminal of secondary of a current transformer. supply part of Bias Circuit: The bias circuit provides the required shift in the characteristic dover the line amplifiers. The bias circuit is fed from the auxiliary transformer through the SCRSertain desira ‘The current is varied with the help ofa rheostat in the eireuit, pean sas Feedback Circuit: The feedback circuits (negative feedback) provide automati ©" Nar oe is regulation during static and dynamic conditions of the alternator. “Risposed i Maximum Excitation Limiter: This is required to avoid overheating of the rot the use ore of the alternator. This is achieved with the help of a nan-linear transformer and a set! :Hz) a ofthe Se ac, reases iter is re and roltage phase rnator tor output storized tage. eedback fatching nse of an (6.5) system of fiers, viz., citer. The nator load ovides de- endency to ernal feed , amplifier. rent to the al voltage larger the he normal voltage (i) ent to the tter across mer. cteristic of the SCRS automati! of the roto and a set 4 LP. University-{B.Tech.]-AB Publisher Satan ae _ ve f the main exciter increases, i . Whenever the output voltage of the see, Ie bu aa aeriness transformer sharply increases and magn¢ secondary ci ic amplifier which, in turn, demagnetises the boosting magnetic sept aad ainenetisea the ‘bucking magnetic amplifier. This results in reduction of ex tation current of main exeiter, thus limiting the output voltage of the nate et. Ube normal operating conditions the secondary current of the non-lin negligibly small and can't actuate the magnetic amplifier. Minimum Excitation Limiter: The excitation of the alternator should ot go below @ certain minimum value due to stability reasons. The minimum excitatios limiter operates the series connected control windings ofboth the boosting and bucking magnetic amplifiers. The control currents are proportional to main alternator termin voltage and the alternator load currents. These are fed to the minimum excitation limiter through the potential transformer and the current transformers. Matching Circuits: The matching circuit consists of two magnetic amplifiers alongwith their bias, feed back and control windings. Whenever there is some problem with the automatic voltage regulator circuit, the smooth change over of the excitation control from AVR to manual is achieved with the help of matching circuit. Q.9. (6) Define Voltage control. List out the methods and explain briefly. (i) Shunt capacitor, (ii) Syncrohonous capacitor (iii) Tap changing transformer and Booster transformer, | (6) Ans. Voltage Control: When power is supplied to a load through a transmission. line keeping the sending end voltage constant, the receiving end or load voltage undergoes variations depending upon the magnitude of the load and the power factor of the load. The higher the load with smaller power factor the greater is the voltage variation. The voltage variation at a node is an indication of the unbalance between the reactive power generated and consumed by that node, If the reactive power generated is greater than consumed, the voltage goes up and vice versa. Whenever the voltage level of a particular bus undergoes variation this is due to the unbalance between the two vars at that bus, [+ Load I ik Psa) % % Fig. Load connected to the source through a line. The methods for voltage:control are the use of (i) Shunt capacitors; (ii) Series capacitors; (iii) Synchronous capacitors; (iy) Tap changing transformers; and (v) Booster transformers, Shunt capacitors: The shunt capacitors are used across an inductive load so as to supply part of the reactive vars required by the load so that the reactive vars transmitted over the line are reduced, thereby the voltage across the load is maintained within eeiain desirable limits. Similarly, the shunt reactors are used across eapacitive loads Grlightly loaded lines to absorb some of the leading vars again to control the voltage cross the load to within certain. desirable limite, Capacitors are connected either directly to a bus bar or through a tertiary winding of the main transformer and are f posed along the route to minimize the voltage drop and the losses. The disadvantage of the use of shunt capacitor or reactor is that with the fall of voltage at a particular . Bae ,/, the28-2017 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control node the correction vars are also reduced i.e., when it is most needed, its effectiven falls. Similarly, on light loads when the corrective vars required are relatively less, the capacitor outputislarge. _ ‘a Synchronous capacitors: A great advantage of the synchronous capacitor is its flexibility for use for all load conditions because it supplies vars when over-excited, during peak load conditions and it consumes vars when under-excited during light Lie, conditions. Toad) __, There is smooth variation of reactive vars by synchronous capacitors as congue with step by step variation by the static capacitors. | Synchronous machines can be overloaded for short periods whereas static capacitors cannot. For large outputs the synchronous capacitors are much better than’the statie capacitors from economic viewpoint because otherwise a combination of shunt capacitors and reactors:is required which becomes costlier and also the control is not smooth as is achieved with synchronous capacitors. , . The main disadvantage of the synchronous capacitor is the possibility of its falling out of step which will thus produce a large sudden change in voltage. Also these machines, add to the short circuit capacity of the system during fault condition. | A transmission line is said to be a constant voltage or a regulated line if its receiving end voltage is controlled by varying the reactive power at the receiving end when thé sending end voltage is kept constant. Other systems where the reactive power available at the receiving end corresponds to the reactive power requirements of the load aré termed as unregulated systems. ‘Tap changing transformers: The main job of a transformer is to transform electric energy from one voltage lew to another. Almost all power transformers on transmission lines are provided with for ratio control ie., control of secondary voltage. There are two types of tap chang transformers: : (i) Offload tap changing transformers. (ii) On-load (under-load) tap changing transformers. ‘The tap changing transformers do not control the voltage by regulating the flow reactive vars but by changing the transformation ratio, the voltage in the ‘secondal circuit is varied and voltage control is obtained. This method is the most popular can be used for controlling voltages at all levels ; Fig. 1. refers to the off-load tap changing transformer which requires the d connection of the transformer when the tap setting is to be changed. The modern pia {js to use on-load tap changing transformer which is shown in Fig. 2. Line winding * { ° Neutral Fig.2. On.load tap changing ‘Wanetornar:: + Fig.1. Off-load tap changing transformer.red. atic tors 1s is ilable id are » level h taps nging flow ¢ sndat! ar as! he dit spactit LP. University-[B.Tech.|-AB Publisher 2017-29 formers: Raa Se aatoraire The two-winding load tap changing transformer performs Booster ""ransforming the voltage and bucking or boosting the voltage whereas Pe pee tS: naformer performs the latter function only. It ean be instalieg ss sub- the Dooster trav onal equipment if voltage regulation is further found to ke necessary eit 2 ot i iled as a separate piece of equipment at any intermediate point in the Tine, The latter application may be desirable on economical or technical grounds to increase the voltage at an intermediate point in a line rather than at, the ends as with tap changing transformer. | . For small outputs and voltages upto 2000 volts, the simplest booster consists of an auto transformer with necessary tappings, whereas for higher voltages and larger sizes it is necessary to utilize on.-load tap changing gear and also to' perform the switching in an isolated circuit, the voltage of which is only a fraction of the line voltage. One method is to energize the primaries of the boosting transformers by means of a regulating transformer, the secondary of which is provided with tappings along with tap changing gear as shown in Fig. 3. The voltage changes are made by means of a motor operated controller and arrangements are made to reverse the connections to the primaries of the regulating transformers so that both buck and boost can be obtained. The sensing device for voltage variation should be sensitive to current rather than voltage as the current varies 100% from no load to full load whereas the voltage varies only by 10% or so. tine Booster aie a 32 Fig. 3. Booster transformer along with regulating transformer.FIRST TERM EXAMINATION [FEB. 2018] EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH] POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL [ETEE-406] vime: 15 brs. MM. :30 Vote: @.1. 18 compulsory, Attempt any two more questions from the rest. Q.1, (@) Draw the complete block diagram of load frequency control of solated power system, @) Ans, APo(s) > AF(s) APds) +, Kg Ke + << Kp T¥ ste! [T+ str T¥sTp wR Fig. Isolated power system load frequency control block diagram Q.1. (b) Draw the schematic diagram of load frequency and excitation voltage regulators of turbo generators. Ans, Load frequency}, ~ Steam controller ot \ APg APGit AQ; Main Fr quency steam Sensor > votaae valve Is a Valve control mechanism (Generato] (avy) Frurine}—[]-— (Controtabie] av excitation | aqy, [controller Fig. Schematic diagram of L-F and Q-V regulators. Q.L. (c) Explain the turbine speed governing system, (4) Ans. Refer to Q.3 (a) End Term Exam, May-June 2017, (Page: 12-2017). (Excluding Turbine model and generator load model). | Q.2. (@) Explain the generator load model. (5) | Ans. Refer to Q. 3(a) End Term Exam, May-June 2017, (Page: 14-2017), (Only generator load model).22-2018 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control rates on full load at, Q.2.(6) A 100 MVA synchronous generator ope! of 50 Hz. The lond is suddenly reduced to 50 MW. Due to time lag that occurs in this time. Given: H = 50 kWa/kVA of generator capacity. Ans. Stored ener; H 50 kWa/kVA 50,00 MWs/100MVA Load ines 50 MW. Enery required to supply this load for 0.4 sec = 50 MW see Frequency at 50, 00 MW se c 0 stored energy = 50 Hz Frequency fall = af 4 50x04 f = 50,00 of © 50x04 OC) 50x50%0.4 of = 5599 = 0.2 He Change in freq. Af= 0.2 Hz Frequency falls to 50 — 0.2 = 49.8 Hz. Q. 3. ‘Give the dynamic’ response of single area system, Ans, 7 aPo(s) R | re Ks »|e_| 5 Kp | Oo issts) liestel i+8te] apy TO) I Governing Equivalent tubine “PS(S) Bower system generator ‘system Fig. 1. Block diagram of a single area system | Consider the single area system shown in Fig, 1. For a step load change in! systom, the following equations can be written [AP (S)-AP(S)]GAS) = AS) z RG5 SAPS) AP,(S) where G. Kyo Ky 1+8lyg 1+8T, 4 system, steam valve begins to close after 0.48, Determine the change int i csLP. University-[B.Tech]}-Akash Books 2018-3 a GS a Solving for AF(S) AF(S) = - et AP)(S)] te 1+ Gp (S)Ggy(T) AP, Fora step lond change, AP,(S) = “3” Substituting the value of AP,(S) ARG) = -—+ Gp(S) Sy 14(E}en91G50(0) ‘The dynamic response of the control loop can be evaluated so that the initial response also can be seen for any overshoot. For this purpose considering the relatively larger time constant of the power system she governor action can be neglected, treating it as instantaneous action. Further the turbine generator dynamics also may be neglected at the first instant to derive a simple expression the time response, It has been proved that wi Ge apg) AF(S) = T 145 GsGcGp For a step load change of magnitude k. =k aps) = = Neglecting the governor action and turbine dynamics oe bees 1+ Gp 8 AF(S) 0 itl Applying partial fractions Kpk 1 _Kpk 1 ARG) = - eggs ® sf5+(a:+ae)] Me [saat | P T) | RTp18 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation and Control Q. 4. Describe atomatic voltage control with the help of block ainaram: FA Ans, Automatic voltage control ~ Figure 1 gives the ‘chematic diagram ofan automatic voltage regulator of a generator. It basically consists of a main exciter which excites the alternator field to control the output voltage. The exciter field i automatically controlled thro V,<¢~ Vp Suitably amplified through voltage and power amplifiers, It is a type-0 system which requires a constant error ¢ for a specified voltage at a generator teminals, The block diagram of the system is given in fig. 2. The function ofimporant components and their transfer functions is gives below: Main exciter. Gen field sor Exciter | J Generator Error power — field | amplifier amplifier v Vi Vey, V f + Met {| 3 — 000 Stabilizing le transformer Potential transformer Vr Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of alternator voltage regulator scheme. Potentional Transformer: It gives a sample of terminal voltage V,. Differencing device: It gives the actuating error 2 = Vier Vr ‘The error initiates the corrective action of adjusting the alternator excitation, Error wave form is suppressed carrier modulated, the carrier frequency being the system frequency of 50 Hz. Load change Change in votage caused by load J vets) >| Vee) Fig. 2. Block diagram of alternator voltage regulator scheme Error Amplifier: It demodulates and amplifies the error signal. Its gain is K,. SCR power amplifier and exciter field: It provides the necessary power amplification to the signal for controlling the exciter field. Assuming the amplifier time constant to be small enough to be neglected, the overall transfer function of these two isLP. University-{B.Tech]-Akash Books 2018-5 K, 1+T,s where T,-is the exciter field time constant. Alternator: Its field is excited by the main exeiter voltage Vp. Under no load it produces a voltage proportional to field current. The no load transfer function is Ke 14Tys where T,¢ = generator field time constant. The load causes a voltage drop which is a complex function of direct and quadrature axis currents, The effect is only schematically represented by block Gy, Stabilizing transformer: T,,and T,,are large enough time constants to impair the system’s dynamic response. It is well known that the dynamic response of a control gystem can be improved by the internal derivative feedback loop. The derivative feedback in this system is provided by means of a stabilizing transfomer excited by the exciter tutput voltage vj. The output of the stabilizing transformer is fed negatively at the input ‘terminals of the’ SCR power amplifier. The’ transfer function of the stabilizing ‘transformer is derived below. Since the secondary is connected at the input terminals of 2namplifier, it can be assumed to draw zero current. Now di vp = Brig + Ly SH di vy = Me Taking the Laplace transform, we get _ Vals) _ _sM__ sMIR, Vg(s) = Ry+sl, 1+Tys st Ky 1+Tys i i jEND TERM EXAMINATION ret ae EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH] POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND TROL [ETEE-406] i MMin5 "pt any five questions including Q. no.J which is compulsory. Asnurme missing Time: QI. (@) What are the objectives of power system control? 4 Ans. Objectives of Power System Control @ Continual matching of load demand (plug and play): Electrical energy cannot be conveniently stored in sufficient quantities. Therefore, a readily available reserve of generation should be available and controlled. However in many developing countri there are shortages of generation resulting in load curtailment, i) The power system should provide for a certain level of reliability and quality (Grequeney and magnitude of voltages should lie in a narrow, pre-defined range), Gi) The electrical energy should be at low cost and have a low environment impact Q1. @) Whatis meant by regulation and deregulation in power industry? @ Ans. Regulation in Power Industry The regulations are generally imposed by the government or the government lly represent a set of rules or framework that the government the system smoothly and with discipline, without undut to any particular entity at the cost of end consumer. All practical power Syatems ofearlier days used to be regulated by the government, Thr gen obviously The old era power industries were vertically. integrated utilities and enjoyed monopoly in their area of operation, Whenever a monopoly is Sensed in any sector, it is natural fir the govemnment step in andsetupa framework ofway ofdaone ee orderte Provect end consumer interests. Some ofthe charactone yi, of monopoly utility are! 1. Single utility in one area of operation ae ri sks The enjoying monopoly, 2, Regulated Framework: The utility should work step by the goverment. *k under the business framewott 4. Universal Supply Obligation (USO): Utitity shouta customers who demand for it. 'Y should provide Power to all thot 4. Regulated Costs: The roturn on the utility's inyg pein ; Ws investments is regulated by tH In a nutshell, regulations is about checking the prie absence of private players and market foreyy, "® PPic08 of the monopolist in Deregulation in Power Industry Blectrie deregulation is the process of changin 1 the eae industry to provide customers the choiee ofeleenand regulations that oi retailers or traders by allo wing sompetiton, Deregulation igeP pliers who area efficiency of the production a Tikely to come dict Due to competition in the eee industry, the power P Ova Which benefits then ers Derogulat players in the, in the power b subjecting pri subjecting pri conditions th, ‘conditions neg the Word ‘der ules Worley to operate the ike ‘regulat ‘jiberalizatio Q1.(0)) Ans. Th A.To pr B.Toen C.Toin D.Topr a1. Ans. T environmer in order tox ensure mar The robust players wil Inad participant universall dual obje interferen simultane QL« Ans. | Voltage at Also, So tt" conducive environment for the competiti mn. to work, Th ditions need to be sati ment for the competition to These .e word ‘dereguten ee isfied while deregulating or restructuring a system. Sometimes, lles wonr'texige Tee” MAY sound a misnomer. ‘Deregulation’ does not mean that the te ist: The rules will still be there, however, a new frame workk would be created berate the power industry. That is why the word ‘deregulation’ finds its substitutes ke regulation’ ‘reforms’, ‘restructuring’, etc. The commonly used word in Europe is beralization’ of power industry; ‘deregulation’ is a more popular phrase in US. QL. (c) What are the objectives of. restructured power market? - (4) Ans. The main objectives of the deregulated power market: A.'Ty provide electricity for all reasonable demands, B. To encourage the competition in the generation and supply of electricity, C. To improve the continuity of supply and the quality of services. D. To promote efficiency and economy of the power system. Q.1. (d) State the scope of Congestion management. (4) Ans. The scope of transmission congestion management in the deregulated unvironment involves defining a set of rules to ensure control over generators and loads in order to maintain acceptable level of system security and reliability. The rules should ensure market efficiency maximization with short term as well as long term horizons. The robustness of the rule set is important as under open market structure a set of players will always be looking for loopholes in the mechanism to exploit it. In a deregulated structure,.the market must be modeled so that the market Participants (buyers and sellers of energy) engage freely in transactions and play as per market forces, but in a manner that does not threaten the security of the power system, Thus, irrespective of the market structure in place, congestion management has universally become an important activity of power system operators. Universally, the dual objectives of congestion management schemes have been to minimize the interference of the transmisson network in the market for electrical energy and to simultaneously ensure secure operation of the power system. Q.1. (e) Show that voltage control and reactive power control are interrelated, (4) ‘Ans. Consider the system shown in Fig. 1. The voltage at bus 2 is related to the ns. : voltage at bus 1 by the relation. Bus | Bus 2, L —_ Vt vee ivslzo" V2 WvaiZ0" Fig. 1. Power flow across a short line V, = V,-IZ 7) V,I* = P+jQ alii) Also, re Bai@_P-i@ ‘So thatjon and Control 8-2018 Eighth Semester, Power System Operation an id or Big. 2 the voltage level is influenced largely by the reactive power drop since V, is the reference phasor. From eqn (i) and (ii) Neglecting the line resistance a infe Eqn. (iv) is illustrated by the phasor diagram in Fig. 2. It can be inferred from ema, vo PX, Since the quadrature component ve does not materially affect the voltage profile (bot, the drops are only small fractions of the bus voltage magnitudes). 0 Fig. 2. Phasor representation of ean (iii) Q.1. (f) What is static VAR compensator? Discuss. 6 Ans: In the thyristor controlled reactor, the inductive reactance is controlled bythe thyristors. Fora limited range of operation the relationship between the inductive currest i, and the applied voltage V is represented in Fig. 2. As the inductance is varied, the susceptance varies over a range within the limits Brin aNd By... (corresponding to Xiou. and X;,,;,) while the voltage changes by v volts, a a = Fig. 1. Fixed capacitor, thyristor controlled compensator ‘The use of a fixed capacitor in parallel with the controlled reactor results Jnaracteristes shown in Fig. 1. The eurents can be contre to have any desired coe the range selected from leading to lagging, ove inductor type var in the ale | ofSs LP. University-{B.Tech]-Akash Books 2018-9 iv Fig. 2. Thyristor controlled reactor characteristics Corresponding vars are produced or absorbed. Fig. 3 shows the effect of changing the conduction angle 8 from 180° to a small value 8g. gue current flowing in the inductance would be different in each half cycle, varying ~ With the conduction angle such that each successive half cycle is a smaller segment of a Sua ave: The fundamental component of inductor current is then reduced to each case. Quick control can ‘ be exercised within one half cycle, just by giving a proper step input to the firing angle control. : (Lead) | (Lag) > (Lead) Q (Lag) Applied voltage Sew i Reactor currents Fig. 3. Effect of conduction angle on reactor currents p Block diagram representation ofa static var compensator is given in Fig. 4, The net change in the reactor current I, drawn by the statie var compensator supplied through AY, . = the system impedance Zs = ah 5 Following an instantaneous change. in firing angle 0, the admittance By of the "inductor and therefore the current, y will settle down to a new value in about one cycle or legs, The impedance Z, is the entire system impedance viewed by the compensator. The thyristor controlled reactor can be represented by the transfer functionmand Control tid 10-2018 Fighth Semester, Power System Operati? ST, GAS) = T+7,8 where T, and T, are of the order 1 ms and 4 MF: °° th ho present thyristar compensator can be assumed to have a pure gain > e For practical purposes, the technology. The AVR can be represented by Vi Veet + AVe 7 wR of ar -L sve } a - Al, Bc Transformer |* Fig. 4. Block diagram of static var compensator k+T,8) GuS) = Tnsa+T5) The time constant T, lies between 50 and 150 ms. ‘The compensator block diagram for dynamic studies is shown in Fig. 5. Lv v “0 max =m K(1 +78) lJ i Le ro a fi A ix] Veet ®&) Greets) +s 4 amin = 0. 1 GE Eseve= 2t=sn2u) z Fig. 5. Compensator block diagram for dynamic studies Static var compensators when installed reduce the voltage swings at the rolling mill and power system buses in drive system applications. They compensate for the average reactive power requirements and improve power factor. » . 2. (a) Analyze the requirement for voltage and 54 power system. ? frequency regulation a , Ans: Consider the excitation system shown in Fi, ‘ representation is given in Fig. 2. in Fig. 1. and the block diagram Reference Tl ioe : voliage—_eedback | er Oar 2 = 28 a Alternator [per Rectifier ; nd me Fig. 1. Ex: tion System,LP. University-{B.Tech]-Akash Books 2018-11 * ae Ae, Aer Voor Ga “| Ge >| Go Vv v| 7 Amplifier Exciter Generator R+F }— Fig. 2. Excitation System Block Schematic From the block diagram : Iie IVE = de The amplifier is generally assumed to be instataneous in action so that Ae,, the output from the amplifier is K, Ae where K,, is the amplifier gain. The input to the exciter field will be absorbed by the resistance and inductance of the exciter field R, and L, respectively so that absorbed by the resistance and inductance of the exciter field R, and L, respectively so that dey = RAL +L, Sei) where.Ai, is the change is exciter field current. If] ampere change in field current produces K; volt change in the output, then de, = K,Ai, ‘The transfer function of the exciter can be obtained as follows: Bap eg IA Bea AR, +L ai eRe + Le ae ie) In the frequency domain, taking Laplace transform K, _ AE, (s) K, Re a , aes 1 = @ aE,@ R+L8 iyg he ist he transfer function of the exciter with the time constant Hence G.= 7ST, ec fe x ~ (R)ntnun-(B) «fier time constant may be of the order of 0.02 to 0.1 see while ie hhines. 'r conventional mac! : an ‘T,may be 0.5 to ua ae ‘he, to the generator field, when applied to the circuit results ‘The input voltagt Kin ition. 3 y shofi’s voltage eau in the following . ; a he, = Rdiet Lr ge Ai The value of| aControl A2-2018 ——_Bighth Sementor, Pawar System Oparation and Co : f inductance Where Rand Lyare the alternator field resistance and sel Penpecty ¢ field current, Taking Laplace transform iit ve otra Vey, a change in the fel current, Taking Lapl 5 AES) = (Ry + Ly SIAL/(S) is Iethe output voltage changes by ATV! then Alp(s)" ALY L whore Ly, ie the mutual inductance between the field and stag, Oba | jack will he \ Phase winding, Hence, the transfor function for the generator black will be | AVIS) . ; K, AIV Q QR, 1 of 8) Lv yyy) Re ~ = — Ali) Retlg S oly: Obg yygla 1+ STy Ry where Tis the direct axis open circuit time constant also denoted more commonly by Tay = LR, seconds The voltage regulator loop can be represented by the block diagram shown in Fig. 3, Amplifier Exciter Generator — Load av, Ka |_sea [ke ser Kor ov 1+ST, 1+S8T, 1+ ST a + Fig. 3. Voltage regulator block diagram The three cascade transfer function blocks G,, G, and G,-can be combined into single block. Ky K, K, Sui = [Tse St || ee 0 that the feed back control loop can be further simplified a 1 + Ganda) Fin. 4. Simplified Bh Q.2. (b) Discuss the integration of economi, Joad frequency control. ¢ dispatch control with a lock Diagram 6.5) With Load Frequency on™! ral controller aids us to attain wer’ on in frequency whenever bei © an economic dispatch o Ans: Integration of Eeonomie Dispatch Contra} As mentioned earlier, the presence of an integ: dynamic response with zero steady state deviati variation in load. This variation in toad also datustayLP, University-{B,Tech]-Akash Books 2018-13 F Hence, in additi . re . ay acon to an integral controller, an economic dispatch controller should also here for satisfactory operation of the power system. The block diagram of a load ‘cy control with economic dispatch control is shown in Fig. 1. Integral Generator cs Control. >} Senerstor ae Economic — dispatch EDC | DESIRED (from central control %— dispatch control) ACTUAL Fig. 1. Block diagram of LFC with EDC ‘As shown in the block diagram, if there is any variation in load, the load frequency controller, which is fast-acting (within zero seconds) responds and actualises the speed changer (generator control) accordingly. The economic dispatch controlled, which is slow votive (one mimute), responds to the load change together with the input from the central dispatch control and an error signal is generated. This error signal together with the error signal generated by integral controller actualises the speed changer. fast acting and economic dispatch controller Since the load frequency controller is with EDC error only for few seconds before is slow acting, the power system may operate the BDC generaters a command signal. am of uncontrolled two area load frequency control Q.3. Draw the block diagr: tem and describe the salient features under static condition. aan sys' ‘Ans: Model of ‘Uncontrolled two Area Load Frequency Control System st AGC ina Multi Area System spterconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each control ee aa rt the BCC of that area). area (Jocate » They are pined a8 shown in Fig. 1 .for the interconnected system operation. combu a two area system as dof APD, the steady state. Consider * frequency controllers, AGCI and AGC? will adjust the power i nerators participating in the AGC. tem, there are N controllers AGC, one for each area i stem, n N-area 8 «Ina14-2018 Righth Semester, Power System Operation and Control P,, = Te line power forAreal= PJ = Sum over all the lines i A block diagram of such a controller is given in Figure 2. A common way is to implement this as a proportional-integral (PI) controller: By a Ri Ku Gover |_, [Turbine ’ 3 nor 1 ‘AP mn(S) B Deviation in frequency in the two urcus ix Af= Aol = do2 =-APD/BI +2 where siven by l=D1+1R1 f2=D2+1/R2wap Oa + pe ere LP. University-(B.Tech]-Akash Books 2018-15 | ie, Afsatl=am Thus, for area 1 we have APm1 — Pp} Where, Area 2 +AP12 = Doar AP 12 = Dlat AP12 is the tie Tine power flow from Area 1 to Area 2; and for APm2 ‘The mechanical Power depends on regulation, Hence APmi =~, ‘Atl APm2 = ~Af 2 Substituting these equations, yields (1/R1+D1) Af=~AP12~\Pm (UR2 + D2) Af =~ P12 —aPm Solving for Af, we get PD1/B1 + 2 change in Area 2 load by APD2, we have Af =—APD2p1 + p2 Q-4. (a) Explain the speed governor mechanism with speed load characteristics, Ans: 1. Speed Governing Mechanism The speed governing mechanism ineludes the following parts, Speed Governor: It is an error sensin all the elements that are directly responsi the system to initiate action. Governor Controlled Valves: They control the inputs the turbine and are actuated by the speed control mechanism, Speed Control Mechanism: It includes all ¢ survomotors, amplifying devices and relays that a and the governor controlled valves. Speed Changer: It enables the speed governor system to adjust the speed of the turbo generator unit while in operation. 2, Speed Governor A simple schematic representation of the governor is shown in Fig.l. model. Discuss its operation g device in load frequeney control. It includes ive to speed and influence other elements of quipment such as levers and linkages re placed between the speed governor Fig. 1. Speed governor