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    Physics - Measurement

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    of 10
    ve Measurements And Experimentation prysio! Quant BY ‘quired Sil. units with correct symbols are given at the end of this syllabus). @ International system of unit fem of units (the re Other commonly used system of unit | Gi) Measurements. usin, feo ‘Scope — Measurement of I Foto on cies nance slope of the ‘graph. Formula 7 1/8 (No derivatior ~ FPS. and CGS, '8 common instruments, Vernier callip. ‘and micrometre screw gauge, Decreasing least count leads to ipers and screw gauge, zero error (basic idea) (no numerical ers and micrometre screw gauge for length and simple im; time period, frequency, graph of length J vs. T? only; ’n). Only simple numerical problems. (A) SYSTEMS OF UNIT AND UNITS IN S.I. SYSTEM 1.1, NEED OF UNIT FOR MEASUREMENT Physics, like other branches of s experimental studies which involve For the measurement of a physic: cience requires measurements, al quantity, we iF The numerical value which expresses, how many times the above selected unit is contained in the given quantity, Thus the magnitude of a physical quantity is consider a constant quantity of same nature as a ¢XPfessed as Standard and then we compare the given quantity eiyigallguaniily = (numerical value) % (unit) with the standard quantity ie. we find the number which expresses, how many times the standard quantity is contained in the given physical quantity. us Measurement is the process of comparison of the given physical quantity with the known standard quantity of the same nature. The standard quantity used to measure and express the given physical quantity is called the unit.)For quantities of different nature, we require different units. ~~) Unit is the quantity of a constant magnitude which is used to measure the magnitudes of other quantities of the same nature. + The result of measurement of a given physical quantity is expressed in terms of the following 1a parameters : ’ The unit in which the quantity is being measured, and amples : (@¥ If the length of a piece of cloth is 10 metre, it means that the length is measured in the unit metre and this unit is contained 10 times in the length of the given piece of cloth. “Gi If the mass of a given quantity of sugar is 5 kilogram, it means that the mass is measured in the unit kilogram and this unit is contained 5 times in the given quantity of sugar. Choice of unit. Since a unit is to be used universally, so it should have validity everywhere at all times. Hence to measure a physical quantity, the unit chosen should haye the following properties : \4i) The unit should be of convenient size. {GV It should be possible to define the unit without any ambiguity, {iy The unit should be reproducible, (iY The value of unit should not change with space and time. (i.e., it must always remain same everywhere). ‘The last three conditions (ii), (ii) and (iy) are essential for a unit to be accepted internationally Kinds of units Units are of ave kinds (i) Fundamental or basic units, and. Gi) Derived units. <4 Fundamental or basic units A fundamental (or basic) unit is that which is independent of any other unit or which can neither be changed nor can be related to any other fundamental unit Examples : The units of mass, length, time, temperature, current and a independent of each other as they are of different nature, They cannot be obtained from the unit of any other quiantity. These are fundamental units GD Derived units ‘The units of quantities other than those measured in fundamental units, can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units and they are called derived units Thus nount of substance are Derived units are those which depend on the fundamental units or which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units. Examples ; (i) For the measurement of area, we need to measure length and breadth in the unit of length and then express area in a unit which is length x length or (length)? (ii) Volume is expressed in a unit which is length x length x length or (length)’, (iii) The unit of speed of a moving body is obtained by dividing the unit of distance (i.e. length) by the unit of time Ze., it can be expressed in terms of the units of length and time. Thus the units used to measure area, volume, speed, efc. are derived units. More examples of derived units are given ahead in article 1.6. 1.2 SYSTEMS OF UNIT In mechanics, length, mass and time ave’ three fundamental quantities. For the units of these three sebasie quantities, following systems have been used i eRe oy -Y C.GS, system (or French rytom) system, the unit of length is Cenineteg ( ty _ Nays if gram (g) and of thine ig CDM (yy he HT WSS, system (or British system) system, the unit of tength is foot (fy, ot pound (Ib) and of time is se Mi Gi M.K.S. system (or mettle sysien) this system, the unit of length iy Tete of mass ix kilogramme (kp) and of second (8), nd (4), Wine The above mentioned systems Ate Now yo jp in use an! are only of historical importa. fe we use the S.L system of units Which iv an engus and modified version of the metric system Systeme Internationale d’Unites (oF 8.1. sytqn In 1960, the General Conference of Weigh yy Measures recommended that in addition 10 the iggy of length, mays and time, the units of temperiue luminous intensity, current and the amouny of substance also be taken as fundamental unity yy) the units of angle and solid angle as complemen fundamental units. Thus in all, now there are jy fundamental units and Ave complements fundamental units, For S.1. system, the following table gives the fundamental quantities, their units and their sand symbols. wntities, unity and SAL. system, Uni mete Kilogram second kelvin Luminous intensity Electric current Amount of substance Angle Solid angle candela ampere mole radian steradian It is defined as amount of substance that conti ‘many constitutive enti phorus a 12 gee atoms or molecules) as there are atom carbon ~ 12 (%C). This number hax value of « 6-022 x 10” electron’ mole! and is known as Avogadre use of piefix-with a unit For expressing large measurements, we use deca, hecto, kilo ete., as prefixes with the units. The symbol and meaning of each prefix are given below. Some prefixes used for big measurements Prefix eopans Fe = 1-66 x 1077 kg | The mass of large heavenly bodies is measured in terms of solar mass where 1 solar mass is the mass of the sun, i.e, 1 solar mass = 2 x 10° kg. The commonly used smaller and bigger units of mass are summarized in the following table. ‘Smaller and bigger units of mass ‘metric tonne 1000 kg solar mass | 2x10° kg 1.5 UNITS OF TIME S.L unit of time ‘The S.1. unit of time is second (s). eccmipeie eer * Avogadro's number N-= 6-02. 10% per 8 ator/ A second is defined as 1/86400th part a ie a mean solar day. i.e., x one mean solar day 86400 Is= One solar day is the time taken by the earth to complete one rotation on its own axis. For many years, the above definition of second remained in use. Since mean solar day varies over the years, therefore in 1956, scientists agreed to consider one year 1900 and 12 hours as the ephemeris time and one year 1900 to be equal to 365-2422 days. Thus, 1 year 1900 = 365-2422 days 165-2422 x 86400 s = 31556926-08 s 1 Hence one second is defined as 37556936.08 Part of the year 1900. i.e., 1 TS= 31,556,926 .08 th part of the year 1900 In 1964, a second was defined in terms of energy change in cesium atom as follows : One second is the time interval of. 9,192,631,770 vibrations of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium - 133 atom, . Smaller units of time The common smaller units of time are millisecond (ms), microsecond (jis), shake and nanosecond (ns) where 1ms = 107s; 1 ps = 10% 5; 1 shake = 10° s and 1 ns = 10° s. Bigger units of time ‘Sometimes second is a smaller unit of time and ‘so we use other units of iT hour (h) : One hour is the duration of 60 minutes. 1h =60 min = 60 x 605 = 3600 5 (iif) day : The time taken by the earth to rotate once on its own axis is called a day. One day is divided in 24 hours, Thus, 1 day = 24h = 24 x 60 mi = 24 x 60 x 60 (iy) lunar month ; The western or Gregorian Calendar is based on the period of revolution of the earth around the sun, but our Hindu (Vikram and Shak) and Muslim (Hizri) Calendars are based on the phases of the moon as seen from the earth. In these calendars, one month is the time of one lunar cycle which is nearly 29.5 days. The period of 12 lunar months is 354-37 days. Thus one year of these (lunar) calendars is short nearly by 10 days of Gregorian calendar. (¥) month : The western or Gregorian Calendar has January, March, May, July, August, October and December each of 31 days; April, June, September and November each of 30 days and Feburary of 28 days (or 29 days in a leap year). To an approximation, @ month is considered to be of 30 days and a year of 12 months or of 365 days, (vi) year (yr) : One year is defined as the time in which the earth completes one revolution around the sun. The period of revolution® of earth around the sun is nearly 365-256 days. To an approximation, lyr =365 days = 365 x 86400 s = 3-1936 x 107s (vii) Leap year : A leap year is the year in which the month of February is of 29 days, ie., 1 Leap year = 366 days Since the exact period of revolution of the earth around the sun is 365-2422 days**, therefore to compensate for the excess of 0-242? days in a year, the Gregorian calendar has been modified as follows : * This period is based when celestial stars are considered for position of earth and is called sidereal year. ** Here sun is taken as reference point for positions. It i zalled a tropical year and is used as a year for Gregorian ‘calendar. we 6 Every fourth year (i.e., the 4) has one day extra in the (ie., February then has 29 days) the leap year. For example, aw 1904, 1908, ......., 2000, Yan, 2016, 2020 were leap years any 2% 2028, .... will also be leg exception is : P Year, The century years (i.e., 1899 4 though divisible by 4, are not pe! eg. the year 2100 will not be aoa the years which are divisible Je leap years. e.g. the year 2000 yy and the year 2400 will also be (vill) Decade : A decade is of 10 years 1 Decade = 10 years = 3.1536 x 19h, (ix) Century = century is of 100 years Ing there will be 24 years each of 366 days nd 9p each of 365 days. Thus, 100 years: = (24 x 366 + 76 % 365) days = 36524 days = 3-16 x 10s, (6) Millennium : A millennium is of 1009 1 Millennium = 3-16 x 10"° s The commonly used bigger units of tne g summarized in the following table. gens ase 1 Century Jeary ig Bigger units of time 1.6 SOME EXAMPLES OF DERIVED UNITS We have read that apart from the set fundamental quantities used in S.L system such length, mass, time, temperature, luminous intenst Current and the amount of substance, the usis# all other physical quantities are obtained in = of the fundamental units. The units so obtained # called derived units. Some examples of units are listed ahead. Derived units of some physical quantities Definition Derived unit | Abbreviation/symbol Jength x breadth metre % metre oe -———__| length x breadth x height metre x metre x metre im 3. Density ass kilogram su sche (metre) 4. Speed or velocity Sistance so) time second me 5. Acceleration velocity mette/second area ime) Second 6. Force ™maSs x acceleration | kik metre kg ms? orN logram > on? oF newton 8 7. Wo " York or energy force x displacement kilogram x —elte— metre or joule kg m? sor J (Gecond) 8. Momentum SS * velocity | kilogram x ZEEE or newton x second kg mst orNs 9. Moment of force force x distance metre 2g? aes ree x distance kilogram x Teconay? * mete kg ms or newton-metre or Nm 10. Po work kilogram (metr 2 oa time ~~ geconay? / 000d kg m2 53 or joule/second or watt or IstorW force pees 2 metre 3 fats Pressure = kilogram. * Geconey?/eeey kg mt s or newton / (metre)? or pascal or Nmor Pa 1 I 12. Frequency. (Gee paid:

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