SWITCH-MODE POWER SUPPLY DESIGN P.R.K. CHETTY BPB PUBLICATIONS Al MARKET, DELHI-110 0068 PB PUBLICATIONS 378 Old Lajpat Rat Marke, Det 110 008, ‘4734, atet Ram Road 23, Daryagan, New Det-110 002 1/4 fee Steet, Mount oad, Macras:600 00? 13.269 Ginra| Lane, ane Steet Hyderabad FIRST INDIAN EDITION 1987 FIRST EDITION FIRST PRINTING ined in fn und atrangement TAB BOOKS INC. U.S.A. ‘Author makes ne representation hat te use ofthe material dancrbed herein wil nat ntinge on exiting or future patent tats, ror do te desritons conained heron imply the granting fhoenaot Wo max, use, eal equpmat consrcted Im aocerganca thorewth Reproduction or pubcation ofthe content in any manner, without exoross azn the pubtene, a prchtied. No kai is assured wh respect "se ofthe Information heel. tisha oy Manish Jan fr 88, Publications 5376, 04d Lajos a Mert Din 112096, anaContents Preface Introduction Switch-Mode Power Supplies—an Introduction Modeling and Analysis Current Injected Equivalent Circuit Approach to Modeling Switching dc-dc Converters B Current Injected Equivalent Circuit Approach to Modeling of Switching dc-de Converters in Discon- tinuous Inductor Conduction Mode = 17 CIECA: Application to Currant Programmed Switching de-de Converters 26 Current Injected Equivalent Circuit Approach to Modeling and Analysis of Current Programmed Switch- ing de-de Converters. (Discontinuous. Inductor Conduction Mode) 33 Modeling and Analysis of CUK Converter Using Current Injected Equivalent Circuil Approach 40 Design and Measurements Modeling and Oesign of Switching Regulators 46 Closed Loops—-on Track for Testing Switchers 60 Measurement of Magnitude and Phase of Switching Regulator Transtar Functions and Loop Gain 69 Computer-Aided Design SPICE-2 CAD Package for he Design of Switching Regulators 84 Practical Design Examples Design of a 2.8 KW Off-Line Switcher Using PWM Push-Pull Converter 94 st 47 g 93Mieroproceseor-Controlied Digital Shunt Regulator _105 Multiphase Operation of Seit-Oecillating Switching Regulator 110 Deo-de Converter Maintains High Efficiency 123 Linear Power Supplies 127 Improvements to Power Supplies. 128 ICs for Switch-Mode Power Supplies Controb ICs for Switch Mode Power Supplies 132 IG Timers as Controllers for Switch-Mode Power Supplies 140 Spacecraft Power Systems ‘Spacecrait Power Systems 148 Improved Power Conditioning Unit for Regulated Bus Spacecratt Power System 154 Rellability Design for Reliability 160 Reliability and Redundancy 167 Reliability and Failure Mode and Effects Analysis 170 Index 131 145 159 W77Preface In the 1960s, demands of the space programs led tothe development of highly retiable, efficient and lightweight electrical power systems for spacecraft. Despite the limited supply of available energy on- board the spacecraft, engineers found innovative solutions for power processing and management of electrical power. These helped usher in the era of modern power electronics. Today, similar limita- tions on sources of available energy are becoming a prime design consideration in everyday electric power processing. Power electronics is entirely devoted to switch- mode power conversion and deals with modern problems in analysis, design, and synthesis of elec- tronic circuits as applied to efficient conversion, control, and regulation of electrical energy. Design and optimization of de-to-de converters, which of- fer the highest power efficiency, small size and weight, and high performance ,are also included in power electronics. ‘These de-to-de converters with isolation transformers can have multiple outputs of various magnitudes and polarities. The regulated power supply of this type has wide applications, par ticularly in computer systems, wherein a low- voltage high-current power supply with low output tipple and fast transient response are mandatory. In addition, these converters connected in a par- ticular configuration result in switched-mode ac power amplifiers with enough bandwidth and high efficiency. Off-line switchers, de-to-de single and multiple output power supplies, bi-directional power supplies (battery chargers and dischargers), de-+to-ac inverters, de-to-ac uninterruptible power supplies, de-to-ac motor control, power servo con- trol, robotics, and switching audio amplifiers, etc., are some of the examples of switch-mode power supplies. Switch-mode power supplies have come into widespread use in the last decade. An essential feature of efficient electronic power processing is ‘the use of semiconductors in a power switching mode (to achieve low losses) to control the transfer of energy from source to load through the use of pulse-width modulated or resonant techniques. In: ductive and capacitive energy storage elements areused to smooth the flow of energy while keeping losses to a low level. As the frequency of switch- ing increases, the size of the magnetic and capacitive elements decreases in a direct propor- tion, Because of their superior performance, high efficiency, small size and weight and relatively low cost, they are displacing conventional linear (dissipative as they operate in linear or conduction mode) power supplies even at very low power levels. The modeling, analysis, and design of these switching de-to-de converters have been extensively carried out, and it is commonly believed that the designs in the commercial use today employ the simplest possible converter topology for de-to-de conversion. Industry has been quick to realize that the energy saving technique also affords the oppor- tunity to make dramatic reductions in equipment size and weight. Consumer and industry applica- tions are expanding rapidly. Among the various approaches developed for modeling and analysis of the switching de-to-dc con- verters, the current-injected equivalent-circuit ap- proach and state space average approach are used in producing a linear-equivalent circuit model that correctly represents the nonlinear converter pro- perties for the static as well as dynamic ac small signal at low frequency levels, the essential features of the input and output transfer properties. Availability of the above model allows choice of the best converter for a specific application and op- timization of the feedback loop of a regulator con- taining such a converter. Also the models enable to design the switch- ‘ing regulators for stable operation with large band- width, fast transient response, and good line rejection. This is because the design can apply the ‘standard method or circuit analysis applicable to linear feedback control systems using linear feed- back control theory. However, the validity of these models and the design can only be made by measur- ing the frequency response of the system to check the accuracy of the loop gain and phase. Thus, in the design of the feedback system it is necessary to make measurement of the loop gain on the prac- tical circuit as a runction of the frequency to ensure that the circuit operates as analytically predicted, or get feedback from the measurement to correct the analytical prediction. Thus, switch-mode power supplies have re- ceived considerable attention because of their high performance features and it is my intention to make available all the work I carried out in power elec- tronics (part of which has already been published in the conference proceedings, journals and well re- ceived), so that the power electronics community may enjoy its fruits. Thus, power electronics is covered in detail in this book,Introduction —————— This book is an assembly/collection of the papers Ihave published (some of them are coauthored) and papers specially written for this book. Most of the papers were presented in conferences and in pro- fessional journals. Conference papers were published only in the conference proceedings, which are largely obscure and unavailable, conse- quently I thought that it would be of great benefit for the power electronics community to publish: them as a book. This volume contains papers deal ing with modeling, analysis, design, measurement including computer aided design, power supply practical design examples, and reliability aspects, It comprises 23 papers arranged in a systematic order into eight chapters in such a way it is easy to understand. Chapter 1 gives an introduction to switch-mode power supplies. The evolution of the power elec- tronics is presented first, Then it stresses the im- portance of power systems in all electronic equipment and systems as it is the main source of power with which each and every electronic equip- ment works, and the successful operation ofall elec- tronic equipment critically depends upon proper and reliable functioning of the power system. The second paper presents a definition of power system, classification of power supplies, brief operational description of dissipative (linear) power systems and nondissipative (switch-mode) power systems, as an introduction to mathematical modeling and analysis of switch-mode power supplies. Chapter 2, entitled Modeling and Analysis, con- tains five papers. In this, a new current-injected equivalent circuit approach (CIECA) to modeling switching de-dc converter power stages is devel- oped, which starts with the current-injected ap- proach and results in either a set of equations that completely describe input properties or an equivalent circuit model valid at small-signal low- frequency levels. As an example, the duty-ratio pro- grammed converter operating in continuous induc- tor conduction (CIC) mode is modeled. The same current-injected equivalent circuit approach is employed to model the converters operating in the following modes, (i) duty ratio pro- grammed converters operating in discontinuous in-ductor conduction (DIC) mode; (ii) current ‘programmed converters operating in continuous in- ductor current (CIC) mode; and (iii) current pro- grammed converters operating in iiscontinanas in- ductor conduction (DIC) mode. ‘As the Cuk converter has the merits of both buck and boost converters, namely, it has non- pulsating input and output currents and it can buck and boost the input voltage to result in the required output voltage, it is worthwhile to have the linear equivalent circuit model for the Cuk converter. Also it is an optimum topology converter as it uses the minimum number of components. Hence, the mathematical modeling and analysisof the Cuk con- verter is also included. Having known the models for switching de-de converters, now the design of regulators using above mentioned basic or extended converters is appropriate and is thus dealt in Chapter 3. Various building blocks of a switching regulator are de- ‘scribed in detail and mathematical models are de- veloped for all building blocks in terms of transfer functions that enable one to design a switching regulator for stability, desirable bandwidth, line re- jection, and transient response. A step-by-step pro- cedure to design compensation is illustrated using two examples. Various networks for compensation and their transfer functions are presented. Having designed compensation and im- plemented in circuitry, only the measurements will confirm the accuracy of the modeling and design, which is dealt with in the second and third papers. Different techniques to measure the magnitude and phase of switching regulator transfer functions and loop gain are presented. Now to accelerate the design process a computer-aided design approach for switching regulators is presented in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 includes six papers to give more in- sight into the practical hardware design aspects of switch-mode power supplies. In the first paper, design of an Off-Line 2.8 kW Switcher employing Pulse-Width Modulated Push-Pull Converter as the power stage is presented including the step-by-step design procedure that eliminates the trial and er- ror approach and results in fewer man-hours spent in development. In the second paper, a new ap- proach to the design of power systems is presented in which a microprocessor is used as a controller for a digital shunt regulator (DSR). As the microprocessor need nat be dedicated to the DSR, it can simultaneously be used for battery manage- ment and for charge regulator and or discharge regulator control. Because of the power handling limitations of the qualified semiconductor devices, such elements. are quite often used in parallel to meet the large power requirements. In such a situation the power is shared inphase between the power handling devices since all of them switch simultaneously. This simultaneous switching action creates prob- lems in filtering and electromagnetic screening. ‘Multiphase operation is employed primarily to min imize these problems. The multiphase operation of the self-oscillating switching regulator is reported in the third paper. In the fourth paper, a de-de con- verter is analyzed, which has to supply a constant power load even when the input voltage undergoes large variations and it is shown that the efficiency of the converter is lower at high voltages than at low voltages. A new base drive is implemented that improved the efficiency at high voltages. In most de input regulated power supplies, regulation is poor when the desired output voltage is less than the source internal reference voltage. In addition, circuit considerations usually limit the minimum reference voltage attainable and conse- quently the minimum regulated output voltage possible. The circuit presented in the fifth paper has a configuration that can bring the reference voltage virtually to zero, and overcomes both of the problems. Simple changes like adding a component ap- propriately can improve the performance of a power siipply. Two such improvements are presented as ‘examples, one for a linear power supply and the sec- ond for a switch-mode power supply in the sixth paper. ‘Chapter 6 entitled ICs for switch-mode power supplies, presents the ICs for control and other aspects of power supply design, the use of which enhanced the growth as well as the benefits of switch-mode power supplies. The ICs offer the ad-‘yantages of compactness, accuracy, reproducibility, higher performance through reduction of parasitics, and the economies of mass production. The first paper presents ICs for control, protection and in- strumentation of free-running as well as driven-type power supplies. Not only the regulator ICs or pulse-width modulating regulator ICs are used for switch-mode power supplies, but other ICs are used as well. This is illustrated in the second paper, where an integrated-circuit timer is used as the control ele- ment for a simple de-dc converter regulator with current foldback, the current step-up converter regulator and a polarity reversing voltage step-up converter regulator. Chapter 7 includes two papers that deal with spacecraft power systems. The first paper describes a typical spacecraft power system con- sisting of solar cells, storage batteries, and power conditioning and control electronics. The main dif- ferences between power systems for low earth or- bit satellites and geo-synchronous orbit satellites are also presented. In the second paper, an im- proved power conditioning unit developed for regulated bus spacecraft power systems based upon the principle of using a common control block for charge, discharge, and shunt regulators is presented. In addition heavy elements like induc- tor for charge and discharge regulators and output capacitors for shunt and discharge regulators are made common for the integrated system. Chapter 8 deals with the reliability aspects of the power systems. Reliability is the main require- ment of any equipment or system. Unreliability can mean lots of waste. The important ways of improv- ing the reliability of any electronic system and various methods to be followed in designing the systems for high design reliability compared to the reliability due to components, manufacturing techniques, etc., are covered in the first paper. ‘The reliability and redundancy aspects are ex- amined with special reference to the power sup- plies. Though the inherent circuit reliability could be maximized by circuit design, judicious selection of components, etc., the chance failure that could partially or totally jeopardize a mission can be taken care of only by adopting redundancy to assure the overall mission reliability at the required level. The second paper describes different approaches to redundancy such as standby redundancy, load shar- ing redundancy, majority logic redundancy, partial redundancy and shared mode of standby redun- dancy. High performance, high levels of reliability and lower costs are the primary considerations in the design of power systems. A reliability analysis is presented in the third paper, which provides a measure of reliability designed into the system. Also included is the failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) whose purpose is to identify and eliminate, where possible, critical single point failures. xlChapter 1 Switch-Mode Power Supplies—an IntroductionSWITCH-MODE POWER SUPPLIES 1.0 Introduction A power system basically processes the power to convert it from one form (input) to another form (re- quired output). The hardware used to carry out this power processing is known as a power supply, regulator, de~dce converter, battery eliminator, etc., and this field is known as Power Processing Elec- tronics or simply Power Electronics. The power supply is one of the important elements of any piece of electrical or electronic equipment, This is because it provides power to energize all the electrical or electronic circuits and makes the equipment operate. The successful operation of any piece of electrical or electronic equipment depends upon proper and reliable func- tioning of the power supply. The specifications of the power supply are closely linked with the equip- ment. The stringent demands on performance, ‘weight, volume, reliability and cost make the design of the power supply, a truly challenging exercise. In general, the power supply shall be able to de- liver the regulated power at specific voltage and current levels meeting the equipment requirements. This can be anywhere from a fraction of a watt to a few thousands of watts and few volts to thousands of volts and the voltage can be dc or ac. In the case of ac output voltage, the frequency can be anywhere fram a few cycles to few thousands of cycles. It is very essential to have very high efficiency. Also heatsinking and forced air requirements increase with lower efficiency and the system becomes bulkier and heavier, which is not acceptable. Thus, the weight and volume of the power supply has to be as small as possible. It is not only desirable but also essential to have the cost of the power supply to be as low as possible. Tn view of the fact that the mean time between failure (MTBF) of any piece of equipment is closely linked with that of the power supply, the design and technology of the power system have received a great deal of attention. The last decade has witnessed significant advances in Power Elec- tronics resulting in the development of reliable, lightweight and high efficiency power systems with 2 large MTBF. The energy source for most of the equipment is ac. The other types of energy sources are bate - teries, solar cells, etc. Thus, the sources of energy _ are available in the form of ac or dc. However, most of the electrical and electronic equipment operates with de voltage. Within the equipment some por- tion may work at a different de voltage than the other portion. Some equipment may require more than one de voltage for internal operation. Few pieces of equipment work on ac voitage directly. The power system converts the voltage from one type to another and from one level to an- other level and tii the case of ac from one frequency “to another frequency. Thus, the power system pro- cesses the power while matching the impedance of the energy sources to that of the loads or equip- ment. In other words, the power system conditions the outputs of the energy sources so as to match with the requirements of the various loads or equipment. 2.0 Definitions As explained above, the primary function of any power supply is to provide a predetermined constant output voltage when the input voltage and/or output current vary widely and there is a possibility of change in operating temperature. The degree to which a power supply provides a constant output voltage under the above conditions is the ba- sic figure of merit of the power supply. Accord- ingly, regulation is defined as given below, Line Regulation(%) = [AE/AE,, VE, x 100 where AE, = Change in output voltage AE, = Change in input voltage £, = Nominal output voltage Load Regulation(%) = [E,, - E,VE, x 100 where £,, = Output voltage with no load E, = Qutput voltage with full load£, = Nominal output voltage Temperature Coefficient = BLE, mas ~ Ey min Ey Trnee ~ where E, 04. = ad] x 100 Output voltage at max. rated temperature (T,,..) Output voltage at min. rated temperature {T_.,,) Maximum operating temperature Minimum operating temperature 3.0 Classification of Power Systems The power systems employ different ap- proaches to process the power and to convert it from one form to other. The power systems can be classified as (i) Dissipative (Linear) Power Systems and (ii) Nondissipative (Switch-Mode) Power Systems. As the name indicates the dissipative systems are those which dissipate more in the conversion pro- cess, thereby operate inefficiently requiring large heatsink area. The dissipation varies as a function of input voltage and loa fluctuations and hence they result in poor efficiency. However, these power systems exhibit low EMI and less ripple characteristics. These power systems can be fur- ther classified into series and shunt types. The nondissipative power systems operate in the switch mode resulting in high efficiencies. Non- dissipative power systems employ some kind of highly efficient de-to-ac conversion process. Once the dc power is converted into ac power, it is easy to level-up or level-down the voltage by employing low weight and high frequency transformers. In most of the practical applications, transformer isola- tion is very essential and it is a must for equipment operated by human beings. Final dc voltage can be obtained by rectifying and filtering the ac waveform. There are two approaches to dc-to-ac conversion, The first approach is the square wave or pulse-width modulated (PWM) appreach where the dc input is chopped at a high frequency rate to result in a square wave. This square wave voltage can be levelled-up or levelled-down by using transformers. The output can be rectified and filtered to get de at a different voltage level than the input. The duty ratio determines the amplitude of the output voltage if the input voltage is constant. The duty ratio of the square wave can be varied to obtain regulation if there are variations in input voltage or load. The second approach is the reso- nant mode approach wherein de input is applied through controlled switches to a LC resonant cir- cuit. In this approach, the rate of energy exchange is not governed by an independent clock but by the resonant frequency of the energy storage elements. Thus power supplies (dc-dc converters) can be viewed as a linear or nonlinear LC or non-LC oscillator(square or sine wave) coupled through a transformer-rectifier, to a low-pass filter. Fig. 1 shows the power supply classification tree. 3.1 Dissipative or Linear Power Sytems In the case of linear type, the pass transistor is operated in active conduction mode such that the voltage across the pass transistor is always equal to the difference between the input voltage and out- put voltage. Diode voltage and emitter follower regulators are the simplest regulators one can con- ceive. These are normally employed only for coarse regulation, with law output current requirements, and where efficiency is not an important con- sideration. 3.1.1 Series Regulator The most widely used of all linear regulator cir- cuits is the series regulator, the basic configuration of which is shown in Fig. 2. There is a series con- trol device usually a transistor in either the common-emitter or common-collector configuration that acts on a signal from the control circuit or er- ror amplifier and prevents the outprt voltage from fluctuating. The contral circuit may take many forms, but it will always have some sort of reference with which it compares the received sample of the output voltage and amplifies the difference. The resulting érror signal corrects the drive of the se-POWER SUPPLIES Linear(Pissipative) Switching (Non-dissipative) Series Shunt | Square wave (PUM Switeh Mode) Buck Boost Sine wave (Resonant Switch ‘lede) huck-Booet Derived Converters-Reguiators Fig. 1. Power supply classification tree ries transistor, so that the collector-emitter voltage is always the difference between the input voltage and the desired output voltage, even if there are variations in the input voltage and/or output load. As in this regulator, the series-pass transistor always operates in the active region, the dissipa- tion is high. Hence, the series transistor must be chosen carefully to avoid the second breakdown. This regulator is generally preferable for high volt- age, medium current loads. 3.1.2 Shunt Regulator The basic configuration of a shunt regulator is shown in Fig. 3. Here the shunt control element (transistor) must be capable of withstanding the en- tire output voltage, but it does not have to carry the full load current unless required to regulate from full load to no load. Since the series-dropping resistor used with the shunt regulator has high dissipation, the efficiency of this regulator is poor. This regulator is preferable for medium to low voltages and high output currents with relatively constant loads. 3.2 Nondissipative Power Systems As explained above, in the case of the switch- Win Wade “ vin Vout Vref Yret Fig. 2. Basic configuration of a series regulator. Fig. 3. Basic configuration of a shunt regulator. 4ing or nondissipative power systems, the pass tran- sistor operates in GN (saturation) or OFF (cut-off) mode and hence the dissipation in the pass tran- sistor is minimum. The regulation is achieved by controlling the duty ratio of the pass transistor. The output voltage, in these regulators, can be greater than, equal to, or less than the input voltage. The regulators can be divided into three Lypes, viz., () buck type, Gi) boost type and (iii) buck-boost type. 3.2.1 Buck Regulator In a buck regulator, the output voltage is always less than the input voltage and can be prac- tically anywhere between 10% and 90% of the in- put voltage. This means that a switching rezulator can be used as a de step-dawn transformer with highest efficiency. Figure 4 shows a simple buck converter power stage. The output voltage is com- pared with a stable reference voltage and the amplified error signal is used to generate 2 pulse- width modulated waveform, which controls the switch ON/OFF periods. When the switch is turned- ON, current flows through the inductor and inte out- put capacitor and the load. When the output volt- age exceeds the reference voltage, the switch is turned4/FF, At this instant, the stored energy in the inductor reverses its polarity, takes the path through the diede and sends the current into the load while the voltage is maintained by the capaci- tor. When all the stored energy in the inductor is used up, the capacitor discharges and the output voltage decreases. At this step, the switch is turned- YOYOV : “ & " Fig, 4, Buck converter power stage. ON and the process continues such that the output voltage is maintained very close to the reference voltage. 3.2.2 Boost Regulator In a boost regulator, the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Fig. 5. When ie switch is tumed-on, the current flaws through inductor and energy is stored in it. When the switch is turned-OFF, the stored energy in the in- ductor tends to collapse and its polarity changes such that it adds to the input voltage. Thus, the volt- ape across the inductor and the input voltage are in series and together charge the output capacitor to a voltage higher than the input voltage. 3.2.3 Buckboost Regulator This reyulator operates on the principle of both buck and boost. When the switch is tumed-OFF, the inductor releases the stored energy similar to an automobile ignition system. The output voltage is. of course, determined by the rate ai discharge af the inductor, Rapid discharge results in a lower voltage and vice versa. Figure 6 shows a simple buckboost power stage. When the switch is GN, the inductor charges and stores energy. When the switch is OFF, the stored energy tries to collapse reversing its polarity, thus sending current into the | output capacitor and load. This takes output volt: age to an opposite polarity to that of the input voltage. Fig. 5. Boost convener power stage.Fig. 6. Buckboost converter power stage. 3.2.4 Other Types of Converter-Regulators The above described regulators are the three basic comverter-regulators. All other converters like, Cuk, Bell Lab, Weinburg, Vanable, ete., are derived from these basic converter-regulators. 3.2.5 Free Running and Driven Types The switching regulators can be of the free- running type or driven type. As is clear from above description, the output voltage is compared with a reference vollage and the amplified error voltage is used to generate a PWM signal, which is used to drive the regulator switch such that the output voltage is maintained at a predetermmed level. This PWM sigmal can have one of the following characteristics, (i) Fixed ON period and variable OFF period; (4) Variable ON and OFF periods with fixed frequency; (iii) fixed OFF period and variable ON period. For a specific use, a trade off between the various characteristic features has to be carried out depending upon the requirements and an ap- propriate configuration has to be selected, To enhance the power capability, the above regulators are usually connected in parallel and are operated in phase-shift (multiphase) imode to reduce the EMI and problems of electromagnetic screen- ing. To improve the performance characteristics such as regulation, transient response, line rejec- tion, etc. the feedback control loop of the above regulators is modified to sense the ac changes besides the de changes on the output voltage and the changes in the input voltages.Chapter 2 Modeling and Analysis Currant Injected Equivalent Circult Approach to Modeling Switching dc- de Convertera 8 Current Injected Equivalent Circuit Approach to Modeling of Switching de-de Converters in Discontinuous Inductor Conduction Mode 17 CIECA: Application to Current Programmed Switching Dce-De Con- vertors 26 Current Injected Equivalent Circuit Approach to Modeling and Analysis of Currant Programmed Switching dc-dc Converters (Discontinuous Inductor Conduction Mode) 33 Modeling and Analysis of CUK Converter Using Current Injected Equivalent Circult Approach 40CURRENT INJECTED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT APPROACH TO MODELING SWITCHING DC-DC CONVERTERS A mew current injected equivalent ciraat approach (CIECA) fo modeling switching decade converter power stages ws devel. oped, which staris with the current injected approach and results in either a sel of equations which completely describe input and oulfud properties or an equivalent linear circuit model valid at small signal, low frequency levels. This approach io modeling secttching de-de converter power stages kas the mens but mol the demertis of both the electronic equivalent cirowt! stale space average apfruiwh and the current injected control type approach, namely, 1} the modeling is very clear and iy simple whether (he converter operales in confianons ur discuntinuons induciur conductoon modes, 2) the modeling results in an equivalent crnaal which is very close io the acinal converter, and J) the equivalent circki! can de wsed directly in fhe computer for theoretical predictions like SPICE, ete, 1.0 Introduction Modeling switching converters has received con- siderable attention in recent years and a number uf methods have been developed ranging from analytic te design oriented, and the results range from specific numeric solutions to general equivalent circuit models. A youd review of these approaches is attempted in". Of the various ap- proaches to modeling switching converters existing to date only the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach ***, and the current in- jected control type approach * *** are well re- ceived. Whatever the approach used to get the converter transfer properties, the result is of course the same, however one approach gives mure infor- mation about the converter properties compared with the other. The current injected approach represents contral type techniques which arrive al a block diagram linearized descmption of the nonlinear system and models only transfer proper- ties. The electronic equivalent circuit state space average appreach models input and output in ad- ©1981 IEEE. Reprinted with permission from [EEE Transactions on Aernspace and Electronic Systems, Vol. AES-17, Na, 6, pp. 802-808, Nov. 1961. dition to transfer properties. The equivalent circuit approach might be preferred by electronic circuit designers, and those accustomed to the control type might prefer the current injected contro] type ap- proach ta modeling switching converters. * It is thought that one of the most useful benefits of the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach is the ease with which more com- plicated converter structures can be analyzed. The equivalent circiit also leads to the physical insight that permits optimum design, But a thorough study and application of both approaches reveal that 1) the current injected contra! type approach in con- tinuous inductor conduction (CIC) mode is equally as easy compared with equivalent circuit state space average approach, and 2) the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach is not clear * or becomes more complex and cumber- some "in discontinuous inductor conduction (DIC) mode, whereas (he current injected control type ap- proach ts very clear and becomes easier. These two facts led re to favor the current injected control type approach to model input and output, as well as the fact that transfer properties simultaneously develop an equivalent cireuit using the current im- jected control type approach. Thus this approach is calied the current injected equivalent circuit ap- proach (CIECA). This modified approach has the merits of the above mentioned two approaches, the most important of which are the following. 1) Linear equivalent circuit is developed to give physical insight inte the converter circuit that permits optimum design. 2) The availability of the input model avoids the fresh start in the analysis ot cascaded con- verters. 3) Input and output as well as transter pro- perties are modeled. 4) The analysis is clearer and easier in the DIC mode. The development of the CIECA to modeling switching converters is presented in detail. Todemonstrate this approach, modeling and analysis is carried out for the basic three converters: buck, boost, and buckboost. Section 2 contains the detailed development of modeling switching con- verter power,stages using the CIECA. The CIECA is demonstrated in Section 3 by applying it to the boost converter power stage. Following the same approach, the modeling is carried out for buck and buckboost converters and the results are presented in Section 4, Section 5 compares the merits of the CIECA with those of the electrome equivalent cir- cuit state space average approach and the current injected control type approach. Section 6 concludes this new approach, the CLECA, to modeling switch- ing de-de converter power stages. 2.0 CIECA The development uf the CIECA allows a unified treatment of a large variety of converter power stages, since this approach is very simple and easy to apply. Physical reasoning in each step of this modeling is included and the modeling: is at- tempted for the basic three converters: buck, boost, and buckboost. The end result of modeling is ¢i ther a set of equations representing the transfer pro- perties of cunverter, or a linear equivalent ciremit model for the nonlinear converter. The tollowing conventions and notations are followed in the modeling and analysis: d] Ts is the interval during which the transistor is turned on and the diode ts off, d2 7s is the interval during which the transistor is turned off and the diode is on, ¢1 + d2= l,and Ts = L/fs is the switching period. Capitalized quantities are used for steady-state values and quantities with carets are used for small perturbations. * The CIECA is outlined in the flowchart of Fig. 1, which is very general and applicable to various power stages. The first step in this process is ta identify the nonlinear part of the converter circuit and to linearize only that part of the converter as the remaining part is inherently lineat. Thus the converter power stage is identified''as both nonlinear and linear and in fact the ndnlinear part of the converter determines the average current in- jected into the linear part of the converter. Hence this approach becomes simple as the linearization is achieved by averaging the current through the nonlinear part that is injected into the linear part of the converter. One of the two parts contains the switch and is supposed to be the nonlinear part as it takes different connections depending upon whether the switch is turned on or off. The second part does not contain any switch, remains the same throughout the switching period, and is inherently linear. Figure 2 contains the source voltage ug, a three- terminal block, and a parallel RC network. Assume the three-terminal block simply contains an ideal switch as shown in Fig. 2 (B); theoretically the cir- cuit results im a converter though there are prac- tical limitations. Initially, as the capacitor is not charged, a very large current will flow through the switch, only limited by the equivalent series resis- tance (ESR) of the capacitor. This large current can damage the switch itself. In addition the ripple will be very large as the capacitor has lo supply current to the load during the period when the switch is turned off. An inductor is added to alleviate these problems, as shown in Fig. 2 (0). Now the current through the three-termina! block is limited and con trolled by the value of the inductor L which is of course affected by the paralle] RC network. This is true whether the 2 connects to the 1 (te the source) or to the 3 (to the ground). Thus the huck converter would have resulted, Now the clockwise rotation of Fig. 2 (C}results in Fig. 2 (0). We know that this circuit is a buckboost converter. A further step in clockwise rotation of Fig. 2 (D) results in Fig. 2(E} Again we are familiar with this circuit, the boost converter, This is one of the views which explains the development of basic converters. In fact this is how the nonlinear (three-terminal block) and linear (paralel A and C) parts are identified in basic converters. A similar method can be followed for any switching converter power stage. As mentioned above, the three-terminal block represents a nonlinear part whereas the second (paralic] Rand ©) part represents a linear part. Also oné can see that the three-terminal block injects current into the second part resulting in appropriate“epow 215 powwesSoed one Ainp kL! sveuBAUO? Op-op Bulyjaums Buyepow o} YORID 19 weypMoiy "| “Bly (is00g} UADHID LNATYAINO]A YYANIY 2g 2p 1g~_ IP AAE) «= GAE, (zjay~ 2 As A BA~ a 0 = juan JOJINPuUt pO BAB ALSO SallbsadOdd JLVISAOWALS cy UBIPIUAS JOPSUBIL INndyno o} josUED (11 vOoIUnY JapSUeEd indyno oy jnduy () S3ie4dOdd JINYNAG (HIOMISU indjne jo aduepadun=z) 7 PAP) = (a) aBeLOA INGING {111 (Prey) pouad Buiydyvas @ ut Juans sopsnpu abesaay (1 wana IOJANP ul yO aAPAUag | SNOILYNOZ HSLHAANOD wajsAs yeaul Wiebe FAP, SAB) BAe, a2u0 WIEWO ~ A+A= A oO} pajsalbau 6a+6,=6a suua} janpaid §=zp + za = zp uoneqinuagd Lp + id = 8p NOL WZISVANIT ® NOILWRHNLHSd SHALHSANOD 20-20 ONIHDLIMS i ——————— id 10© L L 3 oe) 2 3 Fig. 2. (A) Probable basic circuit with which switching con- verters would have developed. (8) Three terminal block shown separalaly. (C) Inductor is added to (B) at an ap- propriate piace. (D) Cisckwise rotation of (C). (E) Clackwise rotation of (D). output voltage, The following are a set of relation- ships referring to the converter diagram and cur- rent and voltage waveforms shawn in Fig. 3: 1) average current (7,,,) determimed by the first part, injected into the second part in a switch- ing period; 2) derivative of the inductor current function of the value of the inductor, the voltage across that in each subinterval in a switching period; 3) relationship between average injected current and output voltage v = (2, Mz), where zis the ave impedance of the linear part of the converter. Now a steady-state solution is achieved by setting derivatives and perturbations to zero (Fig. 1. box 3). Since the converter equations in (Fig. 1, box 2}, are linear, superposition holds and can be perturbed (Fiz. 1, box 4) by the introduction of a small ac variation over the steady-state aperating point. As we know, the independent driving inputs are vg and d, the perturbation in these two inputs causes the perturbation ing and v. The small ac variation fram the steady-state operating point is negligible com- pared with the steady-state operating point values, Le, oY, Be/Vg, afD, if (each) «<1, Using the above approximations, nonlinear second-order terms are neglected to obtain once again a linear set of equations. Now only the ac part is relained which descnbes the small signal, low fre- _ idluctier CLIPART = - 1 -—---—_—__ Fig. 3. Typical inductor current and voltage waveforms in buck converter.quency behavior of the converter. Using this set of equations, the input-to-output and control-te-output transfer functions (Fig. 1, box 5) are written. Us- ing the same set of equations an equivalent circuit (Fig. 1, box 6) is drawn which represents the input and oytput small signal, low frequency properties of the nonlinear converter, Although the outlined method follows in terms of equations and arrives at an equivalent linear cir- cuit model, one can proceed from (Fig. 1, box 2) ina parallel way using equivalent circuit models. As in the first method, a perturbation and lineariza- tion are carried out and from the resulting circuit models a final linear equivalent circuit model is ob- tained similar to that of (Fig. Ll, box 6). Even though both paths have identical results. one need use only one method depending on his taste; however the circuit mode) path gives more physical insight into the qualitative nature of the results, especially the right half-plane zeros in boost and buckboost converters. Thus the CIECA to modeling switching de-de converter power stages derives the linear equivaient cireust which com- pletely describes the inpul and output smail signal, low frequency preperties of the nonlinear converter power stage, in addition ta the transfer properties. 4.0 Boost Converter Modeling We now demonstrate the method fur the boost converter power stage shown in Fig. 4. The switches are assumed to he ideal. Parasitics and storage time effects of the transistor swiich are not included for simplicity. The CIECA can be applied to the converters operating in bath CIC and DIC modes whether they are duty ratio programmed or current programmed, Similarly the CIECA can be applied whether the converter operates in free- running or in fixed-frequency mode. However, the present modeling is limited to fixed-frequency duty ralio programmed converters operating in CIC made. Inductor current and voltage waveforms for the boost converter are shown in Fig. 5. The shaded portion shows the amount of current injected into the output linear circuit (parallel & and C) and the interval during which the current injected is d2 7's. 12 Fig. 4. Boost converter with all parasilic¢s and storage time effects neglected. The average inductor current imected into the out put circuit during a switching period 1s given by i, = # (2) (1} where #is the inductor current. The derivative of the inductor current is given by Lidi/dt) = [vp - 0 fd2)] (2) Therefore the qutput voltage is poe [ty AY[L + skC] (3) where AiO + skOVis the impedance of the out- put network. The steady-state conditions can now be found by using (1)-(3) and setting the derivative to gern. Therefore the above equations reduce to Vi¥e = D2; 7 = ViR(D2)]. (a) Equations (1)-(3) are perturbed around the steady- state opviating point, and second-order nonlinear terms are neglected once again to obtain the linear small signal model i, = WD) - Td Lidiidty = fig - D2) + Vd (5) 2 = (RAL + sRCI Tf, - th The input-to-wutput and the centrol-to-cutput_——_—— ee ee inductor voltage Ts inductor current diTs ee — Fig, 5. inductor current and voltage waveforms of the boost canverter in Fig. 4. transfer functions are obtained from (5) by first tak- ing Laplace transform ise) = (MD2VUL + SLIRDY, + S LCHF,)| fysvdt} = (VglD) - SLIRD?,¥ i6) (1 + SURDY, + SLC) These transfer functions are the same as those ob- tained by 4" using the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach or the current in- jected control type approach. Using {5}, an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 6 can be drawn. The dependent current and voltage generators are replaced by an equivalent transformer as shown in Fig. 7. This equivalent circuit is identical to the equivalent circuit mode! obtained usmg the clec tronic equivalent circuit state space average ap- proach. Vd L CO TOT) C™ iD2s 2 Be vo") oi (1) + D see s R > io a P Lois Fig. 6. Small signal tow frequency linear equivalent circuit model of tha boost converter of Fig. 4. This circuit can be directly used in computer simulation. 13va L YA o Fig. 7. Small signal low frequency linear equivalent circut médel of the Hoost converter replacing the dependent cur- rent and voltage generators by an equivalent transformer From the circuit of Fig. 7 one can see that there is a current generator (in place of a switch in the actual circuit of Fig. 4) between the £ and the C. This current generator is moved to the input to put the circuit in a form that enables one to see that there is really a low-pass LC filter. Thus the move- ment of the current generator to input produces a frequency-dependent voltage generator. The sign of this generator is such that in the control-to-output transfer function, this results in a right half-plane zero. Also notice that the effective value of L now depends upon the steady-state duty ratio. Hybrid Approach. A hybrid approach to modeling is demonstrated below which uses the equivalent circuit model immediately after the linearization of the nonlinear part of the converter. Using (1}(3}, an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 8 can be drawn. From this circuit we can see that during steady-state, the de model is simply obtained by short circuiting the inductor and open circuiting the capacitor; then vg, », dl, and 2 assume the steady-state values. Now the circuit is perturbed and second-order terms are neglected to once again obtain the linear system. One can see that Fig. 9 Fig. & Equivatant circult for (1)-{3). 14 F e a 2 Fig. 9. Small signal low frequency linear equivalent circuit for boost converter of Fig. 4. is the same as Fig. 6 and one will get an equivalent circuit as in Fig. 7 after the dependent generators are replaced with a transformer. 4.0 Modeling Buck and Buckbooat Converters The same method as described in Section 3.0 has been followed to model buck and buckboost converters. The converter and its equivelent circuit diagrams are shown in Fig. 10 for the buck con- verter, and shown in Fig. i1 for the buckboost. The results for the two transfer functions of principal interest, the input-to-output transfer function, ane the control-to-output transfer function are as follows, D0 eo Fig. 10. (A) Buck converter, (B} Liar equivalent circuit model.Fig. 11. (A) Buckboost converter. |B) Linear equivalent cir- cuit model For the buck converter, Hise) = (DDI + SR + SC) slid) = (Ve (il + SLR + SLO), For the buckboost converter, aeMugts) = (D1/D2) (11 + SLIRD!, + S$ LOAD] iaNd(s) = (V/D1D2) (1 — SLDIRD?, (1 + SLIRD, + S* LC/D* The equivalent circuit diagrams and transfer func- tions obtained here for buck and buckboost are the same as those obtained in ?. 5.0 Comparison Modeling and analysis for the duty ratio pro- grammed buck, boost, and buckhaost converters operating in fixed-frequency CIC mode are carried out and their linear equivalent circuit models de- veloped using the new CIECA. The transfer fune- tions are the same as those obtained in the current injected control type approach or in the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach. In addition the equivalent circuit models developed are the same as those obtamed in the state space average approach. Table I gives a detailed com- parison of CIECA with the current injected contre! type approach and the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach. 6.0 Conclusions A new CIECA ta modeling of switching de-de converters is developed and presented which describes the small signal, low frequency input-to- output and control-to-output transfer properties as well as input and output properties of the converter. To demonstrate this approach, the modeling js car- tied out for buck, boost, and buckboost converters operating in fixed-frequency, duty ratio pro- grammed CIC mode. The results of the modeling and analysis are compared with those results ob- tained by using the current injected control type ap- proach as well as by using the electronic equivalent curcuit state space average approach. Table 1 gives a detailed comparison of CIECA with two other approaches. It is very clear that the CIECA has the merits of both the other approaches. The merits of the CIECA will be substantiated by work to be published in which the modeling and analysis 18 carried out for the converters operating in the DIC mode, for the converters operating in current programmed mode, and for cascaded con- verters. This approach also aliows power system designers with control background to use their con- trol knowledge and still get equivalent circuit models to give more physical insight inte the con- verter operation, thereby enabling them to make better designs. This approach is also encouraging and attractive to power system designera with cir- cuit background as the modeling becomes simpler and is very clear in DIC mode. References 1. Middlebrook, R.D., and Cuk, 5. (1977) Model- ing and analysis methods for de-de switching converters. Presented at the IEEE Interna- tional Semiconductor Power Converter Con- ference, Orlando, FL, 1977. . Fossard, A.J., and Clique, M. (1976} Modclisa- tion des ceilules elementaires. Technical Re- port 1, Contract 2590/75 AK, Enrapean Space Research and Technology Organization, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 1976. he 15Table 1. Comparison ol the CIECA to Modeling Switching Dc-De Converters with the Current Injected Gontral Type Approach and ‘he Electronic Equivalent Circult State Space Average Approach. Electronic Equivalent Clrcult Stete Space Current Injected Parameter a Currant Type Approach Input asd ouipul equivalent circuit models, Transfer functions Rasembiance cf equivalent clrouttlock diagrans to actual converter nol available easier to obtain contral type block diagram is 1oo far away from actual converter Modeling in CIC Modeling in DIC easy and simple easy and simpler Physical reasoning for nol avadable right halt-plane reros Use of block diagrams! equivalent circurt models in computers for theoretical predictions Modeling approach usablé in analog and hyorid computers linear and nonlinear parts of the converter power slage are identified and only thet part is lineavired: hance this approach ts. simple and easy Average available easier ta obtain canonical models ce have ragemblance to actual CECA available easier to oblain equivalent cicuit models are Touch chaser to physical converter converter circuit and the canonical models can be ob- tamed after manipulatons, Sansy aasy and simple either nol clear * or @asior, Simpler, and very clear complex and cumbersome 4 avellable Canna be used directly in computers, lke using SPICE, otc. comolete converter is troated Tor linearization though only some par of the convenar is nonknear, hence this approach becomes complex available can be used directly in computers, ike using SPIGE, ate. jinsar and nonlinear parts of the converter power stage are identified anc only that part is linearized; hence ths approach is simple and easy ‘This does not mean that the canonical models ara not useful. In fact, thay are the models that for the fies! time helped in understanding that all the basic converters effectively have (-C filler properties (hough it is not seen in the actual Converter circuits, especially in buckboost and boost where thera is 4 switch between | and CG. t . Middlebrook, R.D., and Cuk, S. (1976) A general unified approach to modeling switch- ing converter power stages. In /EEE Power Electronics Speciaitsts Conference Record, 1976, pp. 18-34, . Cuk, $., and Middlebrook, R.D. (1977) A general unified approach to modeling switch- ing de-to-de converters in discontinuous con- duction mode. In /EEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference Record, 1977, pp. 36-57 . Hsu, 5.-P., Brown, A., Rensink, L., and Mid- dlebrook, B.D. (4979) Modeling and analysis of switching de-de converters in constant fre- quency current programmed mode. In JEEE Power Electronics Speciatisis Conference Record, 1979, pp. 284-301. . Brown, A. (1979) State space analysis of pulse width modulated switching converters. 16 Technical Note T-58, Power Electronics Group, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Feb. 6, 1979. . Fossard, A.J., and Clique, M. (1979) Modeling and design of de-de converters using modern control theory, part 1: modelisation; part 2: open loop analysis and control design. Presented at the 3rd European Space Research and Technology Organization Spacecraft Power Conditioning Seminar, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 1977. . Ferrante, J.G,, Capel, A., Fossard, A.J., and Clique, M. (1977) A general linear continuous model for design of power conditioning units at fixed and free running frequency, In JEBE Power Electronics Specialists Conference Record, 1977, pp. 113-124. 9, Prajoux, R., Marpinard, J.C., and Jalade, J.(1466) Establishment de modeles mathemati- ques pour regulaterus de puissance a modula- tion de largeur d impulsions (pwm); 2: models continus, ASA Scientific and Technical Review, 1966, 2 (1), 115-129. CURRENT INJECTED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT APPROACH TO MODELING OF SWITCH- ING BC-DC CONVERTERS IN DISCONTINUOUS Al new current injected equivalent circus! approach {CIECA) fo modeling switching de-de converter power stages is devel- oped, which starts with current injected approach, and results in a set of equations which describe completely infut and output properties and am equitirient linear ctrewit model valid al small signal low freguency levels Tits approach to modeling suntehing de-de comnerter bower stayes has the ments uf tuo known approaches: 1) elec: iromic equivalent circuit state space average approach, ti) cur rent injected control type approach, namely; a) the modeling is very clear and is simple whether the converter aperates in continuous or discuilinwons inductor conduchon wiodes, by resulis nan equivalent circuit which ts very close to the ac- feel converter, oO tie equivalent conceit con be used directly In comtputer for theoretical predictrons ike SPICE, etc., di deowtd af the demenis of bol lhe approaches mentioned. Having developed ane demarnstrated for the comperiers operating: in continuous ‘nductar conduction mates", the CHEC A ono extended to the converters operating in discon Hiiweus miductor coiduction winds, 1.0 The modeling of switching: converters has received considerable attemian in recent years and a number of methods have been developed, ranging from analytic to design onented, and the results range from specific numeric solutions to general equivalent circut models. A good review of these approaches 1s attempted in|, +. Among the various approaches to modeling switching converters ex: isted to date, only the following twe approaches are well received, namely: i) electronic equivalent cir- cuit state space average approach **; ii) current in- jected control type approach 7, *°. Whatever the. approach is used to get the converter transfer pro- Introduction © 1982 TEEE. Reprinted with permission from (EEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 1E-29, No. 4, pp. 230-234, Aug. 1982. INDUCTOR CONDUCTION MODE perties, the result is, of course, the same; but one approach gives additional information about the converter propertics compared to the other. The current injected approach on one hand, represents control type techniques which arrive at a block diagram linearized description of the nonlinear system and models only transfer properties; on the other hand, electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach models input and output in ad- dition te transfer properties. The equivalent circuit approach might be preferred by electronic circuit designers and those accustomed to the contral type might prefer current injected control type approach to modeling of switching converters. Inuddition to the above comments, it is thought that one of the most useful benefits of electronic equivalent Circuit state space average approach is the ease with which more complicated converter atruclures can be analyzed and the equivalent cir- cunt leads to the physical insight that permits op- timum desivn. But 4 thorough study and application af both approaches reveal much more interesting facts that a) the current injected control type ap- proach in continguys inductor conduction {CIC} mode is equally easier compared to equivalent cir- tuit state space average approach: bh) electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach is not clear * or becomes more complex and cumber: some “in discontinuous inductor conduction (DIC} mode, whereas current injected control type ap- proach ts very clear and becomes more easy. Hecause of these two facts, current injected control type approach is used te model input and output, as well as transfer properties simultan- eously developing an equivalent circuit. Thus, this approach is hereafter called current injected equiv- alent circuit approach (CIECA). Having developed and demonstrated the 17switching de-de converters operating in continuous inductor conduction mode 1, the current injected equivalent circuit approach is now extended to the converters operating in discontinuous inductor con- duction mode and presented in this paper, To demonstrate this approach, the modeling and analysis is carried out for the basic three converters, i.e., buck, boost, buckboost, The section following the introduction contains the detailed development of modeling of switching converter power stages using current injected equivalent circuit approach. This method is demonstrated by applying to the boost converter power stage in Section 3. Follow- ing the same approach, the modeling is carried (Ap- pendix) out for buck, and buckboost converters and the results are presented in Section 4, Final sec- ton presents the conclusion. SWITCHING OC-DC CONVERTERS. cur (aved network) tinear—" 1 non-linear PERTURBATION & LINEARIZATION jdi= OF +01) Perturbation d2 = 02 +2 product terms vg=Vg+vg neglected ta vooVe4y¥ ebtain once \ave=lave*'ove again linear system CONVERTER EQUATIONS i} Gerivalive of inductor fi) Average inductor Current in a sentching period ii) Quapuil voltage (¥}— lave Z (z=impedance of oulput DYNAMIC PROPERTIES i} Input to output lranster functian ii) Control to output transter function 2.0 Current Injected Equivalent Circuit Approach (CIECA) The foliowing conventions and notations are followed in the modeling and analysis: aT, the interval during which the tran- sistor is turned on and the diode is off, d,T, the interval during which the tran- sistor is turned off and the diode is on, dT, + d,T, + dT, = T, & t T, = Wf switching period. The capitalized quantities are used for steady-state STEADYSTATE PROPERTIES Dervative of inductor current = 0 vg -+¥g wooe¥ z —+ Pez} | lave ~lave di —-Dt dz O02 LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Fig. 1. Flowehart of current injected equivalent circuil approach to modeling switching de-de converters in the duty ratio Programmed discontinuous inductor conduction made. 18values and the quantities with hats for the small per- turbations. The current injected equivalent circuit ap- proach to modeling converters operating in discon- tinuous inductor conduction mode is outlined in the flowchart of Fig. 1, which is very general, ap- plicable fo various power stages. The first step in this process is to identify the nonlinear and linear parts of the converter circuit and linearize only the nonlinear part of the converter as the remaining part of the converter is inherently linear (Box 1). The nonlinear part of the converter determines the average current injected into the linear part. Now (Box 2), a set of relationships are written referring to the converter diagram and current and voltage waveforms shown in Fig. 2: 1) valt second balance on the inductor; n) average current (i,,.) injected into the linear part in a switching period; ii) relationship between average injected current and output voltage vw = (1) « fa) where 2 is the impedance of the linear part of the converter. Now stearly-state solution is achieved by set- ting derivatives and perturbations to zero (Fox 3). Since the converter equations in Box 2 are linear, superposition holds anc can be perturbed (Box 4} by the introduction ut a small ac variation over the steadystate operating point. As we know the in- dependent driving inputs are vg and @, the pertur- bation in these two inputs cause the perturbation int and v, Now making the small signal approxima- Fig. 2. Typical inductor currant and valtage wavetorms in buck converter, vg Fig. 3. Boost converter with all parasitics and storage lime effects neglected. tion, namely, the small ac variation from the steady- state operating point are negligible compared to the steadystate operating point values, ie., HY, a/v, i di {D,, dJD,, UT (each) € 1, Using the above ap- proximations, nonlinear second order terms are neglected to obtain once again a linear set of equa- tions. Now only the ac part is retained which describes the small signal low frequency behavior of the converter. Using these sets of equations, the Input tooutput and contrel to output transfer fune- tions (Box 5) are written. Using the same set of equations, an equivalent circuit (Box 6) is drawn which represents the input and output small signal low frequency properties of the nonlinear converter. Although the outlined method follows in terms of equations and arrives at the end an equivalent linear cireuit model, one can proceed fram Box 2 ina parallel way using equivalent circuit models. As in the first method, perturbation and lineariza- tion are carried out and from the resulted circuit models a final linear equivalent circuit model is ab- tained similar to that of Box 6. Both the paths re- sult in identical results. 3.6 Boost Converter-Modeling We now demonstrate the method for the boost converter power stage shown in Fig. 3. The switches are assumed to be ideal, and the present modeling is limited to fixed frequency duty ratio programmed converters operating in discontinuous 19— its © dyTs ‘east ae Fig. 4. Inductor current and voltage waveforms of the boast converter in Fig. 3. inductor conduction mode. The RC constant is as- sumed to be much greater than the switching period T: Inductor current and voltage waveforms for the boost converter are shown in Fig. 4. The shaded portion shows the amount of current injected into the output linear circuit (parallel X and C) and the interval during which the current injected is 4,7. The average inductor current injected into the out- put circuil during a switching period is given by £1.20" i 2b Volt second balance on the inductor Vid, +d) = Vo« d,. (2) ‘The output valtage is e= (t * Avil + sh) (3) where RL + s&C)is the impedance of the ourput network, The steady-state conditions can now be found by using (1)(3) and setting the derivative to zero, V., V. di, d,, elc., assume steady-state values. Therefore, the above equations reduce to DV V,+ D+ D+ T, WV, = b+ — —= (4 D, OR 2L Equations (1)-(3) are perturbed around the steady- 20 state operating point and second order nonlinear terms are neglected once again to obtain the linear small signal model s a T, Fowe -=(V_- D,* B+ ¥, + 4, * Dy 2b +V, + D+ d) WV, - V+ Byv2 = diD, - D,+ dsp? P = (RAL + sRCMi,. (5) The mputto-output and the control-to-output transfer functions are obtained from (5) by first tak- ing Laplace transform 2V ( M-1l 3 2M - 1 AM 1+ S/W, where Vv D+ BD M=-— = Vv, D, K = aL Ret 2M - 1 1 VBS ie M-—-.1} RC These transfer functions are the same as those ob- tamed using electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach or current injected control type approach. Using (5) an equivalent circuit is drawn as shown in Fig. 5. This equivalent circuit is iden- tical to the equivalent circuit model obtained using electronic equivalent circuit state space average ap- proach. A. Hybrid Approach. As mentioned in Section 2.0, a hybrid approach to modeling is©) OF @ v nd) te =2¥ /mM ry =(Met =im \ 4 ef Re 1 (i) 8 a (M5) +5 Jo=2¥// 1 2 =(M-1 = MQ2M-1) 1 2 (eka ) (“:) ql = an R Fig. &, Small signal low frequency linear equivalent circuit tor Boos! convartar of Fig. 3. This circu can be directly usable In computer simulations. demonst.ated below, which uses the equivalent cir- cuit model immediately alter the linearization of the nonlinear part of the converter, Using (eC), equivalent circuit, Fig, 6 can be drawe. From this circuit we can see that during steady-state, the de model is simply obtained by open circuiting the ca- pacitor and assuring steady-state values for og. 6, d,,d,. Now the circuit is perturbed, and second or der terms are neglected to obtain the linear system once again. This is shown in Fig. 7 and is the same as Pig. 5. 4.0 Modeling of Buck and Buckboos! Converters The same medhod is deseribed in the previous section has been followed! (Appendix) ta model buck and buckboost converters, ‘The converter and its equivalent circuit diagrams are show in Pig. § fur the huck converter and in Fiv. 9 for the buckboost converter, “The results for the two transfer tanctions of principal interest, the input to output cranster function and the control to output transfer funetion are as follows, vg (*) (}) vg (d4+dz) (+) i(dy +d) v.d2 Fig. 6. Equivalent circuit tor (1}(3). 21Vv D, K D+ D, Fig. 7. Smal signal low frequency linear equivalent circuit lor boost convarter af Fig. 3. - OL 2-M RT, " RCL-M) For the buck converter For the buckboost converter V 1 v 1+ SW, Vv | av fi-m\/ i= \_ 1 d M \2-M K J1+S/W, L v vg R T o o oe g = : = = 1 ae a ort) =2v AM = (1-M)R = M(2-M) (+ 42 om/ kK a (a) Fig, 8. (A) Buck converter. (B) Inductor current and valtage waveforms. (C) Its small signal tow frequency linear equivalent circuit model. 22——-d4Tg——> <—daT,—>/93Te, Jy = 2¥ rf, =1_R o RYK We o Jo = 2¥ fe fo =A = 2M 2= 2a Ox) G25 Fig. 9. (A) Buckboost converter, (B) Inductor currant and voltage waveforms. (C) Its small signal low frequency linear equivalent circuit model. where uM Dp, I 3, K 2L RT. 2 y = —_— Why RC 5.0 Conclusions Having developed and demonstrated the new current injected equivalent circuit approach to modeling switching de-de converters operating in continuous inductor conduction mode ', is now extended to converters operating in discontinuqus inductur conduction mode. To demonstrate this ap proach, the modeling is carried out for buck, boost and buckboost cunverters and presented in the previous sections. The results of the madeling and analysis are compared with those obtained using current injected control type approach as well as electronic equivalent circuit state space average ap- proach. Appendix A. Buek Converter. Inductor current and voltage waveforms for the buck converter are shown in Fig. 8(B), Shaded portion shows the amount of current injected into the output linear circuit (parallel R and C) and the interval during which the current injected is (@, + @,)7,. The average inductor current injected into the output 23circuit during a switching peried is given by ine = (V, - Vid, » T — fd, + d,). (la) aL Volt second balance on the inductor Vid) = Vid, + d)). (2a) The output voltage is vs (i, * RL + RO) (3a) where Ri(1 + sRC)is the impedance of the output network. The steady-state conditions can now be found by using (la}{3aj and setting the derivative to zero; Vi. Vid) d., ete., assume steady-state values. Therefore, the above equations reduce to D, WV = — D+, Vv fo. WD TD, - BB VW, - VID TM, - Dd re R 2b , Equations (LaH(Salere perturbed around the steady. state operating point, and second order nonlinear terms are neglected once again to obtain the linear small signal maclel a 5. « # hee = OP {V+ 4 - V- yD, +4) “(D+ d, 4+ BD, + d.)) (V+ BAY, + ey = (D, + dD, +d, - Das a.) P = (RAL + sROV ave" (Sa) The input to output and the control to output transier functions are obtained from {5a} by first taking Laplace transform 24 v 1 —= i) —— re 1+ S/W, ¥ (= s 1_M 1 d M \2-M Kk (+56) where Vv D, M= —- V, Dye D, ; aL Ke Re = Il . (i \ . L- Mf Re Using (5a), an equivalent circuit is drawn as shown in Fig. BOC). B. Buck-Boost Converter. loductor cur- rent and voltage wavelorms for the buckboost con- verter are shown 1 Fig. YH). Shaded portion shows the amount of current injected inte the output lin- ear circuit (parallel & and C), and the interval dur- ing which the current injected is ¢, 7 The average inductor current injected into the output circuit during a switching period is given by vi * a » 7 wf Tees a {1b} Volt second balance on the inductor Voitd}) = Wo d,. (2b) The output voltage is vedi. RYO + sRkC} (3b) where FAL + sRC)is the impedance of the output network. The steady-state conditions can now be found by using (Lb}-(3b) and setting the derivative to zero; V, V, d,, d,, etc., assume steady-state values. Therefore, the above equations reduce toV+ D+ D+ T, aL VV, = V Rg P|s (4b) Equations (lb}(3b) are perturbed around the steady-state operating point and second order nonlinear terms are neglected once again to obtain the linear small signal mode! ave T, os is ag ey Elly + Vi0d,9D, + V, » D, « d,) WV, - V+ PV? = did, - D,* dD} P= (RL + sk, (5b) The inpat to output and the control to output transfer functions are obtained from (Sb) by first taking Laplace transform v 1 — = (™) v 1 SW, v ¥ 1 ad MK 1+ sy, where Vv D, M=— = — V, D, aL K-= RT. wes ORC Using (5b), an equivalent circuit is drawn as shown in Fig. 9(C). References 1. R.D. Middlebrook and S. Cuk, Modeling and a 10. analy. methods for de-de switching con- verters,”” presented at the IEEE Int. Semi- Conductor Power Converter Conf., (Orlando, FL), 1977. . A.J. Fossard and M. Clique, “Modelisation des cellules elementaires,'" Tech. Rep. 1, ESTEC contract 2590/75 AK, 1976. . R.D. Middlebrook and S$. Cuk, “A general unified approach to modeling switching con- verter power stages,” in JERE Power Electron. Specialists Conf, 1976 Rec, pp. 18-34. . S&S Cuk and RD. Middlebrook, “A general unified approach to modeling sutiching de-to-de converters tn discontinuous conduction mode,” presented at the IEEE Power Electrantcs Specialists Conf, fume 1977. SP Hsu et al, “Modeling and analysis of switching de-de converters in constant fre- quency current programmed mode," in /EEE Power Electram. Specialists Conf. 1979 Rec, . Art Brown, “State Space Analysis of pulse width nuxlulated switching converters,” Power Electronics Group, California Institute of Technology, technical note T-58, Feb. 6, 1979. . AJ. Fossard and M. Clique, ‘Modeling and design of de-de converters using modern con- tral theory, Part | Modelization, Part 2 Open Loop Analysis and Control Design,” in Pree, Third ESTEC Spucecrast Power Conditioning Semmnar, (Noordwijk. The Netherlands), 1977. . AJ. Fossard ef af, “A general linear con- tinuous mode] for design of pawer condition: ing units at fixed and free running frequency,” in [EEE Power Electronics Specialists Cong. 1977 Rec., pp. 113-124, . R, Prajoux, J.C. Marpinard, and J. Jalade, “Establishment de modeles mathematiques pour regulaterus de puissance a modulation de largeur d impulsions (pwm); 2. Models con- tinus,”” ESA Scr. Tech. Rev, vol 2, no. 1, 1966, pp. 115-129. P.R.K. Chetty, “Current injected equivalent circuit approach (CIECA) to modeling of switching de-de converters,” JEEE Trins Aerospace and Electremic Syst, vol. 17, Nov. 1981. 25CIECA: APPLICATION TO CURRENT = FROGAAMMED SWITCHING DC-DC CONVERTERS The current infection equdvalen? circudl approach (CIECA) to modeling switching converter power stayes fs extended to model the curren! programmed converter power slages Operating in fixed frequency, comfinsows inductor condrc: Hon mode. To demonstrate the method, modeling ts carried owt for the buck, boost, and buckboos! converters fo obtain small-signal linear equivalent curcutt models which repre- sené both input and outfuet properties, The results af these analyses are presented in the form of linear equinalent cir- cuit models as well as fransfer functions. Though current programmed converters exhibit single-pole response, the ad- dition of artificial ramp changes converters io exhibit weil damped two-pole response. This has been investigated for the first time using CIECA. The results of these analyses are presented in ihe form: of itmear equivalent circut! models as well as transfer functions. 1.0 Introduction In the last ten years, modeling of switching de-de converters has received considerable attention and the effort has resulted in the characterization of transfer as wel) as input and output properties of basically nonlinear switching de-~de converters in the frequency domain. Among the various ap- . proaches attempted to attain this goal, the current injected equtvalent circuit approach (CIECA) is very versatile '#, This approach is now extended 10 Corrent programmed converters operating in the continuous inductor conduction (CIC) mode. The advantages of the current programming are already well known and are summarized as follows: 1) Switching converter active camponents are protected from excessive overload and stress. This allows controlled derating of components. 2) Switching converters when current pro- grammed behave basically as first-order ” systems. . 3) Several converters can be operated in parallel © 1982 IEEE. Reprinted with permission from /EEE Transactions ot Aerospace and Eltetronie Systems, Vol. AES-18, No. 5, pp. 538-544, Sept. 1982. 26 without laad sharing problems. 4) Inductor sawtooth current waveform replaced advantageously the reference sawtooth necessary to generate the pulsewidth- modulated control -signal. Thus this paper is concerned with current pro- grammed switching de-de converters operating in the fixed frequency, CIC mode. The main goal is to obtain the small-signal equivalent circuit madels which represent both input and output properties, which can then be embedded in the model of a com- plete regulator system, so that the overall dymamic properties and the stability can be analyzed and de- signed. : CIECA is briefly reviewed in Section 2. Sec- tion 3 contains the explanation for the imstability of the current programmed converters when they operate at duty ratios greater than 0.5 Section 4 contams the detailed development of modeling for boost converters. Following the same approach, modeling i carried out far buck and buckbeost con- verters and the results are presented in Section 5. Section G presents modeling for the current pro grammed stabilized converters. Section 7 compares the results with those obtained waing other model- ing approaches **. The salient feature of the cur- rent programmed CJC mode is that the control-te-output transfer function is basically a one- pole function if the effect of adding an artificial ramp to stabilize the converter is neglected (see Section 8). One more interesting investigation made for the first time is that the effect of the inclusion of an artificial ramp adds back the pole but with jarge damping. Section 9 presents the conclusions on the results of the work carried out. 2.0 Review of CIECA The current injected equivalent circuit ap- proach to modéling switching converters in duty ratio programmed mode has been developed | *. Since this approach ' is used in thig paper for modeling and analysis of converters operated in theSWITCHING DC-DC CONVERTERS oo ewes current CONVERTER EQUATIONS i} Derivative of inductor I) Average inductor current ina switching period STEADYSTATE PROPEATIES Derivative af inductor current = 0 Cave) lave —=lave iii) Output veilage (v)=lave-Z di —pt (zSimpedance of output 2 —- Dz non-linear linear-" network) or PERTUABATION & LINEARIZATION di 201401 | Perturbation | d2 = Dz + dz product terms DYNAMIC PROPERTIES: LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT (Buck) i) input to oulput wransfer function tid — ¥ vgeVgt+ig neglected Io i GS v att obiain once i) come fo Suit lave=lavetiave again tinesr ransfer function vg) © A system | not 4 5 Fig. 1, Flowchart of modeling switching de-to-de converters in tha CIC mode using CIECA. fixed frequency mode, a brief review of this ap- proach is presented here. Of course the same ap- praach can be also used in modeling the converters operated in variable frequency mode. The following conventions and notations are * follawed in the modeling and analysis: d1 Ts is the interval during which the transistor is turned-on and the diode is off; d2Ts is the interval during which the transistor is turned-off and the diode ts on; ¢1 Ts + d2Ts = T,, and Ts = if, is the switching period. Capitalized quantities indicate steady-state values and quantities with carets indicate small per- turhations. Modeling converters operating in the CIC mede using CIECA is outlined in the flowchart of Fig. 1, which is very genéral and is applicable to various power stages. The first step in this pracess is to identify the nonlinear and linear parts of the con- verter circuit and to linearize only the nonlinear part of the converter as the remainder of the converter is inherently inear (box 1), The nonlinear part of the converter determmes the average current in- jected into the linear part. Now (box 2) a set of rela-, tionships are written referring to the converter diagram and the current and voltage waveforms shown in Fig. 2: 1) average current (i,,,) injected into the linear part in a switching périod; " 2) derivative of the inductor current function of the value of the inductor, the voltage across that in a switching period: 3) relationship between average injected current and output voltage v = (1,,.) x (2) where 2 is the impedance of the linear part of the con- verter. Now steady-state solution is achieved by set- ting derivatives and perturbations to zera (pox 2). Since the converter equations in box 2 are linear, 27INDUCTOR CURRENT INDUCTOR VOLTAGE x The lineto-output and control-to-output transfer functions can be written from the above equations as We = U/2D2) WG + SRC) VE = (R + 0272) ‘(L — SLAR D231 + SRC) (LD The salient feature of the result is now apparent, Both responses show single pole response when the effect af adding an artificial ramp is excluded. An equivalent linear circuit model is developed using (7}(10} as shown in Fig. 5 which completely describes the input and output properties of the cur- fo * © we m=02)1- Py! 4 aoe Fig. 5. Linear equivalent circuit model for the current pro- grammed boost converter in CHC mode. a4 fyrent programmed nonlinear boost converter xerating in the CIC mode. Section 6 presents the modeling of current pro- ‘ammed stabilized converters, i.c., to include the ‘fect of adding an artificial ramp. $.0 Buck and Buckboost The same method has been followed to model the current programmed buck and buckboost con- verters operating in the CIC mode. The converter and its equivalent circuit are shown in Fig. 6 for the buck converter and in Fig. 7 for the buckboost converter. In both cases the switch current is the inductor current during the interval d1Ts. The equivalent circuits of Fig. 6(B) and 7(B) contain fa- miliar current sources driving the RC network, i.c., single-pole response in bath cases: the current modulation generators as a function of /., the con- trol signal, and vy, the input modulation voltage and the filter Cin parallel with load #. The result for the two transfer functions of ma- jor interest, the line-te-output transfer function and controlto-output transfer function, are as follows. For the buck converter, # does not depend upon Ve, Wi. = RI + SRO. (12) For the buckboost converter, L alt i al ; 6,6. vonfctl na=-thr ae o Fig. 6. (A) Buck converter, (B} Small signal low frequency lingar equivalent circuit model of buck converter. 30 wor frets] -n BHR og 2-02 [1 - HB af «2 = By oO Fig. 7. (A} Buckboost converter. (B) Low frequency small eign linear equivalent circuit mode! of buckboos! converter WV = (DUDE {IAL + SRC VA = RO — SLePYRV + SRCIDPS Le = LEDRY. (13) As in the case of the boost converter,the buck and buckboost converters exhibit one:pole response and - it i$ imteresting to note that inclusion of an artificial ramp into the modeling changes all these results, which is dealt with in Section 6. 6.0 Modeling of Stabilized Current Programmed Boost Converter As mentioned in Section 3, an artificial ramp with suitable slope has been added to the switch- ing current to stabilize the converter even in the absence of external feedhack. Figure 8 shows the — TT ATL etal | zt fwolte CUMABRT gets eS z et ANTICO MAREE AED tor AVERAGE MeBWOTSE CuRREMT i ACT eas WC TOM CU eet Fig. B. Actual inductor current in boost converter, control signal and artificial ramp of appropriate slope m added to switch current. .actual inductor current, the control signal, and an artificial ramp of appropriate slope #: added to the switch current. Now looking at the waveform, the average inductor current i can be related to i, as ed - ms dl + Ts - ml + dl + Tsf2(14) Perturbing (14) and retaining only ac terms i= i = (m4 mil2) Ts * @ = (Dl + Tsl2yAl (15) where m1 is the slope of the inductor current and m is the slope of the artificial ramp added to stabilize the open loop converter. For the boost converter m1 is given by mil = Veil. (16) where m is chosen to he the negative slope of the programmed (inductor) current and is piven by m= (V- VeWe {17} Using (16) and (17), (15)1s rewritten after tak- ing Laplace transform as ifs) = 465) - [V2 — D2YRK] dis) (DIRK) ¥ fs) (18) Substituting the value of 7 from (18) into (10} yields dw = { GLMIW + DAInPE ~ (UL) OL + SLDIRK) Vegis}}) {L + SL(2 DIVRK], (19) Line-to-output and contral-to-output transfer fune- tions can be written using (7), (9), and (19) as below: Ve Vg) = Ag((l + S/Wely + S/WO + S7W*y} Posi) = Ac{(l - S/W + S/WQ + SW. Under the assumption that D1, D2 « K (convert being operating deep in the CIC. mode), W,, = 2D + Ts Ag = 1/2 + De W,, = RWD2PIE. Ac =R+ D2i2 Wes OKIL + C42 - LF), From the above equations, it is clear that either the contral-to-output or the line-to-output transfer func- tions exhibit two-pole response. This is quite in con- trast to the single-pole response of current programmed converters in the absence of an ar- tificial ramp. 7.0 Physical Explanation The following explanation applies to the cur- rent programmed converters operating in the CIC mode and in the absence of an artificial ramp with appropriate slope. Of course the converter will be unstable if the duty ratio is greater than 0.5, When the converter is current programmed, the state variable loses its contribution toward a pole due to inductor current. This happens because the induc- tor current is no longer an independent variable and is constrained by the control signal. Though the development of inductor current depends upon the value of the inductor and other operating parameters, its magnitude is constrained by the control signal. Now consider the current programmed con- verter operating in the CIC made, but in the pres- ence of an artificial ramp. Of course, now the converter will be stable throughout the operating range of duty ratios. Refer to the schematic of Fig. 9 where the practical implementation of current programming and addition of an artificial ramp are shown. The switch St in Fig. 9 is purposely in- cluded for better explanation, Rs is the resister a1L ronenion_ pt Vets 4 J 449 cris op Sede hp i 4 |

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