31 0 11 0 0 11 : C

C LA Y A N D S ON S
. J .
,

CA MBRIDGE U NIVER S I TY P RES S WAREH OU S E ,

A VE MA RIA L A NE .

fi lasg uin : 263 , A R GYLE R

ST EET .

ii mig : B ROCKH A US
F A
. . .

fish) 35 0t h T HE MA CM ILLAN CO
: .

{Bomb ag z G EO R GE B ELL A N D S ON S .
 AN EL E M E N T A RY

OLD ENGLISH GRA MMA R

( EA RLY WT BT S A XON )

A . J . WY A T T ,

IL A .
( C A N TA B . ET

LA T E S C HOL AB OF C HRIs r s C OLLEG E C A M B R ID G E

’
, ,

R
EXT E N AL EXA MI NE R IN EN G L I S H TO V I C T OR I A UN IV ER S I T Y .

C A M B RI D G E

A T T HE U N IV ER S ITY P R ES S .

1 89 7

[A l l R ig hts r
rese v ed ]
PE
l3 5
W 83
‘

QEambriDg z

P R I N T ED BY J . A ND C . F. CLA Y ,

AT T HE UN V EI R SITY PR ESS .
 P REF A CE .

O LD En glis h G r a m m a r ha s hit he rto b een t au

ght in three
w a ys , c
w hi h m a y b e c a lle d re s
pe cti v el
y t he G e r m a n ic , t he

t c nd
G o hi ,
a t he in de pe n de n t m e hodst . S ie v e r s a s s um e s th ta

t he t ude n t s
pos s e s s es a c e rt a in k n owle dg e of G e m anir c ,
an d

m a k e s it t he b a s is of his th t C la s s ific a tion s ; C os ij n b elie v e s a

t he r e dy w y t o t he O ld En gli h t on g ue is t o le r n G othic
a a s a

fi s t—
r theory n ot diffic ult to re duc e a d bsu du m S we et
a a r .

c on s ide r s s uc h m e thod s t he e pos iti ely inj urious

“
s ahe s v

p r e f e r t o g i e t he le r n e r
s v thous n d n d on e i ol t ed fa ct s
a a a a s a ,

n d c r e f ully t o w it hhold e e r y c l ue b y w hic h t h y m

a a
y be v e a

g r oupe d c l s ifi d ,
n d r e m e m b e r ed
as e Tha e m e t hod followe d in .

thi work i m or e o le s s n o e l b ein g c om prom is e b et wee n

s s r v ,
a

S ie e rv n d S w ee t
s a n tt m pt t o hit t he happy m e n ; fo
,
a a e a r,

w hile t he b s is of rra n gem e n t h s b een t he p r ctic l c on

a a a a a

v e ni e n e of t he le r n e r in s t udyin g t he
c a ct u lly e xis tin g a a

phe n om en a of t he l n g u g e n o p in s h e b ee n s p r e d in a a ,
a av a

o r de r t h t he m y h e n ot hing t o unle rn in t he f urthe r

a a av a

p u r u sit o f t he ub j e ct S om e e m pir ic l r ule

s re .

g i e n b ut a s a v ,

they e of quie t h rm les s s ort ; G e rm n ic h s b e en t k e n

ar a ,
a a a a

e t hr ou ghou t t
a s a g u id l houg h it is n ot n ee dle s s l
, y ob tr ude d
a .

A fe w diffic ult ie s h e n e c e s s r ily b e en de fe rr e d t o av l te r a a a

s at ge It w ould h e gi e n spe c ious a i of c om ple ten e s s t o

. av v a r

t he b ook t o ha e adde d e ct ion de lin g wit h Old En lis h

v a s a
g
v i P R EFA C E .

s
yn a t x; b ut I trong ly of opinion th t for the pr es e nt s uc h
am s a

a id is b e s t gi e n in n ot es on s e le ct e d t e xt
v F or t he r es t it s .
,

i s un n e c e s s a r t o enl r e n t h m t h d f x it ion he re
y g o e e a o o e p os s

de i e d o a do t e d t he r e ie we r t as k e s y b y
’
v s
pr or t o m k e ,
a v s a

c lling tten tion t o t he pr in c ip l inn o tion

a a The ult im t e a va s . a

a
ppe l a s t o t he a rr n ge m e n t t he m e t hods t he n e c es ity
a a ,
nd ,
s ,
a

t he ut ility of t he w or k w ill b e t o t he e x p e r ie n c e o f r e de r s a

a n d s t ude n t s ;
n d t he ir c oun el
a n d c o o e r t ion e c or di ll y
s a a
p a ar
-

a s k e d fo ,
it s c orr e ct ion n d im p r o e m en t
r a v .

M y ob lig t ion t o S w ee t a s e
p rt of ou n tion l de b t ar a a r a a

t o him a s a pion e e r in En glis h phil ology M y in de b te dn es s .

t o S ie e rs is ob iou a n d w e ll n igh in e s t im b le
v v s I h e m a de -
a . av

b un d n t us e of C os ij n s A ltw t d hs i he G m m tik
’
n in
’

a a es s c sc ra a ,
a

c om pa r b le s tor ehous e of e x m ples M y w rm es t th n k s e

a a . a a ar

he r e b y t en de r e d t o P r of N pie r w hos e t im ely dv ic e . a nd ,

a a

a s si t n c e h
s a e oft e n
av e n c ou r
ge d m e in t he s t udie s of w hic h
a

t his b ook is t he outc om e ; t o l dy w ho e n m e I m n ot a a ,

s a a

p er m itte d t o m en t ion fo r e din g t he p r oof shee t s w it h e qu l

,
r a -
a

a c um e n n d c re ; t o M r B J H ye MA of S t John s
’
a a . . a s, . .
,

C olle ge fo g iv in g m e the b en e fi t of his g r e t e xp e r ie n c e in

,
r a

ll th t is m e n t b y s ee in g t hr ough t he p r es s
“ n d to t he a
a a a

offic i l sa of t he U ni e r s ity P r e s s w ho h e s p r e d n e ithe r

v ,
av a

troub le n or e xpen s e in m ee t ing m y w ishe s fo e x m ple in ,

r a

b n i hin g ( I hope fo e e r ) t he it lic dig r ph cc in di s t in guis h

a s r v a a ,

a b le fr om an d h
03 , in g t he e leg n t c ha r a ct e r
av s e c iall y c
p t a as as

for thi s b ook .

A . J . W .

C M B R ID
A GE ,

M r a c h, 1 8 97 .
 C O N T EN T S .

P A RA D I G M S

PA R T I . I NFL EC TI ON .

I NT R OD UC TOR Y
A LP HA B ET A ND P R ONUN C I A T I ON
Nouns

I . r
St on g Noun s
A . r
O din a y r D cl n e e s ion

1 . M cul in
as es

2 . N ut r
e e s

3 . F m in in
e es

( i) W S tem s ( a ll g enders )
-

( ii) J S tem s
-

( iii) I S tem s
-

B . Min or D cle e n sion s

4 . U S tem s
-

5 . R S te m s
-

6 . N D S tem s
-

7 . Ot hr e S tem s

II W . ea k Nouns
A D JEC T IV ES
St r ongD cl n i n e e s o

Weak D cl n i n
e e s o

P articipl es
v iii C O NT ENTS .

C M
O PA R I S ON
I . c
A dj e tiv e s
II . A dv e rb s

NU M ER A LS

P RON OUN s
I . Per s onal
II . R efl ex iv e
III . P o ss e s s iv e ( A dj ec tiv es )
IV . D m tr ti
e on s a ve

V . R l ti
e a ve

VI . In t rr g t i
e o a ve

Ind fi it e n e

VER B S

St r on g an d We ak
St r on g V erb s
2n d an d 3 r d S in g u l r Pr
a e se n t

Gr d a ation

Cl as s es O f St r on g V rb e s

Weak P res en t s
C
r c t d V rb
on t a e e s

W k V rbea e s

Cl I( W W n
as s
“
ean - ee

II
III L k ) oo
”

IV Mix d V rb : e e s

P t Pr
as t V rb
-
es en e s

A n m l u V rb
o a o s e s

P A R T II . P H ON OL O GY .

S T RE S S E D D iph th ng )
VowEL s ( an d o s

A . D wn w rd H i t ry —OE P rim ry V
o a s o . . a l
owe s

T bl f C rr p n d n c
a e o o es o e es

B . Th Ol d En g li h S un d l w
e s o -
a s

Mutation
I . I Mutation
-

II . U Mutation
-

III . P al atal Mutation

 C O N T ENT S . ix

Br ki g ea n

Gl id D iph th ngi ti
e- o sa on

P l t l D iph th ng i ti
a a a o sa on

Mon ophthongis a tion

Infl u c en e of P rec edin g W
F llo owin g U
”

n ’9 N as a l
L os s of N as a l
r cti ( d A b rp ti
XII . C on t a on an so on )
XIII L f G nd H
. os s o a

XI V L g th n i g . en e n

XV S h rt n ing . o e

C U pw rd H i t ry — S l ct d Ex m pl
. a s o . e e e a es

C ON S O NA N T S

I . L os s

11 . A s s im i l a tion

III . Me ta th es is

IV G . em i nation
V . V erner s ’
L aw

A PP ENDI X —WORD F OR MA T I ON - .

1 70 . 1 . F rm
o at ion of A dv e rb s

1 74 . II . Pr fix
e es

1 75 . III . S uffi x es

AB BR EVI A T I ON S ,
ET C .

OE. Old Eng i s h l .

EWS . Ea y rl Wes t S axon .

LWS . L a te We s t S ax on .

b ec om es , b ec a m e , b ec om ing , p as se s into, etc .

( is ) de iv ed r f rm
o , etc

a lt r
e n ating with .
 P A RA D IG M S .

S om e su ch pl an of wo k r as the f llo owin g is rc

e om m e n ded t o the
b egin ne r .
(1 ) r
S tudy the pa adigm s g iv en e ow ( 2 ) By t ei bl . h r aid wo k r
r
you way t hr oug h rl r x r c
the ea ie e t a ts or the w o e , o f the , h l c om pan ion

Rea ding P rime r

C tinu y ur r ding id b y id with th
.
(3) on e o ea s e s e e

sy t m tic tudy f th l rg p rin t f fir t th A cc id n c

s e a s o th n th Ph
e a e o ,
s e e e, e e o

n l gy
o o ( 4 ) W rk c r fu lly thr ugh th wh l b k g in
. o a e m ll nd o e o e oo a a ,
s a a

l g prin t m king ll th cr r f r c
ar e ,
a a e os s e e en es .

S T RO N G N O UN S .

Ma s c . Neut .

S in g ul a r .

s ei
p, s hip r
w o d, wor d
s ci
p w or d
sc ipe s w o rde s

s c ipe wor de

g ie fa ,
-
e lar a, -
e

g ie fa lar a

D al . s t an um
g e fum
i lar u

1
S ee 9 .
 P A R AD IG MS .

WEA K N O UN S .

Fem
Neut
c
.

Mas
.

N A cc um an
.
.
g
Gen .
gum en a

D at um um
.
g

A D JE C T IVES .

I
. S T R ON G F OR M .

Fem
Neut
.

M3 8 0
.

N om . t il , g ood god, g ood

A cc .
t iln e g cdne

Gen .
tiles
t ilum

Ia s tr .
tile

t lu
i
O
1
g O

t il ra g dr a o

t ilum go
1 S ee § 9 .
 PA R A DIG MS .

A D JE C T IVE S ( con tinued) .

II
. \V EA K F OR M ( after dem on s tr a tiv es ) .

Mas c . Fe m .

P lu r al .

P R O N O UN S .

n
I

D ua l .

w it
unc

un c e r

un c

T h ou

S he
 P A RA DIG MS .

P R O N O UN S ( c on tin u ed) .

T he ,
’
th at .

Neut .
Fem .

l ra l.

P lu r a l .

S ingu la r .
 P A R A DIG MS .

VE R B S .

I . S T R ON G .

Pr es ent
In di c a tiv e.

S u bj u n c tiv e .

Imp er a tiv e .

he lp he lpaO p l .

Infin itiv e .

helpan , cla t t o helpa n n e

.

helpe n de e hole n
g p

P rin c ip al P art s of S t r on g

C la ss Infin . 3 r d S ing .

I . s c in a n , s it ine s c in O

II . c r eo
pa n , cre p
e c r ie
pii
IIIa he lpa n , he lp
. hilpiS
IIIb dr in c a n , dr in k
. drin c ifi
IV . b e ra n , bea r b irT
S
V . t r edan , tr ea d tritt
VI . f r
a an, f ar e feero
6 P A R A DIG MS .

VERB S ( con tin u ed) .

,
II . W EA K .

(1) -
an V erb .
( )
2 -
ia n V e rb .

P R ES EN T In dica tiv e .

dem e, j u dg e
dem ( e ) s t
dem ( e ) 6

P lur . dem a O

P R ES EN T S u bj unc tiv e .

P A ST In dica tiv e .

P A ST S u bj u n c tiv e .

Imp er a tive .

Infin itiv e .

dem a n lec ia n

P a r ticip les .
 ELEMENTA RY
OLD ENGLISH GRA MMA R .

P ART I . I N FLEC T I ON .

Int r o d u c t o r y .

T he pos it ion of Old Englis h in the fam ily of la ngua ges t o

it b e lon gs c a n b e s t b e s hown b y m e a n s of a gen ealogic a l

Ind G rm nic
o- e a

G rm nic
— _ —
e a
r T 1
G th ic
o S c an din av ian Wes t G rm e an ic
i
l
Ic l dic
e an r
No wegian S wedis h D ai is h

L __— _ — — —
oze I T l l
E ng lis h W tS x
es a on Ken ti s h M rc i
e an No t r h um bri n a
D ia lec ts

M iddle
Eng lis h ( Ke ish) N or ern
D ia lec ts
L wl
o and
S c tch
o , e tc .

T he dial e c t s of Old Englis h thus

are s ee n to b e four of ,

whic h the m os t im port a n t is Wes t S x on a ,

b e c a us e a lm os t t he
10 I N F L ECT I ON . 2

w hole xtan t rem in s of Old English lite ra t ur e has c om e

Of t he e a

down t o us in t ha t dia le ct It is n ot the dir e ct p r e n t b ut . a ,

r the r a s it w e r e the un c le Of M ode r n English in tr c in g the

a , , , ,
a

a n c e s tr
y of whic h t hr oug h We s t S a x on we the refore de fl e ct
from t he s traight lin e of des c en t But t his di d n tage is . sa va

c om pen s ted b y t he a m plen e s s of Wes t S xon m te rials in

a a a

c om p rison with the m e gr en es s of the r em in s of Old M e rc i n

a a a a .

N o thum b ri
r n d M e rc i w e r e p eopled p r in c ip lly b y A n gles
a a a a

hen c e A n gli n is ofte n us ed

‘
a
s a c om m on n am e for the
’
a

N o thum b ian
r nd M e rc ian di le ct s whic h we re in m n y
r a a ,
a

r es pe ct s sim ila r .

Old Engl i h lite tu e b l ng ch i fl y t tw p ri d

s ra th N rth um bri n
r e o s e o o e o s : e o a

p ri d in th 7 th n d 8th c n turi
e o , e t wh ich b l a g n rl y ll th gr t e es , o e on ea a e ea

m n um n t
o f Old En g l i h p try ; n d th W t S x n p ri d fr m th
e s o s oe a e es a o e o , o e

9th t th 1 l th c n tury th cl
o e ic l p ri d f Old En gli h pr
e But
, e as s a e o o s ose . ,

a lth ugh th b t f u rly p try w c m p d in N rth um bri n it

o e es o o r ea oe as o os e o a ,

m u t b r m m b r d th t it h
s e e b n h n d d d wn t u in W t S x n
e e e a as ee a e o o s es a o

tr n cripti n
a s c nt ining h w r n t infr qu n t tr c f it rigin in th
o s, o a o ev e o e e a es o s o e

r t nti n f A n gli n f rm f w rd
e e o o a o s o o s.

Old En glis h wa s t he la n gua ge s pok e n b y t he T e ut on ic

2 .

in ha b it a n t s of En glan d b e for e t he C on q ue s t ( a n d for a s hort t im e

.

a fte r) . title of this b ook the n m e Old English ha s

In t he a

b e en us e d for c on e n ie n c e s k e s n on m ous wit h E r ’

, y y v
( ly) a ,
as a

We s t S a xon diale ct We s t S x on b e for e ab out t he yea r .

”
a

900 A D o t he c los e of A lfr e d s r e ig n is k n own s E rly Wes t

’
. .
,
r ,
a a

S x on ;
a fte r a b out 95 0 A D it is c alled L te We s t S a x on
a . . a .

L te We s t S a x on hows n u m e r ous s ign s of in fl e c t ion al de c y

a s a ,

e s p e c i lly in t he
a s s im ila t ion Of in fl e ct ion s b e f or e t he N or m n
a ,
a

C on q ue s t E r ly We s t S a x on is the r e for e t he pu r e t for m

. a s

o f Old En glis h of whic h s uffic ie n t r em in s f r g r m m a tic l a o a a

s t ud r e e xt n t a F r om n e le m e n t ry t e xt b ook s u c h a s t his
a a a
y
-
.

t he othe r diale ct s ar e a lm os t e n t ir ely e xc lude d s b e ond it s

y ,
a

a im n d s c ope
a S tr ictly s pe k in g t hen Old En glis h i t he
. a , ,
s

c olle ct iv e n m e fo the Teuton ic diale cts s pok en in En gland

a r

b e for e the C on ques t ; b ut it is Oft en c on e n ien tly us ed s t he v a

n m e for t he ea r lie r a n d p ur e r f or m of t he c las s ic a l Wes t S a x on

a .
 3 A L PH A B ET . l1

The ch i f e dis ting uis in g m a k s h r of the va ri ous Old Eng is l h di a e t s lc are

h
t ese :

x r pr n t G rm n ic F ( W t G rm n ic a) b y B th th r
( 1 ) Wes t S a on e es e s e a e es e a S , e o e

di l c t b y 2 ; it cc ur t lydiscrim in t
a e s ( nd ; it l
a t th un d f
a e a es ea a eo os e so o 03

rly ; t r pl c th u f th fir t p r n ingul r pr n t in dic ti

l

ea I e a es e -
,
-o
,
o e s e so s a es e a ve

by Th di ti g ui h i g m rk f E rl y W t S x n i th t th i m ut
-
e . e s n s n a o a es a o s a e -
a

ti n f o nd o i i n d th t
ca a f e d é i i p co in g in t L t W t
s e, a a o a an o s e, as s o a e es

S x n i a o y nd i ] r p c ti l y S m
or , p c i l f rm
a nd infl c ti n
or a , es e ve . o e s e a o s a e o s

p ul i r t L t W t S x n will b f und in th p r gr ph
ec a o a e es f th i gr m m r a o e o e a a a s o s a a .

( 2 ) N rthum b i n ( fr m wh ich M rci n d

o n t gr
r a tl y difl ) dr p o e a oes o ea er o s

fin l fr q u n tly t rm in t th 3 d p r n i g ul r n d th wh l f th
a 11 e e e a es e r e so s n a a e o e o e

p l ur l p r t in dic ti in in t d f 8 ; c n fu d ( h rt nd
”
a es en a ve s, s ea o o s es ea an co s o a

l ng ) ; h
o l iking f th un d ( h r t
as a d l n g) nd h orit in fl c ti n e ac s o s o an o a as s e o s

un ttl d serli r th n th th r di l c t
e ea e a e o e a e s .

( 3 ) K nti h pr f r i i t e ; c l i g in t i ( g d i f d y)
s e e s a, o o c a , eo vo a s es o e . . ee or a

an d ub titut s f y s es e or .

A lp h a b et and P r o nu n c ia t io n .

The Old En glis h alpha b e t c on s is te d

3 . of t he following
c ha ra cte rs : a se b c d e f g h i ( k ) l , m , , , , , , , , , , , n , o, p r s t
, , , ,

p 5,,
u p w ), x y , , , k is o cc a s i on a ll
y foun d for c. This al
pha

b e t is b o h de e iv e t f ct an d r e dund n t a .

( )
I It is r e dun dant in t he le tt e r x, whi h c t
s a n ds for cs
( )
ks

or hs .

( 2) It is d e fe c t iv e in ha v in g no s
p e ci
al s
y m b ol for : ( a ) t he
s oun d Of r e pr e s e n t
t he t
s e m i- v owe l
j ,
whic h is e d s om e im e s b
y ,i
m uc h oft en e r b y g ; ( b) t he s oun d of s hort op en e ( pr in t ed e in 1

t his b ook ) a n d t he s ound of s hort op en 0 ( r in t e d Q in thi b ook 1

, p ) s

( c ) t he oic e d ( s on n t fl t s oft ) oun d c orr e s pon din g t o j ; s

v a ,
a , s s ,

i e t he s oun ds us u lly r ep r es e n t ed in m ode r n En glis h b a th

. .

y v, z ,

in thin e dh) M or e o e r c 9 s o a n d 7 rep r es en t b oth gut t ur l

. v , , , 1. a

a nd
p l t l s oun ds a a a .

1 Modern Engl is h h as on ly th e op en s ounds of s ho rt e an d s h rt o 0 .

S ee 4 .
12 I N FL EC TI ON .
g 4

N B . I m ut at ion
- 1
an d B r e ak in g .

(l) p r
The odu c e d b y i m ut t
v owe ls
ion a e i
g ( ) 5 ie
-
a r ,
se , , ,

ie , y if of whic h t hos e p r in t ed b l ac k
, , e in e e ry in s t n c e in ar v a

EWS ( w ith un im po rt an t e xc ept ion s ) p r oduc ed b y i m ut at ion

.
~
.

( )
2 B r e kin g in c lude s t he c h n ge of a t o ea
a n d e t o eo b e fo re a a

r c on son n t l c on son an t h c on s onan t or it fi n al

a , , ,
.

F ull detai l s are giv e n in P art II .

4 . P r onun c iat ion —N B . Ev er y letter in Old En g lis h m us t

be fu lly s oun ded, wha tev er its p os ition .

The vo we l s a , e, i, o, u in Old Englis h ha d wha t m ay b e

c a lle d t heir “
c on tinen t a l,
”
or It alia n , s oun d .

o
s the a in a n s we r 2
,
on l
y shor ter .

o
s a f a t he r
g
p a m an
g
a a c re a

o ( c los e ) é F r épais . .

o
e ( ope n ) e m en
O ey they
-
H i pin
m a c hine
'

H i
O ( c lose) o Ger G ott .

O
e ( open ) O n ot

0 0 no e t
3
s u put
s u r ule
4
‘
u Ger hub s c h, F r
térieur . . ul

G r g iin F r oit ur e
l

< 11 e . r ,
. v .

If t he v a lue s o f o y y as s ig n e d a b ov e c a us e m u c h diffic ult

“

e, , , , y
t he v alue s o f g, Q , i, i, m y b e s ub s tit ut ed for t he m for a t im e
a .

1 “
Mutation m utated are
”
an d
“
e ue n t y us ed in the fr q l f ll wing
o o

p age s wit hrfr c

e e en e t o i m utation on y -
l .

2 c
N ot of our se in the afl ec ted p onun iation of the finis hing r c ch l
s oo
rb
m istr ess and her t i e : A nn e S ir
’
-
.
5 P R ON U N CI A T I ON
°

4 . 13

The di p h t h on gs of Old En g lis h a r e ea , eo ( io) , ie, s ho rt a nd

lon g . T he s tres s f a lls on t he fir s t e le m e n t , w hic h in ea is t he

O
pe n s oun d, an d in eo t he c los e s oun d, of e .

The p ron un c i t ion of t he c on s on ant s b d h l

a , , , ,
m, n, p, r ,
t,

w, x, does n ot diffe r m t e r i lly fr om t ha t of m ode r n a a En glis h .

c m od . k
g g in g et .

h tw l tt r ( d h) h b n id h d b th guttur l nd
.

T es e o e e s an , as as ee sa , a o a a a a

p l t l
a a a un d dg w l b th p ir nt nd t p But it i h rdly
so , an as a s o o a s a a a s o .
,
as s a

p ibl f
os s th b ginn r t d c id f
e h im lf wh ich und th y h d in
or e e e o e e or se so e a a

p r ticul r w r d it
a m b t t l at t th i t g t
o d pt lu f
,
s ee s es , a eas a s s a e, o a o on e v a e or

ea ch l tt r ( pr ctic wh ich m m in n t ch l n r d p rt fr m
e e a a e so e e e s o ars ev e e a o ,

ex c pt f ph n tic
e or o e

N B . . c
g :
gg gj ) : ex . leeya n , t o lay .

h , (1) t
in Eng li s h ha r d : e x s
ini ia l, is a me re as
p i r a te, as .

he, he ; hl iZd, loud ; ( 2 ) m e dia l a n d fi n a l, is a v oic eles s s p ir a n t , lik e

t he c h in S c otc h loch ( gutt ur a l ) , or t he c h in G e r ich ( pa la t a l ) .

ex s . hEa h, high n iht, n igh t .

f
, s, rp h rd) whe n e e r pos ib le
5 a re
(l) v oi e es s c l ( rdsu ,
s ha ,
a v s ,

ie
. lw y whe n ini t i l lw ys whe n fi n l n d whe n m e di l in
. a a s a ,
a a a ,
a a

oic eles s c om i e in c om p n y w it h n othe r oic ele s c

v
p y(
n a on s o . . a a v s

n nt fi d f ood ; h h r s iOO n s in c e ;
( ) iced
2
a
) e s : o s o se ;
x .
,
r ,
a
,
vo

w he n m e di l b e t wee n oic e d s oun ds

( aow els liq u ids n s ls v v
, ,
a a ,

oic ed c on s on n t s : e s f er o e r ; hel ls ia n t o gre e t ; w idin n a n

v
) a x . o ,
v , ,

w it hin .

It wou d b e l c on v e n ie n t to ap p op r ri a te b for the cl

v oi e e s s s ound, t h in
thin, an d 6
“
for the c
v oi e d s oun d, dh in t hine, as in Ic l e a n di c; b ut Old

1 h r i c nfirm d in th i pini n b y th h p l c nfu i

T he aut o s o e s o o e o e es s o s on

th t r ul t fr m th
a estt m p t t xp und th i m tt r fully in wh t
s o p e a e o e o s a e a are ro

f
esse dly l m nt ry t x t b k Si
e e r c m t th c cl u i n th t Old
e a e - oo s . ev e s o es o e on s o a
Engli h g w m t fr q u n tly
s ic d p ir n t b ut hi pr f
as os m i e e a vo e s a ,
s oo s s ee h
c cl u i f i iti l g I ny c
on s ve th ic d p ir
or t g i
n un d n t
a . n a as e , e vo e s an s a so o
o n l y f r ig n t m d rn En gl i h b ut n difficul t f
o e o En gli h p p l t
o e s ,
o e or s eo e o
a cq uir T y ei u u ll y d n
. th t it i th
o sa un d ,
f g i
as G s s a o e, a s e so o n er .

sa g i t ign r t h t th g in
en , s g on th t g n d in N rt h G rm ny
o e a e sa en , o e s a e a o e a

g n r ll y i
e e a ic d t p , s a vo e s o .
 14 I N FL EC TI ON .

l
En g is h MS S ff r d n j u tific ti n f
. a o o s a o or h t is us age . r
In p in tin g te ts it is x
u u l t f ll w th M S S
s a o o x ctly T hr
o e . e a . o ugh out h b
t is ook the s ig n 6 is a on e l
u d ; it c m in t u
se m uch
a rl i r th
e o se ea e an b, a n d i f un d l m
s o a os t e xcl u i lys ve

in th b t f th
e l d r MS S
es o e o e .

5 . S t re s s —The chief tres

yllab ic s s , or s a cc en t ,
us ually alls f
on t he fir s t s ylla ble of Old En glis h w or ds : e x . hldfor d, lor d .

Ex c e p tion s .
(1) In de r iv a t iv e ve rb s , t he p in ipal r c s tre s s
f al s l a lm os t in a ri v a b ly on t he r oot ,
n ot on t he p r e fix : ex .

a risa n ,
to a ris e .

( )
2 In j cti es c om pounded with g e be a nd
n oun s an d a d e v

s om e t im e s for t he c hie f s tr ess f ll on t he r adic l s yll b le n ot on a s a a ,

t he p r e fix ; b ut in t he c s e of o the r p r e fix e s t he s tre s s f all s on a ,

t he pr e fix fe a c om pani on behdt pr om ise ; b ut én dlé a n

’

ex s g e . r , , ,

r e quit l a .

N OUN S .

6 . G e nde r .
—The
rn En glis h s ys t em of m ode gen de r is un
k n own t o Old En glish in whic h t he n m es of t hin gs ,
a a r e m as c ulin e ,

fe m in in e or n eut e r The r e a e t wo w ys whi ch . r a e n a b le us to

de t e r m in e t he gen de r of m a ny n oun s .

( )
1 By m ea n in g N a m e s culin e ; n am es of
. of m ale s ar e m as
fem les a a r e f e m inin e ; n a m e s
of you n g cr e t u r e s
( b e c a us e t he ir a

se is le s s e s ily dis t in g uis ha b le ) a r e n eut e r : e s s e g ning t he

x a x . c ,

kin g ; s éo c wen t he que en ; O t c ild b a n t he c hild

,
Ex c e p ee ,
e r ,
.

tion s : b t ivij ,t he w om n O t m g den t he g ir l

ee a a a ,
.

n -a , -a 6 , -els , en d,
By ter m in a tion
( 2) ( )
a N oun s e n din
g i .
-

-
er e, dom , h ad, s c ip e, s tafa s , n am e s of p e r son s in in g a n d ling ,
- - - - -

an d c om poun ds e n din g w it h a m a s c ulin e w or d, ar e m as c ulin e .

n es tr e, n es, wi den , O e xc ep t u h , ung

( )
b N oun s e n din
g i ( ) - ing ) , - - J -

an d c om poun ds e n din g wit h a f em in in e w ord ,

a re fem ini ne .

c
( ) N oun s en din g in -
er n , -
c
r i e, -
lac a n d c om poun ds
,
e n din g wit h

a n eu e t r wor d , a r e n eu e t r .
 16 I N F L EC TI ON .
g 1 0

( )
3 E x ac t l y t h e s am e ru l e a p p lie s t o th e fem . si ng .

an d n e u t e r p l u r al o f a dj s : c p . . fe m . s in g . a n d n eu t .
pl tiln ,
.

use f ul with g od good

'

, , .

( )
4 T he s am e rul e a p p lie s t o dis yll ab ic noun s an d
a dj s . : -
u is ge ne r all y r e t ain e d a ft e r a s h o rt s e c o n d ( or

ev e n th ir d) s yl l a b l e . Ex s . r i e, c r ealm , pl . r ic u ; heafod, he a d,
''

pl h eaf o du
.
( ) gr ene, g reen ,
fem . s in
g . a n d n eu t . l
p g ren u . eeOele,

n ob le , a elu .

xc p tionE ( e s. a ) A tef r two s ho rt sy a ll bl es hr t e e is a g ood dea of l

ir gul rity
re Thu a . s fir en ( fem ) , crim e, has no fin l a a ; the fem s ing and. .

n eut mice l , g e at , and mgnig , m any, are micel, mon ty, b ut

.
pl . of r a sol mie (e) lv ,
mgnig u ; th e pls of maeg en an d waste are maegenu, waet(e) r u
. r .

( b) L ate West Sa x on tex ts n ot on ly break the rul es of th is an d the nex t

se cti on , b ut s h
lm t ry p ibl gr mm tic l irr gul rity
ow a os ev e os s e a a a e a . F or t is h
r eas on o n ly th m r fr q u n t n d im p r t n t
e ri ti n f L t W
o e e e a o a va a o s o , a e est Sa x on
fr om Ea rly W t S x n will b n tic d in th i b k
es a o e o e s oo .

10 . L os s of m iddl e v ow e l s .
— S om e disylla b ic n oun s a n d

ad e j ct i v es wit h a s ho rt c
ylla b le, s uc h as eOel, n a t iv e lan d,
s e on d s

deofol, de v il , Oder , s e c on d, s yn c opa t e t he m iddle v ow e l in in fl e ct ion

a cc ording to t he followin g
Ru le Wh e n a t e rm in ation b e ginnin g wit h a. v ow el is
a dd e d to a di s yl l ab l e wh os e firs t s yll ab l e is l on g an d
,

s e c o n d s yll ab l e s h o rt t h e v ow e l o f th e s e c on d s yl l ab l e is
,

u s u all y d r op p e d . T hus

Eb el, nati e v la n d, lon g s hort , g en . sb les , n ot eOeles .

lgtel, litt le ,
lon g s hort , g en lytles , . n ot lyteles .

fon , hea v en ,
heo s ho rt s hort , g f
e n heo on es , . n ot heofn es .

h a rfees t, au tum n ,
long lon g, g e n . ha rfaz s tes , n ot heerfs tes .

N B . . It is ob v iou s th t a t he a b ov e r ule c a n no tl
pp y w
ah e n

the fl e c tion al lla b le b e in s with a c on s onan t Thus we ha v e

y s g .

ac c . m as c . s in
g Ob er ne, gen pl lytelr a
. . . .

Ex c ep t ions .
( ) M ic ol
a
'

, g r ea t, yfe l, ev i l (b th o s ho rt s h rt)o , syn c o

p ate the m idd l e v owe l in in fl c ti

e on : h
t us , gen . mie les , yfl es , dat mielum , .

pl gj ( e ) la ( s ee
. bl e ow ) .
 1 1, 1 2 NO U NS . 17

(b) Wh e n the a b ov e rul e an d h

t at g iv en in § 9 4 . b tho app ly t o the
sam e r
wo d, the a b ov e rul m ay or m ay n ot b e
e o b r
s e v ed : th u s we fin d n om .

earfoiSu, bis mru, id( e ) lu

pls heaf( o) du, dé ofiu,
.

ll . Int ru s iv e v ow e l s — Old En glis h w ords e n din

g in
c onson n t a v o a li c c
fte n intr oduc ed owel b e fore
liquid or n a s a l o a v

t he liq uid o tte r in to di t in ct syll b le

r n a sa l, m a kin g t he la a s a ,

as in fug l b ir d ( G othic fug ls )

o ,
T hi in tr u i e owe l w a s us u lly . s s v v a

e w he n t he p r e c e din g owe l w a s p l t l m o t oft e n 0 whe n t he v a a a ,

s

p r e c edin g ow e l w a s g u tt ur lv e s ce fi eld ; be n b e c on ; a
]
: x . ee r, a ce ,
a

ator poi o
,
n Th e e w or d
s for t he m os t p rt c on for m t o t he
. s s a

r ule l id down in 1 0 t hus we h e ge n win t e from win ter

a : av . r s

ort ) b ut f g es fr om f g er ( s hort s hort

l
( g
o n h s , ) az er ae .

Exc p ti n fug l b ird g

e ofug l pl j ug l
: o , ,
en . es , . as .

In t he following wo ds t he r se c ond v owe l is in tr us i ve

t em pe l ,
temp le weap on hlfitor , p ur e
m a6um , t r ea s u re c ea s te r , c ity hun gor , hung er
b eac e n , bea c on c l fis t or , p r is on w un dor, m a r v el
fac ( e ) n , tr eagliep g fi n ge r finge ,
r e tc .

12 . V a ria t ion of m id dl e v ow e l s — T he 0 or u of t he

c
s e on d yllab le Of s a wor d t en d s to b e c om e e w hen e v e r a t hird
( fl e x ion a l s lla b le
) y c on t
i i g a g u ttu r a l v ow e l is a dded
a n n This .

la w is well illus tr t a ed b
y t he d c
fon
e le n s ion o f s u h a n oun a s heo c
S in g . N am heof O n . Gen heO
fO n es . D a t heofO n e
.

Plu r . heofe n a s na heof e n u m .

S im ila r ly we fin d s ta dol,
pilla r , ge n . s taOoles b ut pl s ta Oela s ,
; .

a nd t he ve rb to foun d . Cp a ls o t he pa s t s in g
. .

loc ode wi h t he pa s
'

t
t pl lac d n . e o .

Th xpl n ti n f th i ch ng i t b
e e a ugh t p r tl y in th
a o o s a e s o e so a e weakenin g
o f th tr e s n th c d yll bl p rtly in t d cy t l t r
es s o e s e on s a e, a a en en o a e n ate pa l at a l
n d g uttur l w l wh ich h b n c ll d c n d ry gr d ti ”
a a vo e s as ee a e se o a a a on .

1
a , o, n ar e g uttu rl a v owe s , all ot l hr e s ar e pa l a ta l .
18 I N FLECT I ON . 13

13 . n s o n ant s
L os s of c o .

( )
1 L os s qf m e di l h W he n a fi n l I b e c om e s m edi l in a . a t a

in fl e ction it is dr opped .

( ) If b e t wee n liq uid an d v owel the re is c om pen sa t ory

a ,

lengt he n in g of t he p r e c e din g owel : e s m e r h hor s e ge n v x . a , ,

.

m ea r es , pl . m éa r as : ho lh, hole, ge n . holes , &c ; . c

p .
f eola/n ,

pe n e tr a t e,
*
feolha n .

( b) If b e t we en v ow el an d v owel, c on tr ction ( see

a 1 5 4)
r esults : ex . s coh ,
s hoe ,
pl. s ecs eoh, hor s e , gen cos . .

( 2) S imp lifica tion f fina l

o dou b le cons on an t . T he s im pli

fic at ion of a doub le fin
c on son n t is usu l in Old En glis h
al a a ,

w he he t r t he g e m in a t e w s or igin a l or a r os e fr om e r lie r c on
a a

s on a nt j Y e t t he e t ym ologic al s pe llin g is als o n ot in fr e que n t .

Thus we hav e

(a) in t he o rdi nary m as c . de c len sion

N om . Gen . Pl .

we a1 ( 1 ) ,
w all w e al l e s we all as , etc .

dyn ( n ) di n , dyn n e s d ynn as

( b) in t he o rdin a ry n eute r de clen s ion

ful (1 ) , cu
p full e s ful ( l )
oyu n
( ) r c
, e c ynn e s
a e yn u ( )
c
( ) in t he or din a ry fe m de c len s ion .

h e a1 ( l ) ha ll , b e all e h e all a, -e
b gn ( n ) , woun d b gnn e b gnn a ,
-e

an d s im il a r ly
hgu (n ) , hen s ib b
( ) ,
k ins hi
p
r ofit
n yt ( ) p
t ,
s
yn n
( ) , s in .

( )
d thin g is s ee n in dj s
The s am e a . in the im pe r tiv e
a

s in g of . e r b s (e g g e ier fr om g ec ier a n )
v . . c r ,
an d els ew he r e .

E c p tion
x e F in l g ( = gg) i n r im p lifi
. a c s ev e s ed s gc g , m an ; hrycg , b cka .

1 D ubl
o e c on s on ant < c on s on an t + j c an us ua lly b
kn own b y the p re
e
c eding m utate d v owe In Wes t G e ma nic , l .
'

r ev er y c ons ona n t ( ex cep t ) doub led r

b efor e r
j afte a s ho t v owel ( s ee r
 14 15 ,
NO U NS . 19

14 . En din g s —The followin g t a b le g iv e s t he c om m ones t

e n din gs in t he de c le n s ion s of s t r on g m a s c fem a n d n e ut e r .
, .
,

n o un s r espe ct i ve ly

Ma s c .

N A ce
. .

Gen .

D at .

NoT Es . The g en p l of s t ong noun s inv a ia

(1 ) . . r r bly e n ds in -
a ( rarely
-e na
) of wea k n oun s in -ena ; of all a dj s in -r a . .

(2 ) The d at .
pl . of all n oun s an d a d s j . e n ds in - um ( oth er f rm
o s of

w i h ch are - na , on,
- -
an ) .

15 . D e c l e n s ion s — The de c le n s ion s . of OE . n oun s a re

r an
ge d as follows for t he s a k e of s im pli c ity a n d c on v eni en c e
I . S tr on g N oun s

O rdin a ry D e c len s ion : l . M a s c ulin es fi

2 . N e ut e r s .

3 . F em in in es

M in or D e c len s ion s : 4 . U s t em s
-
.

5 . R -
t
s em s .

6 . [VD t-
s em s .

7 . O t he r s t e m s .

II . Wea k N oun s .
20 I N F LECT I ON . 16

D EC LENS I ONS .

I . S TRON G N OUN S .

ORD IN A R Y D EC LEN S ION 1

.
—l . M A S C ULIN ES .

16 . P rim a ry p a r adigm s : s tei n , s one t ; hier ale, ( s hep

) he rd .

S in g ula r .

P lur a l .

fi g s tan a s hierda s
l\
\
s tana hierda
\
s tanum hi e rdum

NOT ES .
(1 ) S tan is an o rigin l a o-s tem ( i a c orresp onds. . to the L atin

an d Gr eek o-de cl en s ion s ) , hier de an ori gin al j o s tem

( see Th r e e is
no diffe r nce l i
e in in fl cti n
e o s ( fina -e s r bly lid d b f r t rm in
inv a ia e e e o e a e ation

b gin ning with

e b ut tr c a vo w l) ; e a es o f th rigin l j f b i rd
e o a o e e are seen in
th fin l
e n d in th m ut t d
a -e awl e a e vo e o f th r t e oo .

( 2) Loc ti With ut in fl c ti n
a v es , o e o , ar e s e en in

to-dsag , to-day é lce ding , eac h da y

to-m o g en , to-mor r r
'
ow wt ham , at hom e
from hi agnum ham t fr m hi wn h m
to, s , o, o s o o e

Th 1
rr ng m t f d cl n i n h r d pt d i c m pr m i b tw n
e a a e en o e e s o s e e a o e s a o o se e ee

a c m p l t ign rin g f th rigin l t m wh ich

o e e o ft n b cur d b y n d
o e o a s e s, are o e o s e e o
c g iti n in Old En gli h— m th d which h th di d t g f n t
re o n o s a e o as e sa v an a e o o
l din g
ea n d up t
on th tudy f c gn t
a nd rli r l ngu g ; n d n
o e s o o a e a ea e a a es a ,
o
th th r h n d
e o e n un du m ul tip lic ti n
a ,
f d cl n i n ( cc rdi g t
a t m )
e a o o e e s o s a o n o s e s ,

which in Old E g l i h m tim diff r n l y in

n in g l
s c f rm
so e es e o a s e as e or o .

W t m j t m n d i t m wh ich diff r in i fl ti n fr m th rdin ry

-s e s, -
s e s a -
s e s, e n ec o o e o a
d cl n i n
e e gi
s o n in 3 2
,
— 34
are ll th r t in cl ud d h r
ve a e es are e e e .
 17 18,
ST R ON G NO U NS . 21

(3) S e"( Gothi c sa i ws ) , sea , is b ot h m as c . a nd fem

S ing ula r . Plur al .

N A cc . . s ee s ws , s ze

Ge n . s ees , s ee, s ee we sa
e wa
D at . s ae, s wwe s ae u ( )m ,
s aewum

17 . S e c on d a ry P a r adigm . D aeg , day, r e t u r n s t o t he

o rigin al roo t -
v ow e l in t he plu ral ( as e x pla in ed in P a rt II , .

P lur a l .

N OT ES .
(1) In t he s am e wa y ar e de c lin e d

b was l, wha le peels, p a th

“
s t aef, s ta fi

( 2) M269 kin s m an , with

,
a long v owe l, is s im ila rly declin d e

b ut the v owel of t he s ingula r s om e tim es inv ade t h plural

s e

Plur al.

m agas , m aegas
m
m m acgu

18 . S e c o n d ary P ar adigm . B r z del, b r idl e , will r

se v e as a

m odel of t he s
yn c opa t ed de c len s ion , t he r ule for whic h 13 g iv en in

10

N A cc
. . bridla s
Gen . b ridla
D at . b ridlum

In t he sa m e way a re de clin ed a ll disyllab ic m a s c ulin es

t he firs t s
ylla b le lon
g an d the c
s e on d s ho rt .
 I N FLECT I ON . 1 9 20 ,

19 . S e c on d ar y P ar adigm . M ea r h hor s e ( s ee , 1 3)

D e c lin e in t he s am e w ay f ea r h, s win e ; s eolh, s e al ; Wea lh ,

Welshm an for eign e r ,

.

ORD IN A R Y D EC LEN S ION . 2 . N EUT ER S .

20 . P rim a ry p ar adi gm s

( ) a Lon g m on osyllab le : wor d, word .

( 6) S hort ho] ; dw elling .

( c) D is yll ab le s wile, pun is hm en t ; f

sa e, s ie v e .

N A cc
. . r
wo d
Gen . wor des
D at . wor de

word (3 9 2 ) h ofu (§ 9 2) Wi 9 4) s ifu

(§ 9
.

fi t u . 4)
Gen . w orda hofa wi t a si af
D at . wordum hofum W1 tum s ifum

N OT ES .
( 1 ) In de c idin g whic h pa ra digm a n eut e r n oun
foll ows p r efixes
,
m u s t be ig n or ed t hus , behat, p r omise , is de c lin ed
lik e wor d .

( 2) Word an d hof are o rigin l a n eute r o-s tem s , wite an o rigin l j a o-s tem

( see an d s i e f an rigin l i
o a -s tem ( see T hr
e e is no difl erence
in in fl cti
e ; b ut the
on -e of the n om . s in g . is a rc
t a e of the o rigin l a s tem of

the l a s t two wo ds r .

(3 ) F or the of the n om plu l -o ar e n ot in f q u nt witu,

-u ac c ra -a re e :
. .
, ,

wito wita , .
24 I N F LECT I ON . 23 —2 5

23 . S e c on dar y p ar adigm s : feor h ,

lif e ; feoh ,
m on e y .

S ing u lar .

P lu r a l .

Lik e feor h ,
de clin e holh, hole , ge n . holes ; lik e feoh , de c lin e
p leoh, da n ge r . Cp .19 .

S e c on d ary p ar a digm lim b .

P lur a l .

lj l nu, liom u 1 3 2)
lim a , liom a
lim um , liom um

N OTES .
( )
1 In t he sam e way a re de clin e d n eu e st r t
wi h
i or 6 b e for e a s in le
g c ons onan t ,
su ch as

c lif c l f
,
e
g eb ed, p r ayer (p l .
g eb e du, ge b eodu )
s eip , s hip g es e t, s ea t

( 2) P lur a ls with i or e, lim u e tc .

,
a re m os t c omm on ; thos e
with l o, eo, due t o u -m u at tion ,
de cr e a se in frequen cy in la t e r
t ext s .

25 . The r etra c es in s om e OE n e ut ers of s tem s c o

ar e . r

respon ding t o G re ek n eute rs in La t u s e ris ( y c g n us )

-o
s, .
-
,
-
’
ev o , e .

The 3 appea r s in OE as r Thes e words. e di ided in t o t wo

. ar v

cl s s es : ( 1 ) thos e whic h r e tain t he r throughout ; ( 2) t hose

a

whi c h r e tain it in the plur al on ly .

 26 ST R ON G NO U NS . 25

(1 ) H r b l ng dgg
e e e o c ttl ; l r h ll ; ig r ic t ry ;
or , day ; hrgSer ,
'

a e sa o , a s o , v o

wild or, wil d b t F theas r h y f ll w th rdin ry d cl n i n

. or e m os t p a t t e o o e o a e e s o ,

b ut O a i n lly un infl t d d t in g i m t with dag r P l ur l '

o c s o a an g ec e a . s . s e , o , sz or . a s

dog r h gs u wild u t F rm with ut r l f und ; nt w ll

’
ar e o , r er , r , e c . o s o are a s o o se as e

l r ig
as s a o n d ig r ( th i w r d h
, s e a b c m m culin )
s o s o as e o e as e .

(2) r
Th e wo ds
j g, e gg , c ea l f, c lf a , an d tomb , l am b , ar e de in edcl al ik e;

e ild , ch il d diff r , e s s om e w at h .

S ing ula r .

Plu ra l .

OR D IN A R Y D EC LEN S ION . 3 . F EM IN IN E S .

26 . p a r a di gm s

( )
a S hort s emt g i( e)fu , gi ft .

( b) Lon g s law,
pla c e .

P lur a l .
26 I NF L EC T I ON . 2 7 , 28
.

NOT ES .
(1 ) G i (e)fa is a s h rt a
o -
s tem ( c orre s pon din g to L atin a n d Gr ee k

a-decl n i n) tow i l n g wa t m (
e s o , s A ll l g a t m s a o -s
e s ee on -s e s, s uch as

i h n ur la l r g lof g l
a r, o o ,w nd w un d nd l n g j t t m (
r, o e, , ov e , a , o , a o e -s e s se e

such gi d d y rd wylf h w lf
as er d cl in d l ik
, ro tow
, (N t th a , , s e- o , are e e e s . o e e

m ut t d r t a ew l f th j a t m )
oo -
vo e s o e -
s e s .

( 2 ) T h g n pl in n w im p r t d fr m th w k d cl n i n n d i
e e . .
-e a as o e o e ea e e s o a s

f u d n ly in th l t r t x t It i ry r r ly dd d t l ng t m n r t
o n o e a e e s . s ve a e a e o o s e s, ev e o

ja or wd s tem s
-
.

(3) In the s in g . of s h rto s tem s wit h r oot -v owe l a ( e sp e ci lly wh

a en

fo ll owed b y c ) , the a a l t rn
e a tes wit h in ( see e x am pl es ,

c
s a u, s t rif e ac c . g en da t. . s ac e , s ae e c
wr ac u , v enge a n c e wr ac e , wr aace

(4 ) F in l a -0 as a v a ri an t for -u is so c om m on ( s ee § 2 0 3 .
, e tc .
) t h at it
wi ll b e omitte d, for the sak e of s im p lific ation , in s om e futur e pa r a digm s .

27 . S e c o n d ary p a r adi gm s : s awol, s oul ; fi/r en , e w e

t o illus trate yn c opa t ion in t he

t he s firs t ( long S hort
) an d t he
a b s en c e of s n c opa t ion in t he s e c on d
y ( s hort s hort
) ,
a cc ordin g to
§ 10 .

P lur a l .

28 . S e c on d ary p ar adigm : sc otu n g , s hoo tin g , m is s ile .

g 9
2 ST R O NG NO UNS . 27

In t he sam e w ay a r e de lin ed c a ll fe m . a b s tr a c t s in -
un g b ut
t hos e in -
ing do n ot t ake -
a in t he s in g ula r ,
a nd s o c on form to

t he o rdin ry de c le n s ion
a .

29 . S e c on d a ry p ar adigm : s tr gn g6 u
( ) ,
s tre ngth .

S ing u la r P lu r a l

s tr Q n
gO s t rgn giiu s t r gn giia , e , s t r gn gOu
’
-
,

s t r en gOu
s t r en
gOe ,
s t r en
g oa

s t r gn giium
’

Tw o c lass e s of fe m in in e ab s tract s b e lon g he r e .

(a) N oun s su ch as

hea lth m en ( i) g u, m ultitude

ieldu, ag e s t r en
gu , s t en th,
g r
w hi h wec re o rigin
y a ll
( t eof
m s
) b o rr
t he we a k de le n s ion
ow ed c i—
s ,

t he u of t he n om s ing fr om t he o rdin ry fem de c le n s ion t he n

-
. . a .
,

e xte n de d it t o o t he r c s es n d fi n a ll c on fo r m e d t o t he o r din a r y
a a
y ,

de c len s ion .

( )
b N oun s e n ding in i5( u )
-
an d t( u )
-
( r l
eaier su ch a s
hie ho( u) , he ig ht ofe r m et t u, a r rog a nc e

3 16 , happ iness
$3
gie m e lie s t , ne glec t ,

b e long ed from t he firs t

rdin ry de c len s ion t o t he o a ,
b ut la t e r
im it t ed t he un in fle c t e d de c le n s ion of t he fir s t c l s s
a a .

NOTES .
(1 ) In ( a) the s in g . is us ua y in de ll cl in bl a e an d l rl
p u a s are rr a e .

(2 ) In rdin ry f m d cl n i n
the o a e . e e s o i m r
s o e o ft n f ll
e o owe d, and

pl ur l m r c m m n th n in ( )
a s are o e o o , a a .

( 3 ) In b th cl th r h
o b n i m ut ti n f r t
a s ses e e as ee - a o o oo -
v owe s l .

(4 ) F u fi l i fr q u nt
or - na ,
-
0 s e e .

( 5 ) Th un in fl t d t engiS
e w ll t e g iiu i f
ec e s r , as e as s r n
’
, s oun d in the ccu
a s .

s in g , b ut n ot in EWS .
28 I N FL ECT I ON . 3 0 —3 2

30 . Ea , riv er, an d a , law, are c

de line d as f
ollows

S ing ula r .

Plu ra l .

ea, ( é an wea k)
ea
ca( u) m , can

WS t e m s ( i) -
.

31 In t he followin g s e ction s a t t en t ion is c alle d t o the s pe c ial

.

c ha ra cteris tic s of w s tem s j — s t em s a n d i s t e m s of a ll g en de r s a n d

-
,
-
,

pa ra digm s ar e g iv e n r ep r e s en t ing a ll pe c ulia r ities of in fl e ction .

NOT E . T he m aj o ity of OE m as r . c . an d n eute r n oun s are o-s tem s , an d

the m aj o r
ity of fem n oun s a-s tem s . . If the o an d
- -d we r e rc
p e eded b y
w or j , the s tem s are dis tinguis h ed as wo-s tem s , wd-stem s f
a n d j o- s tem s ,

j a-s tem s r es p e cti lyve . x

Ne t in im p o tan r c c m th i t
e o e e -
s em s , m os t of

pas s ed ov e rt o the o an d d ( or o rdin a ry ) d cl n i n

”
e e s o s .

P a r a digm s
M as c . : bear u , g r ov e ; s e rv a n t .

N eut e r : bea lu , e v il ; tr eo w , tr ee
( ) .

F em . : bea du , b a tt le ; m eed, m e a dow .

Mas c . Neut . Fem .

S in g u la r .

b e a r n, -
o
be a lu, -
o

N A cc
. . b e a r wa s
Gen . b ea rwa
D at . b ea r wum
 32 ST R ON G NO U NS . 29

Mas c . Neut . Fem .

P lu r a l .

N A cc
. . Seowa s treo
Gen . Oeowa t reowa

D at . Oeowum t r eo wum

N OT ES . th t t hes e words h rdly diffe r

(1) It will b e s een a a

from the ordin ry de c len s ion s e xc e pt in t h t when the re is n o

a , a ,

te rmin tion the w is oc lised t o

a , fte r s hort owe l a nd v a it a a v ,

i s om e t im e s dr opped ft e r a lon g ow e l
s Whe n to is r e t in ed a v . a

in the n o m as in hl i w m oun d t he or din ry de c le n s ion i

.
, e , ,
a s

followed throughout .

2) c
D e lin e lik e b ealu s ea r u, a r t

b ea du n e a r u, s tr a its

g e a t wa ,
ge tawa , equ ip m en ts
frset wa , or n a m en ts

c n eo
( )
w ,
kn ee

l ees , p as tur e

(3 ) The br oke n v owe l in b ea r n, b ea lu, is c rid a r e ov e r fr om the o bl iq u

e

c ase s , w hre e a is br ok e n r eg u a l rly b ef r r o e , l+w .

( 4) A n in t us iv e r v owe l i ft n f
s o e oun d bfr e o e 10 , to e ase the p r on un ci ation

ex s . b ea lowes , b ea lewa , b ea duwe, frce tewum ( s ee

1
Fr om h
t is fin a l u
- C os ij n in f r th
e s at t he p rc e e din g eo in t h es e r
wo ds was
s h rto : s ee 9 .
30 I N FL EC TI ON . 33

( )
11 J S tem s
-
.

33 . P a r adigm s

( ) a Mas c .rm hgr e,

y ; ege g m
a an ,
.

( 6) N eut e r : r ic r ealm ; fa s ten s tr on ghold

e, , .

c
( ) F e m : h ali g
. nes holi n es s s n ct u r
, y ,
a a .

M as c .

hgr ( i) gum

Neut . Fem .

1F rm with g n d with ut
o s a o i or e are c omm on , b ut r th c
n ev e e r
on v e se
T h u th f rm r
.

s f th n m pl
e o s o e o . . are her ig eas , hgr ig as , hgrg eas , hgrg as , he as .
 32 I N FL EC T I ON .
34
‘

Mas c Fem .

P lu r a l .

N A ce
. . win e, -
as E n g le da
Tade , -
a

Gen En gla daeda

‘

D at . W in um En glum dé dum

N OT ES c h r ct e ris tic s of this de c len s ion a e the

.
(1 ) The a a r

plur ls in e a n d t he un c h an ge d a c e s in g of th e fe mi n in e s
a -
. .
, .

The plur l t e r m in a t ion s as n d a c am e in fr om t he or din ry

a - a -
a

de cle n s ion s L t e r c m e also ac c s in g of fem 1 n n e s m e abi de

. a a . . 1 -
,

c wen e, ti de, e tc .

( 2) The neu e t r i s t em s do
-
n ot diffe r in in fl e ct ion from t he
o rdin a ry de c len sion s ee s ife 20 .

(3) Lik e E n g le (i e without plural in as ) are de clin ed a fe w

. .
-

plur als ( wit hout S in ula r s , a n d n a m e s

g ) of tr ib e s , n a t ion s et c .

e n din g in e -

M a s c P ls . . N a tion s , Tr ib es
leode , p eop le M ier ee , M er c ia ns
ie lde ,
m en S eax e, S a x on s
ielfe , elv es f S om er s et
S um ors aet e , m en o
et c .

( )
4 Lik e win e— t he plur re fre quen t al in -
as is m u h t he m o c
ar e de c lin e d all m a s c s w ith s h o rt m ut at e d v owe l s ingl e .

c on s o n a n t e ( e xc e p t hg e 3 3 ) s uc h s r ,
a

c wide p eech ,
hyge m in d
s ,

ege t r r or ,
e s ge ic tory s t gde
p la c 1 ,
v , e

and b s tr ct in s c ip e s u c h as f é on ds ip
a a s friends hip On ly
-
,
r c e, .

D gn e D n e h s the lon ge r for m of t he ge n pl

,
a ,
a . .

( 5 ) Lik e dé d re de clin ed t he following f em in in e s all with

a ,

lon g r oot s ylla b le s n d m u t t e d ow els

-
a a v
 35 ST R ON G NO U NS . 33
—
aeht ,
p r o
pe r ty
I

hyd, hide t i d, hou r

b gn c , ben ch lyft, a tm osp her e w en , ex p e ct a tion

b ys e n , ex a m p le m i ht , m ig ht w is t , f ood
e wen , wom a n n ie d, n eed W yn ( n >j y,
o

eSt , f a v ou r s cyld , g u ilt wy d, fa ter

fie rd, a/rm y S ed
p , su cc ess wv r t , r oo t

and a fe w le s s c om m on w ords .

( 6) The int us iv e r
h ch tt n ti n w c ll d in 3 3 ( 1 )
vo we l , to w i a e o as a e . as

m rki g th p l t l i ti n f th p r c di g g
a n e a a a i fr q u tly f un d ft r
sa o o e e e n or c , s e en o a e

th os el tt r in ll t m
e e s rb l n d dj c ti l w ll n m i l wh ich
a s e s, ve a a a e va as e as o na ,

origi lly d d i i j T h u m g i t m f m g ( i) gu w find

na en e n or . s, a on -
s e s, or n e

mg ig( )
n n d th
e o, p l ur l f wlen u prid
a e i n m g wlg ( )
a d t o c , e, s o . en . nc e a , a .

wlen ( ) um Of th i t m d cl i d lik win th wh r t n d in g

’

c z . e - s e s e ne e e, os e os e oo e s

or c s o m tim h e i b f r es guttur l w l b yg
av e e or cur leg e o e a a vo e : ea s , v es , s eas ,

str ko t ; whil
es , e c m g l ng i t m
. which h
e a th r wi on p d r o -
s e s, av e o e se as s e ov e

t th
o rdi ry d cl n i w fin d
e o na e e s on , e

gleng ( ) g gl e g ( ) rn m nt
e as , te g ( )
e n. p l n e a, o a e s s n e as , o es

te ( ) s t n h n c e as , s e c tr e g ( ) a tr ing
es s n e s, s s

w en ( ) d t w en ( i) um wr h r c e as , a . r c ,
enc es .

( 7 ) T h n l y i t m wh ich h e o t m ut t d r t
s e w l
s S av e n o a a e oo vo e are ea x e ,

lé d g ft cr ti g b ht th ugh t nd n tw m r S w
’
o e, es c ea ,
ea on , e ea ,
o , a o e or o o e . ea x e as

origi lly f th w k d cl n i n ; h nc th g pl S n wh ich h b n

na o e ea e e s o e e e en . . ea zv a , as ee

im it t d b y M i
a e Mi r er c e, e en a .

( 8) Would ( f m _ w rl d h p
r d r t th i fr m th u d cl n i n
e . o ,
as as s e ov e o e o e e e s o ,

of which h w r it m tim r t in th d t i g in w uld

o ev e so e es e a s e a . s n .
-a
, or a.

35 The g r e a t m aj or ity of O E n oun s b elong t o t he for e

. .

goin g or din a ry de c le n s ion s In t he followin g m in or a n d we ak .

de c le n s ion s , lis t s or ot he r in dic a t ion s w ill b e g iv e n ( a s ha s b ee n

don e al e a d r y in t he c as e of w -
t
s e m s, —
j s t em s an d i S te m s )
-
of t he
n oun s th t follow t hos e de c le n sion s s o th t in wh t h s oft en b ee n
a a a a

reg rde d s t e diffic ult p rob lem T o wh t de clen sion does a

,

a h a
“
: a

g " t he s t ude n t h s on ly t o m as t e r th e l is t s an d
”
n oun b e lon a

c rit e ri a g iv e n in t h e v a ri o u s s e c t io n s a n d t he n t o f ollow t his

r ule : A scer ta in the g en de of the n u n ; p r t f om an y in dica r o a a r

tion to th c on tr a y it wil l f ll w the o din a r

e r
y dec lens ion for tha t
, o o r

g en der .

w . 3
34 I N FLECTI ON . 36

M IN OR D ECLEN SION S .

4 . U S tem s
-
.

36 . P ar a digm s

( ) a S hort t
s em : s unu s on .

s te m
( b) Lon g hgn d han d .

P lur a l .

N OT ES .
(1) S ev e r a l wor ds hav e pa ss ed ov e r t o t he or din a ry
de c le n s ion . Of s hort s te m s , wudu , wood, s i( o) du , cus t om , dur u ,
door , n os u , n os e, ar e a lon e fully de clin ed M eodu m ead ( drin k ) .
, ,

ha s da t . s in g . m eodu , -
o . Heo u s w or d lag u wa t e r m ag u s on
r , , , , , ,

ha v e on l
y n om . ac c . s in g A ll t he s e wor ds ar e m s c e xc e pt
. a .

dwru a n d n os u

Of lon g s em s t hgn d a lon e is fully in fle ct ed b ut tra c es of this

de c len sion a r e see n in t he da ts . s in g .
felda ( fi eld) for da , ( for d) ,

wea lda ( for e s t ) win tr a ,

a n d s u m er a , a n d in t he occ asion al gen .

s in g . win tra . A l l t he s e
( xc ep t hgn d are m a s c
) e . Win ter h s also a

gen win tr es ;
. it s plu r l is n e u t e r win te a n d win t
a ,
r ru .

r
Ev en the few wo ds g iv en a ov e ten d to pas s ov e to the o dina y
(2 ) b r r r
l
dec en s ion M a g u has pl ma ga s ev en in EWS ; ate we fin d g en wudes ,
. . . l r ’
.

. r
dat du e , nos e, pl s una s , wudas , etc . .

(3 ) T he - u ( -o ) of the sh rto s tem s s om etim es in t rud es in to the dat .

S in g . an d n om . ac c .
pl . F or th l e os s of fin a l .
u a te f r
 37 ST R ONG NO UNS . 35

5 . R S t em s
-
.

37 . He r e b elong on ly fiv e n a m e s of r el t i a v es e n ding in -
r

feede r f the r m odor , m o he t r br otior , b r ot he r s weos tor , s is e t r

‘ ‘
a , ,
, , ,

dohtor , da ug ht e r .

Plu ral .

m odor , m odru, -
a b r OOor b r ob ru
m od r a b r OOra
m odrum b rOOr um

doht or
doht or
de ht e r, doht or

P lu r a l .

doht or , dohtr u, a
-

dohtra
doht rum

N OT ES .
( )
1 In s t e ad of -
or we find -
ur , -
sr , b ut n ot -
or for
e n Othe r form s ( m os tly l t e r ) a of s weos tor are s wos tor , s wu s ter ,

s wys ter .

k
The g e n s s in g m eder a n d dehter a r e la t e
. . .
) The re a re

c olle cti ve
plur als g ebr OOor , Or u , b r e t hr en , g es weos tor ,
-
s 1 s te rs .

( 2) H ith erto ( with the e x c eption of 2 5 ) we h av e had on ly tr s on g

v owe l -
s tem s . The weak n -s tem s ar e p lc a ed l as t. T hi s an d the ne xt two
de cl c nt in irr gul r c n n
en s ion s o a e a o so an t- s te m s . At a l t r t g th
a e s a e ese

di tinc ti n b c m
s fun d m nt l ; h r
o s e o e a e a e e s im p licity and c n ni n c h
o ve e e av e

b n chi fly c n ul ted
ee e o s .
36 I N FL ECT I ON . 3 8, 3 9

6 . ND S tem s -
.

38 . P ar adigm s : fr éon d frien d ; , agen d, ow n e r .

S ing u la r .

N A cc
. . freon d
Gen . fr eon des
D at . frie n d ,
fr eon de

P lur a l .

N A cc
. . friend ,
freon d ( p oet fr eondas ) . ag en d, -
de , -da s
Gen . fr eon da ag e n dr a

D at . fr eon dum ag e n dum

N OT E . This cl
c on sis ts of pre s en t p rticiples
a ss of n oun s a ,

which ha v e dr oppe d t he fi n l pa rtic ipial e an d are u s ed s n oun s a -

a .

Lik e f éon d is de c lin e d on ly f é on d e n em y

r Lik e ag en d ar e , .

d e c lin e d al l p ol y s yll ab l e s e n ding in en d Goddond ( good

'

-
,
.

doin g ) b en e fa ct or ha s pl g Oddén d D at S ing f éon de a n d pl

,
. . . . r .

ag en da s r e b orr owe d from t he or din ry de clen ion P l ag en de

a a s . .

an d gen l en dr r e b orr owe d fr om t he de c len s ion of a d s

p a g . . a a
j .

an d
p rtic iple s ( s ee
a In r eadin g t e xt s it is oft en diffic ult ,

t o de c ide from t he s im ila r ity of for m s whe the r a word is a n oun

, ,

or a p rt ic iple
a .

7 . O th e r S t e m s .

39 . P ar adigm s

( ) M as c m gn n , m an ; fot foot
‘

a . : ,
.

( 6) Fem . : b ate, b ook ; hn u tu , n ut .

S ing u la r .

Plu r a l .
 39 ST R ONG NO UNS . 37

S in g u la r .

P lur a l .

N OT ES .
(1 ) The s e on d c form s ,
ie . . thos e without i m ut a t ion , -

a re la te r .

( )
2 Lik e fat is de c lin e d toO, t ooth .

(3) Lik e bOc are de c lin ed

b r Oc , br eeches pl b e . r c m us m ouse p l m ys
.

g os , g oos e g es turf turf tyr f

hi s , lou s e lys an d a fe w m or e .

Lik e hn u tu is c olum n s tu du , .

( 4) Th f n pi ( ) ht n ig h t m aid, c '
e er s . e , , an d an n ot s ufier i-m utation ;
th y e théf fare unch g d i é ore an e n the s in g . an d the n om .
pl . N i ( e) htes , b y
ni h t i n d rb i l f rm ti n
s a
g , a ve a o a o .

( 5 ) Th m h l ii h r
e a sc s . ae e , e o, an d m ana ii, m ont
W
h f ll w th rdin ry
, o o e o a
‘

d cl n i n in th
e e ing
s o g d t e S , e . . a . mantie ; in the pl . th y h eb th h t n
av e o as e ,

moua iS and heeleiia s , m6 n( e) i9as .

( 6) T he de cl en s ion of the fm e s . rwal

b u g, _ l ed town , c u, cow, an d of the
r r i b full
'

n eute s ea lu, ale , s cr nd, d es s , s es t g iv e n 1n ( as far as the fdrm s ar e

found
) :

S ing ula r .

cu ealu sorud
e aloO,
cu e ( ) ,
c y, C11 3 ( ) aO
-

( e ) aloO, -a O s c ryd
0 7
Plu r a l.

0 7 63 )
c ua, c un a , 0 ea leOa
7 na
on u ( )m
38 I N FL EC TI ON . 40

II . WEA K N OUN S .

( t
ri -s em s
)
P a r adigm s

M as c . : g um a, ma n ; g efé a , j oy .

F em . : heor te, he a rt .

N e ut e r : cag e, e ye .

Mas c . Fem . Neut .

P lu r a l .

g um an
g e fean he or tan Sa ga n

gum e n a gefea n a heor ten a ( )

ea g e na

gu m um g e fe ( )
a u m he ort um ca ga m

N OT ES .
(1 ) Like g u m a are de c lin ed al l m as c ulin e s in
(
e xc e t
p fr ea ,
wea an d r d) .

( )
2 Lik e g efé a ar e de c lin ed
M a sc s . F erns .

fre a, lor d g en . fr ean b eo, bee g en b eon

.

w ea , woe wean t a, toe t an

_
ra ,
roe r an

lion leon
tw dou b t t weon
gg ,

pl . S weon , S wedes S weon a ( da t S weom ) .

( )
3 Lik e heor te ar e de c lin ed

eslm es s e , a lm s fé r p e , v ir g in n eedr e , a dder

p
c irice chu ch
,
r he arpe , ha rp s un n e , su n

c w en e , woma/n hl fifdig e , la dy t unge tong u e

,

eor Oe , ea rth m ie re ,
m are wic e week
,
40 I N FLECTI ON .
g4 2

S T RON G D ECLEN S ION .

42 . En din gs — The
trong n d we k de c len sion s of dj s s a a a .

we r e or igin lly iden t ic l with t hos e of s tr ong n d weak n oun s

a a a ,

b ut the s tr on g de c le n s ion ha s in s e e r l c ses a s s im ila ted t o ,

v a a ,

the p r on om in l de c le n s ion This will b e s ee n b y the followin g

a .

s c he m e of t e r m in a t ion s in whic h t he dis t in ct iv ely p r on om in al ,

e n ding s a e p r in t ed in b l ac k t p e t he ot he r s in it lic
r
y , a .

Mas c . N eut . Fem .

S ing u la/r .

-
a, -
e

N OT ES .
( )
1 It s houl d be c r e fully
a n o ed : t (a ) tha t t he
da t . s in
g m as . t e r s well s t he d t pw n ds in um ;
and ne u c .
,
a a a .
-

( )
b t t t ha r tr um e n t l c s e in t he m s c
he e is a n in s n d n eut e r a a a . a

S in g dis t in ct fr om t he dat ; ( c ) t ha t a f or m in e m us t n ot
. .
-

b e s s um e d t o b e a plur l ; it m ay b e a n a c e fe m s in g or a n
a a . .
,

in s tr s in g . .

e r ule fo t he fi n l u of t he n om fem s in g n d n e ut
( )
2 Th r a -
. . . a .

pl is t he
. s am e a s in n o un s
( s ee 9,

(3) T he f llo o win g va ria n ts ar e f un d

o

( )
a for the -u Of the n om . fe m . s in g . o cc as ion a lly -o
;

( b) for the -u of the n eut pl s om e tim es -0 a ;

-
.
.
,

( )
c for um
-
( s in g . an d pl .
) o cc a s ion a lly -on
,
-
an.

( d) ere
- for -r e ap p ea s r in EWS in s um ( e) . r hw l e, e c ere, é lc ere ; in l ate

x
te ts -ere for re an d
- -era for ra
- bc e om e the r gul r n ding
e a e s .
 43 A D JECT I V ES . 41

( )
e L on g-s te m m e d ( th er efore un in fl ec t ed ) neut .
pls . s om e tim es b r or ow

the -
e of the m as c
pl e v en in EWS
. . . e x s . ea l le , lg uye .

(f In L WS the as simi ation

. l of r
te m in a tion s bc e om es mo r
e m a ke dr
-e te nds to bc e om e un iv e s a r l in th p l b y ep a in g the u of the s o
e n om . . r lc -
h rt
s te mm ed n eute s r a n d ous tin g the -a o f t he f
em s ; an d, s im il a y, the n om . rl .

sing . atta in s on e fr r
o m for all ge n de s b y the d opp ing of the -u of s o t r hr
s te mm ed fern s .

43 . P rim a ry p a r a digm s

(a) Lo ng m on os ylla b le : g od, g ood .

S hor t m on os ylla b le til, u s e ul f .

(c) P olys ylla b le s : r

g en e, g re e n ; halig , holy .

Ne ut . F em .

N om
v

.
god
A ce .
g odn e
Ge n .

Dat .

Ins tr .

N A cc g de g oda ,
. . o -
e

Gen .

D at .
42 I N FL EC TI ON . 43

Mas c . Neut . Fem .

N om .
g r en e
A cc .
g r en ue
Gen .

D at .

In s tr .

N A cc gren e gr en a e
.
-
.
,

Gen .

D at .

P lur a l .

N A cc
. . halge hal ( i) gu halga , e
-

Gen . halig ra
D at . halgum

N OT ES .
( )
1 A dj s . c on sonan t—whe the r
e n din g in a doub le
t he doub le c on son an t b e origin al as in ea l( l) all g r im ( m ) g rim , , , , ,

e a r lie r c on s on a n t + t s e f ul— s im lif

or
j (j o s e m s ) as in u g ( )
t t -
u p y
, ,

t he gem in t e whe n fi n l ( sa rule ) n d b e for e a te rmin a tion

a a a a

b egin n in g wit h a c on s on an t : e s g en m s c g im m es n yttes x . . a . r ,

ac c m as c gr im n e nytn e
. . But or igin l ll m ay r em in : ea l( l) n
,
. a a e,

sa l
()
t re .

Lik e g r en e a r e de c line d
( 2) a ll a d e c tiv e s
j ndi n g in
’

e -e

( origina l j S t em s an d i s tem s )
- -
.
 43 A D JEC T I V ES . 43

(3) F in a l -u ( s ee T he a lm os t un iv e s a l r r ule for ad s

j .

is , th t fi n
a r e t ine d e xc e pt in lon g m ono yll b le s n d in
al -
u is a s a a

di yll b le of t wo s hort yll b les ( s hort s hort )

s a s E e n w he r e in s a . v

t he pl of n e ut e r n oun s it w ou ld b e dr oppe d
. i fte r long long ,
v z . a ,

it i r et in e d in dj s e g m gnn i u
s a A cc ordingly we fin d fe m
a .
, . . sc . .

n d n e ut dg ( ) n u 66( ) u
s in g . a
pl i d( ) lu . b ut
. e , e ,
e r ,

hgfig m i el m gn ig ( S hort s hort )

,
c ,
.

L t r h w r th i di tinc ti n w l t n d ch cl b rr w d th
a e ,
o ev e ,
s s o as os a ea as s o o e e

f rm f th th r th t w fin d th n h nd f m ing nd n ut pl
o s o e o e , so a e on e o e a e . S . a e . .

ag n é we , hd lig lyt l
o n d n th
er , th r mi lu m gn gu
, e , a o e o e c , e .

( 4) S yn c op e The r ule l id down in 1 0 holds good i e . a , . .

s n c o e of t he e i o of t he s u ffix e l ol s o i b e f or e s, r, r, a
y p g
- -
, , ,
-
e ,
-
,
-
,

t e rm in t ion b eginn in g w ith a owe l i n or m l a fte r a lon g root

a v ,
s a

s ll b le e xc e t ion l
a ft e r h ort E xc e t ion s a r e n ot n um e r ous
a a a s
y p , p . .

rll i l a lwa s s n c o a t e s
ce
y y p yf l m or e oft e n t h n n ot ; dj s of e a a .

m t e r ial in en s uc h as gyld n golde n n e e r ( p

a -
, 22 e , ,
v c . .

(5 ) th t t he fou r p rim ry p radigm s a e

It will b e see n a a a r

p r ct i
ac lly ide n tic a l
a e xc ep t as r e
g r d fin l u n d s yn c o e
p , a s a -
a .

R ule s ( 3 ) n d ( 4) j us t gi e n ffor d s uffic ie n t he lp for t he s e tt le

a v a

m en t of t hes e t wo q ue s t ion s in EWS n d whe n t hey a e .

,
a r

se tt le d ny OE dj c a n b e de c lin e d b y m e n s of t he t b le of
,
a . a . a a

e n din g s a lon e

l h l b rti
(6 ) S ig t i e e s are s o
m etim es t ak en wit h trictly gr m m tic l f rm
s a a a o s

in rd r t r nd r th m
o e o e e e ea s ie r of p r on un ci ation . T h u if tw n c m t g th r s o s o e o e e

aft r n th r c
e a nt o e on s on a in the ac e . m as c . s in g th c n d n i pt t b
, e se o s a o e

dr oppe d
A cc . M as s S ing . .

—
fé c ne, r
t ea c he ous r fsec ne

i se u , ir rn o is e rn (n ) e
SfiiSern e , s outher n s fitie rn e

A g ain , l a fin a -
ne, -r e
,
is a pt to bc e om e -e h
, er ,
- bfr e o e a r
te m ination
b ginn ing with
e a c on s on a n t : frec h e dan gerous , , ac c . m c as . s ing .
fré c ( en) ne ;
g ifr e, gr eedy, gen pl g iferr a . . .

(7 ) T wo m as c .
pl f rm mgn g n d fe w
. o s, e a a a a ( few) , are f ound wit h
occ as ion a l -a for -
e, a pp r n tly b rr w d fr m f l
a e o o e o e a m any .

(8 ) The pl . ad j j ea we
. few, has
44 I NF L EC T I ON . 44 , 4 5

44 . S e c on d a ry p a r a d igm : g leed, glad .

Mas c . Neut .

N om .
g laed

A cc .
g sedn e
l
Gen .

D at .

In s tr .

P lu r a l .

N A ce
. .
gl a de
gla du glada ,
-
e

Gen .
g laedra
D at .
g ladum

N OT E . In t he s am e way a r e de c lin e d hwee t, b r is k , b leec , b la c k ,

an d a ll S im ila r ad s
j Cp . 1 7, 21 b ut ob s e v e r tha t he re origin l a a

1 00 ) r em ain s b e fo r e ev er
y t e rm in a tion b egin n ing with v ow el a .

45 . S e c on d ar y p ar a di gm : g ea r u , re a dy .

Mas c . Neut .

P lu r a l .

N A cc
. .
ge ar we g ea n ,r o
-
g e a r wa , -
e

Gen .
g e a rora
D at .
g e a r wum
N OT ES . Lik e g ea r u , a w( wo) s t em , are de c lin ed fea lu ,
(1 ) -

fallow ,
n ea r u , n a rr ow, g eolu , yellow, a n d a fe w les s comm on
w or ds . It will b e se e n tha t w is v oc a lis ed t o 0 or u when fi n a l
and b e for e a te rm in ation b egin n ing wit h a c on s on n t a .
 46, 4 7 A D JECT I V ES . 45

( 2) A n int us iv er o, u , e , is f r q u n tly f und b tw

e e o e een r and w : g ea rowes ,
g ea r uwe , gea rewum . O cc a s io n a l f rm o g s a re
g ea rr e , ea rra , for g ea r ore , g ea rora .

46 S e c on d ar y p a r a di gm hea h, hig h
'

. : .

M as c . Neut . F em .

S ing u la r .

N om . hé ah hea h
A cc . b ea u( n ) e ( hea hn e ) hé a h
Gen . hé a s
D at . hé a ( u) m , hé ag um
Ins t r . hea

P lu r a l .

hea ( h)

Gen . hea r ( r ) a
D at . hé a ( u ) m , hé a gum

N OT E . H - s t e m s follow t he r ules la id down in § 13 ( q .

T hus hr eoh,
‘

r oug h ,
m a k es hr eos , hr eon e, hr eor a , hr é o( u) m ,
‘

etc .

woh crook e d wa w6 ( u ) m e tc When the h follows a liquid

, ,
s, ,
.
,

t he pr e c e din g
,
ow e l i le n g t hen e d in c om pe n sa t ion for it s los s
v s

Owe h pe r e r s e Owé o s Ow um e t c
'

or ,
v , re ,
eor ,
.

WEA K D EC LEN S ION .

P a r adigm g oda , good

’

: .

Neut . Fem .

S in g ula r .

g ode gode
g ode gOda n
W
W
g Oda n
g odan

I du r a h

g Oda n
god r a -
en a )
g odum , ah
-
46 I NFLECTI ON . 48

NOT ES .
(1) Variant s . It will b e se en t h at the we ak de cl en sion s of

ad e j . an d n oun s a re ide n ti c l xc a , e ep t in the gen pl , w e e weak . . hr ad s i . usua lly

b rro ow the r
s t on g e n ding -r a . In the dat pl -a n for -um is
. . fr q u nt
e e . In
all c ases en din g in -a n
, an o cc as ion a l -onf und
is o .

( 2) S yn c opated an d un s yn c op ate d f rm fr q u n tly l t r

o s e e a e n ate . Syn c op e is
mo r ft n
e O e bl th n in th
a dm is s i e a e s tr n g d cl
o i n g e en s o : e . . ad s j . of m ate ia r l
in n m ay s yn c p t th ir w k f rm in dat pl gyldnum
-e o a e e ea o s , as . . .

(3 ) H -
t m c n tr ct t
s e s m uch
o a , e c .
, as in the s t r on g de cl en s ion

S tr ng o . Wea k .

heah, hig h hé a , he n a , e tc .

walk c ooked r wo, won , wona , e tc .

Oweorh , p erv e
“
rse Oweora, -e
, e tc .

D EC LEN S ION OF PA R T IC IP LES .

48 . P r e s e nt p a rt ic ip l e s t e rmin a te in en dc ,
-
with t he
e xc eption of thos e of c on tra ct ed a nd s om e a n om alous v e rb s ,
which
end in nde : ag en de, dr in cen de, g iefen de, wes en de ; teon de, s lea n de,
‘ '
-

f en de beon de, g an de They a r e de c lin e d b oth s tr on g a n d wea k

‘

, . .

The s t r on g d e c l e n s ion is ide n t ic al wit h t ha t of lik

( e gren e,
'

g r én e
t he p r es .
p a rt . is a
j o- s e mt ) .

P a r adigm : s cin en de, s hin in g .

Mas c . Neut .

S in g u la r .

s c in e n de
s c in en de

N A cc
. . s c in e n de s ci n en da , -
e

Gen .

D at .
 48 I N FLEC T I ON . 50

A dj e ctiv e s wit h r oot -v ow el a re t a in t he o rigin al a

( s ee 1 00 )
b e for e t he g utt ur al v owel of t he s upe rla t i v e en din g

Pos . Com p ar . S up e l r .

laed, g la d l d
g g ae ra
gla dos t ( a )
hw set , a c tiv e hwset ra hwa t os t ( a )
y x

s m eel, s m a ll s m selr a s m a los t a

( ) s m sels t a
( )
The r e is a se c on d m ode of c om p ris on in whic h the pre his tor ic
a

e n din gs -
ir a , -
is t ( OE . c us e d i—
m ut t ion of t he r oot
a a

v owel . This m ode was followed b y c om p r ativ ely s m ll a a a

n um b e r of OE . ad e j cti v es

b r ad, br oa d b r fidra ( b radra )

‘
e a ld, old ieldra ielde s t ( a )
'
ea Oe , ea s y i eiSr a

feor r, fa/r fie r r a
1

r t
g ea , g r ea t g r ie t r a g ri e t e s t ( a )
hea h, hig h hie r (r) a
( hi e hr a , heahra
) hi e hs t ( a )
lQ n g, long lgp gpa lgn ges t ( a )
n ea h, n ea r n éar r a
( ) n i ehs t a
( )
s c gqr g js t g rt s c ie r t r a
( )
s c ier t es t a

s tr on s tr on s t r gn g r a g ( )
s t r gn e s t a

N OT ES c om pa r ti e s e de clined we k the s trong

.
(1 ) A ll a v ar a

form in r is us ed fo c om p r ti e dv e r b s S upe rl ti es h v e
-
o r a a v a . a v a

b ot h s tr on g n d w e k f r m s os t es t
a t es t b ut t he we k
a o ,
-
,
-
,
-
os a , -
a a

for m b ein g us ed fte r ll de m on s tr ti es is b y f r the c omm on e r

,
a a a v ,
a

in fl e ct e d s tr on g f orm s are e r y r a r e v .

( 2) Mutated s upe rl ative s ( b

a ov e ) en d in -es t, the r t in
es o
os t ; b ut the
f rm r m
o e so etim es tak e -
os t , an d th e l a tte r -es t, e s pe ci lly b f r
a e o e a g uttu rl a

vow l f g
e : te res tum . F or -
os t ar e f
oun d -a s t, - us t : aziie Zas t , wis us t .

(3) T he g en .
pl . of c om p a ativ es r us ua lly en ds in -ena
, b ut t hr e e a sol
occur su ch ( s tron g) ge n .
pls . as g earr a for g earr ena , ate r (r) a, nitr a, for
uterr ena .
 51 C OM A P RI S ON . 49

51 . Irr e gu l ar C om p a ri s on .

j F ou r
c om p r t i ad s . ha ve a a v es a nd s upe rl ti
a v es wi ht a

diffe r e n t r oot fr om t h t of t he p os it i a ve

Com p ar . S up e l r .

O d’ g ood
t ( e ) ra be t ( ) st
e
°
s é l r a , S ella S eles t

yfe l, ba d, ev il wie rs a wie rr es t , wie r s t a

—
m ic e l, g ea t r ma r a p ees t
i
lyte l, little l ié s sa

( b) rom the d F a v . ee r , b e f or e , ar e form ed t he c om pa r ti a ve

a n d s upe r l t i e dj e ct iv e s a v a
( )
se r r a , ee r es t .

( c) S u p e rl a t iv e s in foun d -
m e st . The s upe rl . s uf fix -
m a is
onl y in for m firs t hin dem hin dm os t b ut c om b in ed with the
a, ,
a,

f urthe r ufii es t it is ee n in a n um b e r of upe r l ti es whic h

s x -
,
s s a v ,

e e tym olog ic ll oub le s u e r la t i e s t

ar
y d p The
a
y e m os ly ithou t
w v . ar

c orre pon ding po iti e dj s The c om p r t i e us u lly e nds

s s v a . a a v a

in e rr
-
a .

Pos . Com p a r . S up e l r .

( more, northwa rds) n ortierr a , n e ra n orOm es t

( s ue s outhwa rds )
,
sq r ra , s
yOerra S ub m e s t

( ea s t ea s twa rds )
,
ea s t e rra ca s t ( e ) me s t

( wes t westwa rds)

,
we s te rr a wes t ( e ) m es t
m id( d) m iddle , m id( e ) m es t
( fore b efor e)
,
r
fo m a, fyrm es t, fyr ( e ) s t
( ford, for th)
( aefte r , after) ac ftem es t

( ufa n a bov e)
, yfem es t, ufe m es t (ym es t )
( nida n below) ,
n iee m es t

( inn e within )
,
in n em e s t
( Li te without)
,
ute m e s t
laat, lat e laet e m e s t, las te st

( S id la te
, ,
adv .
) s iO e( ) m es t ,
s ines t
50 I N F L EC T I O N . 52 53
,

II . A dv e r b s .

52 . r ule only a d e rb s form e d from adj e cti es c an b e

A s a ,
v v

c om pa r e d The c om pa r ti e is form ed b y ddin g o the s uper

. a v a -
r,

l t iv e b y ddin g os t to t he pos it i e d
a a -
ft e r c utting Off fi na l
,
v a v .
,
a

-
e . Thus t he s tr on g f orm s of c om p r t i e n d s upe rl t iv e adj a a v a a s .

e us ed s c om p r a n d s u e r l
a d s a a v
ar
p . . .

Po s . Comp r a .

hga r de , ha r d hea rdor hea r dos t

deope , deep ly deopor dé 0 pos t
f s te
as , fast fses t or fees tos t

g ea r
( )
w e, well g e ar ( w) or g ea r ( w ) os t

c om pa r ti a ve in -
or n ev e r us e d a s a n a d ec j ti ve .

53 . Irr e gul ar C om p a ri s on .

( )
a It will hav e b e en no tic ed tha t t he pla ce of t he pos i iv et
of m os t of t he w o ds r c om p r ed in
a 5 1 wa s pplied b y a n adv e r b
su .

S ev e r al thes e a dv s or — n orOor , sub or ,

of .
pha v e c om a rs . in -
fl tr Oor ,
f
u or , n idor , in n or , utor — a n d t he su
pe r l . ad s
j . a re e qua lly us ed as

a dv s .

( b) followin g
The ha v e m on osyll ab i c c om pa r ati v es , a lm os t

w it h m ut t e d r oo t a -
v ow e l s

w el, well "

b )
s el
1
) s
t ( o) s t
b @—
gles t
M w ie rs w 1 e rr es t
lyt ( el) , little 1 373 8 li s t
m ic le m u ch
L v
\ m a, m se ” fis t
fie r r e rr e s t
l
V

n ea r , n
yr ni ehs t
—
sc os r t ,
é r ( e) s t
E
s iO e
( ) es t ,
m s ide s t
lgnge s t

so ftes t
 N U MER A LS .

N UMER A LS .

54 . T he OE . r
n um e a ls a r e a s follows

Ca r dina l Or din a l
f rmo a, fi re s t ( a ) , fyr m e s t ( a ) ,
fyr ( e ) s t ( a )
t w eg e n , t w a, t u Ode r , aeft e rra

r r
O ie , O eo Or idda
feo we r feortia
fif
s ie x s ie x ta

s eo fon s e ofoiSa
’

e a hta ea ht OOa

n i on nig oiia
g
tie n t é o iSa

gn ( d) le fa n Q n ( d) le ft a
t wglf t w glft a

Or it ie n e , Oreo t ie n e Or é otéo Oa
feo we rt ie n e feow e rt eOOa
fi ft ie n e fift eocia
’’

s ie x t ie n e S ie x t eoOa

s e ofo n t ie n e s eofon t é oOa

ea hta tie n e e a ht a t eoiia

n igon tie n e nig on t é ob a

t w é n t ig t w en t ig OOa

an on d t w é nt ig an Oll d t w é n tigoiSa

Orit ig Or it ig oOa
fé o we r t ig fé owe rt igoda
fift ig fift ig oOa
s ie x t ig S ie x t igO Oa
hun ds eofon t ig hun ds eofon t igoiia
hun dea ht a t ig hun de a ht a t ig oiia
hun dnig on t ig hun dn igon t ig oda
’

hun dt é on t ig , hun d, hun dr e d hun dt eon t igob a

52 I N FL EC T I ON .
g5 5

1 01 an hun d Q n d an an Ond hun dteon t igoda

110 hun dgn dlefa n t ig hun dgn dle fa n t ig otia

1 20 hun dt w glftig hun dt wglftigotia
2 00 t u ( twa) hun d
3 00 r
O eo hun d
1 0 00 ( an ) Ous e n d

N OT ES rdin als follow t he we ak dec len sion with t he

. l) T he o ,

e xc ep t ion of Od whi c h is a l w ys s tr on g n d it es t( ) fy m s t( )
er , a ,
a e r a ,
r e a ,

fy ( )
r es t w hicah e b ot h s tr on g
,
n d we k lik e ot he r s upe r la t i es
( ar
) a a v .

E s n um e r als lik e G e r m n n de tha lb s e c on d ha lf

( )
2 O h . a
( ) a a r ,

on e n d a h lf
a i th lb ( f ou rth h lf ) t hr e e a n d a half e t
a ,
v er a a , ,
c .

Thus we fin d feo iie he lf hu n d s c ip a 3 5 0 s hips ; f ifte hea lf

r a ,

hu n d 45 0 d5 er hea lf hu n d = 1 5 0 .

(3) l
ri ti in th nding
S ight m t with uch
va a on s e e s ar e e , s as -
e8 a
“
for o5 a

in ht O igh th ; ti g 6 t g8 té 8 f tig ti
' ’ ' “
a or - o
ea e a, e -
o o a, -
eo a, - o a .

(4) Th f rm ti n f th num r l 7 0 8 0 90 1 00 1 1 0
e o a o o e e a s , , , , , 1 20 , has n ot
b n ti f ct rily x p l in d
ee sa s a o e a e .

( 5 ) Th r n rdin l f 2 00 n d upw rd
e e ar e o o a s or a a s .

55 . D e c l e n s ion of C ar din al s .

(a) Kn ,
on e , is de lined c as follows

Mas c . Neut .

an an
A cc . an ne , senn e an
Gen . an es
D at . an um
Ins tr aen e
'

. an e , T

N OT ES .
(1) Plu ral r
fo m s ( lik e hose t of od
g , 43 ) ar e r r a e,

gen pl. . occur s in t he phr as e anr a g ehwil c, ea ch on e .

(2) The we ak f rmo ana m ea n s

“
alone .
”

( 6) Tweg en, t wo .

N A cc
. . tweg en t n, t wa

t weg ( e ) a, t wegr a
t wi m , twam
 55 N U M ER A LS . 53

With this c
p t he de lens ion
. c of beg e n, b o h t
Ma s c . Neut .

N A ce b ege n bu
W
. .

4
b eg ( r) a

r
-

b ayem , b a n

N OT E .
(3 ) He r e t here is s om e t e n de n cy t c nfu i n f g nd r
o o s o o e e s .

T he fe m . f rm o twa is us ed for t he n e ut e r Bd nd ma e oft en

. a ar

c on o in ed, a nd
j t he n b ri t wa is m as c . and fe m .
,
a nd b it tu ( als o in one

wo d) r n e ut e r .

( c) Brie, t hr e e .

N A ce
. . O ie r
Gen . Oreora
Dat . r
O im

d
( ) 4 to 1 9 a re c
in de lin a b le w he n us e d a s a d s j .
( i.e . wit h a

n oun ) they e de c lin ar ed lik e E n g le a,

- -
um , w he n us e d
a bs olu te ly E s . x

feo we ra s um , on e o f fou r ,
t t r ee othe r s ;
i e wi h h
. .

(Sa ra t w glf hé a hfaede r a , o

f the tw lv p t i chs e e a r ar .

( ) e 2 0 to 1 2 0 ( m ul iple st of ten on l
y) we e r o rigin a lly n eut e r
noun s r
g ov e n ing a g e n , b ut a r e a ls o . us e d a s ad s
j . They a re
s om e t im e s un in fl ec te d, s om e im e s ha v e t a
g e n . in -
es , b ut m os t
c om m on ly h av e
g e n . in -
ra, -
a, da t in .
-
um . Ex s .

hun ds eofon t ig m ila , 7 0 m iles

ea hta on d feowe rt ig es gln a lon g , 4 8 e lls lon g ;

sefte r Or it igra da g a faec e, a

fte r the sp a c f e o 3 0 da ys

sefte r s ie x t e g um da g a , fter
a 6 0 da ys ;

Orit igum n iht um fir , 3 0 da ys befor e .

(f ) Hun d ,
hun d r ed ,
is us ua lly un in fl e c t e d, b ut in EWS .

ha s a da t ( .
z da t pl . .
) in -
e in e i he t rc as e it us ua lly g ov e n s a r ge n .

fiftie n e hun d ouse n d m on n a , m en

mid eowe f r hun de s c ip a, with 40 0 s hip s .

54 I N FL ECT I ON . 56

(g ) D fis e n d , thous an d, ha s t he in fl e ct ions of a n eu e t r n oun ,

dus en des , pl dusen d, a l so

g en . .
-
u, o,
-
g en . a
-
( J
ra
) ,
dat .
- um it is
un in fl e c t ed :

fela (55
g en s e n da
l
p ) o fs lee e n r a , m a n
g .
y thou sa
. n ds o f s la in

tinsen d m on n a b igle ofa , the f ood o f a thou s a n d m en .

( h) Inn d num b e rs b oth c a rdin l a nd or din al

c om p o u ,
a ,

t he s m alle r n um e r als r e m a in un in fl e c t e d

tiar t wa Q n d t w en tig
a m on n of those twen ty two m en ;ra a, -

feowe r hunde wint um f eowe r s ie tigum r 4 64 year s x

—
on tieem an On d Orit igofian ps a lm e , in the Bl et p s a lm

b ut e xc eption a ll
y ( pos s ib l
y b y a ttr a ct ion ) :

on 5 s3 m tw sem on d on fé ow e rt e ogiia n g ea r e , in the 42n d year .

P R ON OU NS A N D A D JEC TIV E P R ON OUNS -

.

I. P ER S ON A L 1

56 . F ir s t P e r s on , ia, I ; S e c on d P e r son , Oil , t hou .

S ing . D ua l . P lur a l .

lo wit we
m ec , m e A u n c it , un c us ie , us
m in un c e r —
5 us e r ,
fir e

me un c 11 8

N om .

A ce .

Gen .

D at .

N OT E .
( )
1 The a cc us ti a v es m ec , Oec , un c it in c it, us ic, c owie,

a re ea rly or poetic al .

1
H e,
heo, hi t, is p op e y a dem on s t ativ e pr rl r r on oun Of the 3 r d p e r s on ,

b c
eing us e d to in di ate t hing s a nd p e sons a like r .
 56 I N FL ECTI ON . 58

III . POSS ES S IV E ( A dj e ct iv es
) .

58 T he g en itiv e c a se s of t he pe r s on al p ron s are

. . us ed a s

pos s e s siv e adj s : m in , bi n , un c e r in c e r , T

. i re ( us e r ) , , e ow e r ,

we fu lly inflec ted cc ordin g

a to tr ong de clen sion his
t he s ,

h ie r e , hie r a , are in dec lin bl a e, a nd m a

y t he r e for e b e p r s ed t a ,
a

wi ll, as in de c lin ab le poss . ad s j .

, or s
pe r s on al pron s in the gen
a . .

c a se .

P ar a digm
‘

: fir e , ou r .

Mas c . Fem .

Plur al .

N OTES . Eower, your , s yn c opa te s t he e b efore

(1 ) a vo wel, an d

may ev en c ontract éowerre, éowerr a , to éowr e, cowra Its . n om .

pl . n eu t .

is e owru .

( 2) Us er z ur e, our , a s s im il ates s r to ss in the c

s yn opate d f rm
o s : dat .

us s um z urum .

(3 ) S in, his, her , its , is poeti c .

( 4) Ur e an d cowe r , w h en t h ey are g en .
pl s . of r
the p e sonal p onouns r
an d n ot p os s ess iv e ad e j cti v es , are ap t to be rc
att a te d in to agr eem ent

f ll
with the o owing wo d, on w i r
in ea ity they depen d : cow a selfr a h ch r l r
onwea ld = 60 wer s elfra onwea ld r l
u e ov e you s e v e s ; ur es n ane s = ur e Mines
, r r l ,

o f n on e of us .
 P R ON O U N S
"
59 . 7

D EM ON S T R A TIV E .

Bee t , t he , th t a .

Neut .

S in g u la r .

b ee t
Ste
"

Plu r a l .

55 .

S ara ( S i am
)
dfim ( 6 am )
NOTE r l . l m t l w y n ut r b i g u d hi fl
T he in s t um en ta tion is a os a a s e e ,
e n se c e v

e ith r with d rb i l f rc
e in S a m a th m r
ve a in d rb i l p hr
o e, a s
“
en , e o e, o r a ve a a s es ,

f ti th t cc un t t S n t th t x t n t t i c m p un d
“
or on, o n a a o ,
no o ,
o a e e , e c .
, or n o o co

j unc ti n i d n ti b f r t h r f rm in p r n th ltr
”
o t
s, e r Th o e, e o e, e c . e o e o s a e e s es ar e a e .

( 6) D e s 65 , 0 8, hi s , this .

M as c . Fem .

N om . Oe s
A ce . Ois h e
Ge n .

Dal .

Ins lr .

P lu r a l .

N A ce
. . Sas
Gen . Sis s a
D at . Ois ( s ) um

NOT E . h
T is adj r
p on is
-
. c om poun de d of the dem on s t r ativ e s e ( Nor th . 5 c)
a nd the p a rticl e -s
e = b ehold .
58 I N F LECT I ON . 60 , 6 1

V . R ELA TIV E .

The pla c e of
60 . a rela t i ve
p r on oun ,
whic h OE la c k s , is .

su
pplied in f our w ays

(a) By t he de m on s tr a t iv e Oeet, us e d r el t i v e of
’ ‘

s e, s eo, as a a

t he 3 r d p e r s o n Ex : an ees tel s é b iO on fift egun m an c es sa a

. .
,
i ,

bookm k which s ha ll b e wor th fi

ar , fty ha lf cr own s -
.

B 8 5 s ee O t im m e di t e l f a rt ic le Os
( )
b y y
, o llow e d b y,t he a
p ,
a

s é Os s o O O t Oe O tt
,
‘

e
( —
) 3 r d p e rs on on ly E : s um b ee O5
s, ee av e . x . a ,
.

O8 n iedb eOe arfos t a S ie n om b ok whic h m a y b e m os t n ecess r y ,

s e o s, a .

N E ( 1 ) If 6 t i
OT .
p r t d fr m O it i t b r g rd d
3 e c .
,
th s se a a e o e, s o e e a e as e

a n t c d nt n t
e e p rt f th r l ti
e ,
o ; w
as l fid e a o O e e a ve e a so n s e

c
( ) B y t he pa rt ic l e Oe l on e — al l p e rs ons E : wis m Oe a . x .

Oé G od s e lde wis dom which God g a v e thee

a , .

( )
d B y t h e p rt i c le Oe f o ll ow e d b y p e r s on l
a
p r on oun of an y a a

p e rs on : Oe ie ( I) who ; Os Oil ( thou) w ho ; O hin

,
whom Ex e e, .

ni s n u c wi a n an OS 1 0 h im m Ods e f n m in n e durr e ase c ga n ther e

cr ,
a ,

is n ow n o on e f the livin g to whom I dar e u n bu/r den m y hear t

o .

NOTE .
(2 )h r w rd Ot e o s , as in the a b ov e ex .
, m ay in te r
ve n e b etween Oe
‘

a nd the f ll wing p r n l pr
o o e so a o n oun , espe ci lly in
a the genitiv e of the 3 rd

pe r s on : w h os e .

VI . IN TERR OGA TIV E .

HWE h waet who "wha t "

, ,

Mas c .

N om . hwa
A ce . hwon e
'
Gen . hw ees
D at . hwaem , b wani
hwy ( hwon )
“

Ins tr .
7

N OT ES .
( )
1 Hwa hwa t , ,
lik e hwwOer ( w hi h of t w o
) c a n d hwilc

( w hi h) ,
is c an in t e rr og a t iv e ( b ot h dir e ct an d in dir e ct ) an d in
de fi n it e p r on oun , b ut n ot a rel ti a ve
p r on oun .

( 2) The in s trum en ta l kwon ( c p Oon)

. i sn ly u
o s ed in adv e rbi l phr
a as e s ,

su ch as for kwon ,
tO hwon, why .
 62 P R ONO U NS . 59

V II . IN D EF IN IT E .

62 . HW E h wmt , , s om eon e , s om e thin g ,

hm e r , on e of t wo,

an d b wil o ( hwe lc ,
hwylc ) , y( on e ) ,
an a re us ed as in de fi nite
p ro n oun s in in te rr og at vei a n d n e a iv e
g t sen en t ce s . They m ay a ll
th ree be c om poun de d with a g nd a ge g i) ,
e a ae
g so tha t
we ge t th f llow ing c he m e o f inde fi n it e pr on o un s
e o s

hwa hwee Oe r

ahw seOe r ,

ne
f two
o

The s e , toge the r wi h t

awiht , un
fi t, an
ything s we e l su ch
5610 , eac h s wa hwa s wa, whoev er
sen i
g, an
y s wa hwilc s wa, whichev er ,

a re t im port n t inde f p on s in OE
t he m os a . r . .

N OT ES h d e c le n s ion of hw a is
( )
1 T e.
gi en in § 6 1 A ll v .

t he othe r wor ds m e n t ion ed b o e ( e xc ep t awiht es e

) ar e a v ,
-
,
-

de c li n e d lik e s tr ong a dj s .

H nd it s c om pou nds n d awiht ar e t t

( 2 ) d ea a s u b n i e a s a v

p r n oun ; t he othe r s re dj p on
o s i e m y b e us e d e it he r s
a a r s a a
-
.
,
. .

p on o in g r e m en t w it h
r s . r a n oun e a .

( 3 ) To e e r l of t he b ove w ords n c n b e pr e fix ed n d
s v a a a ,
a

t hu t he c orr pon din g n eg t i e w or d is ob t in ed : n n ig nan

s es a v a ee , ,

n on e n awiht n u ht n ahw O n e ithe r

, g ,
a ,
ee er , .

( 4 ) S om e of t he b o e wo rds h e for m s a n d c on tra ction s th t

a v av a

diffe r from o n e n ot he r er
y c on ide r b ly T hu ég hwwOe
’

a v s a . s e r

i gO
e e e it he r
r thw O Ohw Oe ( 6 ( w) Oe n d wiht
ee er nd wuht ee r r

( )
nd u ht n u ht n d s o on
a a
g , .
60 I N F L EC T I ON . 63 64 ,

V ER BS .

63 . OE . ve rb sc l ses S trong a n d
a re div ide d in t o t wo m a in as ,

We k a n d t wo m in or c la s es P s t P re s en t nd A nom lous
a ,
s ,
a -
a a .

T hey h e fou r m oods in fi n it i e in dic t i e s ub j un ct i e an d

av ,
v ,
a v ,
v
,

im pe r ti (p r s e n t ; on l
) t w t en s e s p res en t n d pas t ( the '

e a
yv e o , a

p r e s is o ft e n u s e d as a f ut u r e
.
) t w o n um b e r s n d t h r ee
p e r s on s a

t wo p rt ic iples p r e s en t ( a ct i e ) a n d p s t (p si e )
a ,
The in fi n it i e v a as v . v

h s a d ti e c s e o e n e d b tO w hic h s ofte n c lle d t he ge run d

a a v a v r 1 a .

The p s s i e oic e is s im ply m de up of t he e r b w an b e n to

a v v a v es ,
e ,

b e followe d b y pas t pa rt
,
n d i t he r e f or e n ot tr e te d of he r e
a . a s a
‘
.

The p rin c ip al p a rt s of e rb ar e t he in fi n it i e
p as t a v v
,

in g ul r p l l n d p s t pa rt ic iple T o t he s e is oft e n
s
fl pp a g a , ,
a a .

a dde d t he 3 d s in g pres in M r e rb s t he
. st 1 is
. a .

omi tt e d b e c a us e in t he m it is f or m ed fr om t he s t s in
, p g ( S ee a .

67,

64 . We ak Ve rb s — S tr ong v e rb s m ay
S tr ong V e rb s an d

b e dis t in guishe d fr om w e ak v e r b s in s e v e r a l wa ys

B o rm at ion o f t h e p a s t t e n s e tr on g v e rb s
( )
a y t h e f S
fo rm their pa s t t ens e b y W
.

of t he r oot v owe l a s in -
,

wri ta n wr a t w r it e w r ot e ; w e a
,
v er bs b y a dding the te r m in a
, ,

tion de te) t o the r oot This 1 s the m ain dis tin ct ion T he re i s
- -
. .

n o g r a da t ion in w e ak v e rb s ; the r e a r e n o p a s t t e n s es in de te -
,
-
,

in s tr on g v e r b s .

ast a rt of s tr on v e r b s e n ds in en of we k v e r b s
( )
b T h e
p p g .
-
,
a

in d, t - -
.

NOT E l i f rm . T he p as t p a t r . a so s o ed by g r a dation in r
s t on g v e rb s . But ,

sinc Cl V VI
e VII h th as s e s , an d av e e s am e v owe l in the p as t p a t a s in the r .

in fin th i i m uch l
.
,
c clu i s s a es s on s ve te s t of a s tr on g p a s t p a t t an the r h .

e n din g .

c
( ) The roots of =
stron g v eg
W on os
yIla b ic , A l l poly
ab ic r oots b elon g t o t he we a k c on u o a t ion
'

s
yll .

1
The on ly r li f pe c o as s . in fl cti n i
e o s in the f rm
o s hd tte ( s ing ) , hd t ton
p r es . an d p a s t of hd tan , to be c ll d
a e .
g6 4 V ERB S . 61

d
( ) S t ron ve rb s a re r i in l ;
o a a wo d r s ho w in
g t he s a m e
g
g
:

roo t as a strong v erb is de r i e d fr omv on e of it s s t em s W e ak

.

verb s a re de r i t i va ve .

X( e
) a n s it iv e m ost trans iti e e rb s v v

i re wea tron g in tr n s e rb a . v s

S tr on g . Wea k .

c
p . MO
M and ewella n , k ill
lieg a u , l ie lgcg a n , la y
S i tta n , S it s e tta n
,
set ;
\

rn ( in t ra n s )
b eor n a n , b u b n n b ur n ( t r n s ) . ar a , a .

W r r j n ed ll p r s en t e n din gs t o t he
'

(f ) k b s o ig in lly oi ea ve a a e

roo t b y m e n f j o i n d t his j o i h s r e m in ed in t he
a s o r ,
a r a a

infin in i n (n g i n lufi n )
s .
-
n d h s le ft tr c e in t he m u t t ion
a r a ,
a ,
a a a s a

of root ow e l ( hi n ) n d in t he doub le d c on s on n t s
v s er ac on a a

son n t + j )
a ft e r s hort root owel (f gm m n ) N e rly ll we k
a a -
v r a . a a a

ve r b s in n nd fe w in i n h
-
a m ut t e d r oot
a we l
a No -
a av e a -
vo s .

t hos e with

NB . A m u ta ted r oot -
vo wel 3 ) ther efo re infa llibly de n otes
a wea k ve rb (o r a we a k p re s e n t , g
(g ) the r h n d m u t t e d ow l in t he 2 n d a n d
O n t he o a ,
a a
“ '
v e

3 d in g p r e w it h n un m ut ted O Ot irdwe l in t he infin i

l .

r s . s ,
a a r -
s a
,
.

m r k of s tr n g e r b s
a w e k e r b s h e t he s m e owe l
o v a v av a v ,

whe t he r m ut t e d o un m u t t e d in t he in fin n d in t he 2 n d
a nd r a , . a a

3 d in g p r e
r s . s .

( h) T he followin g a re c h r c t e r is t ic
a a of we a k ve r b s ( b ut n ot
of al l we ak v e rb
) i s ig, i
g b e fo r e t he
e e n din s a n, — g
g anne fi
-
,
,
6
-
,

S in in e or
g W a
- -
. .

NB . t ( f ) (g ) ( h)
Tes s , ,
a re us e le s s for a doz en s tron g ve rb s

w ith wea kpr nt f w hic h

es e s, or s ee 80 .

1
D ub l d n t d b l
o e , o ou e . T he r
s t on g v e rb s fea lla n wea lla n b gnna n , e tc
h rig i l d ub l c n b e fore j
, , .
,
av e o na o e o s on a n ts , n o t doub led .
62 IN FL ECT I ON . 65

65 . En din gs —F c om p r is on s c hem e of t he
or t he s ak e o f a a

n o r m a l e n din s of s tr on e r b s r es pe ct i el
g g a n d w ea k y is he re v v

g i en b ut t he y will b e b e tt e r lea r n t in t he p r adigm s of t he e rb s

v
, a v

them s el e s v .

St r ong . Weak .

Cl ass es I II .

PR ES EN T Indic a tive .

PR ES EN T S ubj un tive c .

PAS T In dic a tiv e .

te
-
Ode
-
t es t -
Odes t
-
te Ode

-
ton -
odon

PA S T S ubj un tiv e c

Imp er a tive .

Infinitiv e .

P a r tici
p les .

Pr es .
-e n de 1 en de

P as t .
( e ) d, t
-
0d

N OTE . It m us t
rem m b er d that as will b e s en fr om th
be e e ,
e e

f llowing p radigm th grad ti n of the r t w l in s tr ng erb

o a ,
e a o oo -
vo e o v s

i m r im p rt n t th n th
s o e n din g
o a f di t ingui hin g on p rt f th
a e e s or s s e a o e

verb fr m n oth r an d f
o adi tingui hing
e tr ng fr m a weak erb
or s s a s o o v .
 64 I NFLECT I ON . 67

( ) c The rigin l
o a e n din gs of the s ing . r
p es in die we e : l et p e s -u, -0 ;
. . r r .

r
2nd pe s -is > -es ; 3 r d p e s
. r .
- iO . H nc e e the i -m utation of the oot-v owe r l
( t ehr
e c an b e n o i -m uta tion of i) in the 2 md and 3 rd s in g . p r es . in die . of

s tr ng
o rb ve s

( d) T he fin a l - t of the 2 n d pe s r . s ing . is the em a ci a te d r e m n an t of On,

t h ou ; f rm nding in O
a fe w x t nt r id + Ou id O> id t
o s e -s are e a : es r es r es .

Sim il rly apith tic t h

, b n dd d t th 2 nd ing p t f w k rb
an e e -
as ee a e o e s . as o ea ve s .

( ) T h p t in di pl r ig i lly nd d in un l t r t x t ft n h
e e as e .
n . o na e e - a e e s o e av e -a .

( f ) Th ub jun cti pl p r fr q u n tly d in n ; in th p t l t r

e s ve . es . e e en s -a e as , a e

t xte ft n t k
s o r th n f th indi
e a e ov e e -o o e e .

(g) Th u u l n ding f th d ti in fin
e s g r un d i
a e nn b ut n( n) o e a ve . or e s -a
e, -e e

3 3 ) i n t un c mm n
s o o o .

67 . P r in c ip al P art s from t he p r dig m —It w ill b e s ee n a a

giv en in 6 6 t h t t hr ough t he g r da ti n of t he r oot owe l t he

a ,
a o -
v ,

s tr on e r b r i da n has
v t l e as t t hr ee dif
f e r e n t s t em s : i d r ad a
g r ,

r id The n um b e r of diffe r e n t s t em s in a s tr on g e r b is s om e v

tim es fou r a s in b od h b d bud on b od en b r — b bar on

,
'

e -
a ,
'

ea ,
-
,
-
e ah ,
a r, -
,

bo e u r- We s y t hen t h t the OE s tron g v e rb has four s t em s

. a a .
,

whic h e n ot n ec The s e f ou r s t em s a e b e s t
'

ar s a r ily d fi en t es i er . r

shown in t he f ou r p r in c ip l p rt s : ( 1 ) in fin a a .
,

_p rt s s e e n in t he e x a m le s j us t
p gi e n
a .
,
a v .

T hus t he im port n c e of k n owin g t he p r in c ipal p a rt s of a s t r on g

a

v e r b is e ide n t b e c a us ev ll the othe r p rts re for m ed fr om t hem

,
a a a

by imp ly ch n g in g th en din g
s a s s h wn in the p a a di m o
g e f s a o r

66 The followin g s c he m e s how s wh at p a rts are fo rm e d

.

fr om e a c h of th e p rinc ip al p a rt s :

F r om A e for m ed r

Infinitiv e A ll p s n t for m s re e

P as t 1 s t an d 3 r d S ing . Non e
g
7 P as t Pl u r . A ll p a s t f or m s
) s P as t In die .

2 n d S in g .

P as t S ub j .

P as t P a rt . P a s s iv e Voic e on l
y .
 V ERB S .

2 nd an d 3 r d S in gul a r P r e s e nt .

68 . It w ill ha v e b e en no tic ed th t a t wo form s , yn c opa t ed

s

an d un s yn c op ted of the 2 nd n d 3 d s ing pr e in die

a ,
a r . s . . we r e g iv e n
in t he p r dig m of i d na a Mor eov e r v e rb w it h r oot
r a . owel i ,
a -
v

w p p
as u r o el
y c ho e n b e c u e t he r e w ould h
s s e b e e n m ut t ion of
a s av a

alm t n y ot he r ow l in t he b
os a ev
p rt s ( e x l in e d in § 6 6 C
e
p ) a ov a as a .

T he e tws t hin g t he n de m n d a littl

o s tte n tion in fo rmi n g the a e a

2n d n d 3 d in
a rOf tr n g v e rb ( i) M ut t ion Of r oot
S cr . re s . s o s : a

S n d c on s e q ue n t c h n g es
v ow e l ;
( )
ii n e co a a .

()
i M ut at ion of r o ot v ow e l
- . Ru le : F orm t he 2 n d and

3 rd S in
g . r
p e s . in die tron g e rb s
. of s v wi h m ut t te d r oot
a -
v owe l,

a cc or din g t o t he foll owin g c hem e s

Or ig in a l Vowel AIu ta ted Vowel Infin .

a se 1 21 ) f r a a n, go
b lawa n , b low

i 98 , 1 2 0 ) helpa n , help

he a lda n , hold
hé a wa n , hew

weorOan , bec om e

c r é opa n , c
r eep

st O
n da n ,
s ta n d

b lOwa n , bloom

y c um an, c om e

y b ruc a n , en o
j y
6 , i, 1 , ie , as a r e n ot a ffect e d b y i m uta tion -
.

N OT ES .
( )
1 Em pir ic a l
r ule fo form ing the 2 nd n d 3 d s r a r

sin g p r es from t he in fin a e O ft e n help f ul a n d us u lly h rm le ss

. . . r a a .

But it m us t b e c le rly un de r s t ood t h t thes e p rt a e n ot a a s ar

d r i ed from t he OE infin b ut fr om t he ir own e rlie r p r ehi toric

e v . .
,
a s

form nd it i t tim e s of t he ut m o t im port n c e tha t the fa ct

s, a s a s a

w . 5
66 I N FL EC T I ON .
5 69
s hould c le rly s ta ted Thus bir e6 c n b e tr c ed s tep b y
be as a . a a

s t ep fr om t he In do G e r m n ic f or m bhe eti to y t ha t it i a r sa s
-

form ed from the root of b n b y the a ddition of 6 with m ut tion er a -

e ,
a

of t he r oot v owel is c e rt in l b ot h in cc u r te n d m is le ading a a a a

y
-
, .

(2 ) Sync p t d f rm with m ut t d w l
o a e o b s th rul in a e vo e s, as a ov e , are e e

EWS . lth ugh un ync p t d f rm b th with m ut t d nd with unm ut t d

,
a o s o a e o s o a e a a e

vo w l l f un d bir 6 fr m b r n bgg 6 fr m b ng n w 6 6 fr m
e s ar e a so o : e o e a , e o a , eor e o

weor6 a n .

(3 ) Un syn c op ate d f rmo s wit h out i-m utation are the rul e in A ng ian l .

The e of t he e n din g s -
es t, e6 ,
-
in
3 rd s in g p r e s in dic , is r eg ula r ly dr opped in EWS ,
an d . . . .

a n d t he f ollow in g c ha n g e s t ak e pla c e in the c on s on a n t s thus

b rought t og e the r .

NB . Thes e cha n g es a r e n ot
p ecu liar to s trong v er bs , bu t take
a sses 1 a n d 2 when the s ec i
p la ce a ls o in wea k v er bs
( C l ) p fied con
dition s are
p r es en t .

P er s on s .

2 nd 3 rd
, .
(a) D oub le c on son n ts a a re s im pli ed : fi win n ( e) s t >
win s t, win n ( e) 6 win 6 , fyll( e) s t >fyls t fyll( e) 6 >fyl6 , .

( b) Be for e s t,
-
d > t, an d s, 6 an d s t ar e dropped
fi ( ) fin ts t s ten d( e) s t
nd e st > s ten ts t , ( )
c i es e s t ci es t

wier6( e) s t wier s t ; c wi6( e) s t c wis t ; bir § g( e) s t bir s t .

( c) t a fter a

v owel t he 2 n d

)5
e n t ic al

t) ()
s gt e 6

s gtt . S im ila r ly 6 6 6 a fte r a c on s on n t a , 66 or 6

a fte r a v ow e l : wier 6 ( e) 6 wier 6 ,
‘

c wi6 e
( )6 cw i6 ( 6 ) .

( d) . s + 6 us ually -
s t, b ut in ea rly t e xts -
s6 als o

rem ain s : f or li es e
( ) 6 > for lies t ; wiex e ) 6 > wiex t
( ( x : h+ s) ,

(
c i es e
) 6 > ( thus the 2n d
c ves t and 3 rd s in g . of s e m s t
e n din g in s b e c m e ide n tic al ) a .

2 nd, 3 r d .
( ) g
e m tim > h b f r
so t
e es e o e -s an d -6 , b ut '

c hiefiy in l tra e

x
t e ts :
g 6 9 V ERB S . 67

NB . r ule
The e gi en
a he r e in or de r t h t t he
b ov e s ar v a

ucc eedin g e ct ion s on r t t hic h t hey h e pr ope r ly

”
s g s d io n w i h w a a ,
av

n ot hin g t o do m y n o t b e c um b e r e d w ith t he m
,
a n d b e c u e the
y ,
a a s

c ould n ot b e pos tpon ed t ill l te r The tude n t m us t p y due a . s a

a tte n t ion t o t hem s o th t whe n g r d tion h s b ee n m t e re d he

,
a ,
a a a as ,

m y b e in
a pos ition t o c onj ug t e in f ull e e ry O E tr n g e r b
a a v . s o v .

On o t w e x m ples from e c h s tr on g c l
e r o a e a
“
ppe n de d ( we k ass ar a a

p r e nts
se n d c on tr a ct e d
”
a e rb e tr ea t e d s ep r a t e l
v
y) ; t he 2 md
s ar a

n d 3 d s in g p r es of e e r y e r b m e n t ion e d in the followin

v v
a r . .
g
s hould b e w ritt e n out in the s m e w y a a .

r
a is a n , a r is e

b i da n , wa it
b it a n , bite
m i6 a n , a v oid

II .
(
“
C r e ep b é odan , or der

s c é ot a n , s hoot

lfic a n , lock

Il l a . Help helpa n , help

feoht a n , fig ht
b .
(
“
D rin k drin c an , dr in k

IV .
(
“
Be a r b e r an , bea r

V ( .
“
T r ea d t r e da n , tr ea d

VI .
(
“
Fa re fa r a n,
g o

VII ( R e duplic at in g) b lawa n , b low

.

la
Tat a n , let
hea lda n , hold
'

hé awa n , hew
b louda n, blen d
b lé wa n , b loom
 68 I N F L EC TI ON . 70

G R A D AT I ON ( A bla ut
) .

70 . S tron g rb
c onj ug t ed p rin c ip lly b y t he use
ve s ar e a a

of diffe r e n t s t e m s in t h m e e r b t he s e s t e m s b ein g r e la t e d t o
e sa v ,

n othe r b y t he r a d t ion of t he r o ot ow el w it hou t ot he r

“
on e a a v
g
-

c h n ge a G r a d at io n in OE t he n m y b e d e fin e d s
. e r ie of. a a a s s

rel tion s b e tween prim a ry owels b y which lon e t h s tem s of

a v a e a

str on g e rb e diffe r en ti t e d The re e s e n c l s s es of trong

v ar a . ar ve a s

v e rb s in O E di tin guis he d fr om on e n ot he r b y t he g r ded

.
,
s a a

v owe ls of t he fou r s t e m s The followin g t b le s hows the e v owels

. a s

in wha t m y b e c lled a a

G RA D A T IO N -R O WS .

Cla ss P r es . P a s t S in g . P as t P lu r . P ast P ar t .

I . S hin e

II .
(
“
C r eep

IIIa .
( H “
e lp

b .
(
“D rin k
IV .
(
“
Be a r

V T r e ad ”
.
)
VI .
(
“
F a re

‘
V II .
( R e dupl .
) e o, e e o, e

NOT ES .
( )
1 The p a s t s in g a n d plu r of t he 7 t h C la s s
NB . . .

i we re r
o gi in ally f o rm e d b y R e d u p lic a t ion of t he r oo t-
s lla b le
y
 70 V ERB S . 9

( pc . La t . l di ; G k 858mm 868mm
do , ( e .
, ) ,
in s om e ve rb s t
w i h, in
r
o t he s w it hout, g r a da t ion S in c e t he . tr c a es of rigin l e
t he o a r

duplic t i ry fe w in OR a on a r e v e ,
it is b es t fo r t he pr s e n t t r n k
e o a

C l V II wit h t he othe r g r d
ass . a a t ion c l s s e -
a s, w hil t r e t in in g t he
s a

n me R e duplic t in g
a a .

( )
2 It will b e no tic ed th t a on l
y in C la s s e s II , IIIa . .
,
an d
IV . a re t he re f u r dif
o er en t s tem s t ha t in C la ss es I , IIIb . .
,
an d
V t he re e th e dif n t t m s n d th t in C l s e s V I n d
. ar r e er e s e ,
a a a s . a

V II t he r e e o nl
.
y tw d fie n t tem N e rt he les s e xc ludin g
ar o i re s s . ve ,

p t
as p rt ( whi c h c n n o t b e m i t k e n fo
a s . n
y ot he r
p rt ) n a s a r a a ,
o

p r f m
esf . tr n g b h
or s th m o o ta we l s a n y
o p ast v er a e sa e r o -
vo as

for m of the s a m e v er b .

The im port a n c e of t he g ra da t ion —

( )
3 rows j us t giv en c a n
ha r dly b e e x a gg e r a t e d They a r e m os t e a s ily r e m e m b e r ed b y .

le a rn in g t he p r in c ipa l pa rt s of t he v e rb s e le cte d a s t he n a m e of
ea ch c l a ss
(e xc e pt in C la s s V II , in whi h t he . c v o we ls of t he

pr e e n t s a re v a rious )
Clas s Infin . P a s t S in g . P a s t P lur . P as t P ar t .

“
I .
( S hin e s ei n a m s c an s c in on s c in e n

( C re ep
II “
c réo
'

an
.
p c r ea
p
IIIa . Help helpa n hea lp

b . D in kr dr in c a n dr on e

IV . Bea r b e ra n b ee r

V . Tr ea d t reda n tr ad

VI .
(
“
Fa re f r a an for

( 4) Giv en the cl s as of a s trong

rb t he g r d tion rows ve ,
a a -

t r with t he
t oge he r ules of bfi 68 6 9 s uffic e fo t he c om ple te
‘
, ,
r

c onj ug tion of ll p a a e rf c tlye

gu l ( i e the m j or ity of) Old
re a/r . . a

Englis h s tr on g e r b v s . Irr eg ul r it ies e f ully de lt wit h in t he ir

a ar a

pl c e a .
70 I N F LECT I ON .
5 7 1

71 . H ow t o t e ll t h e c l as s o f a s t o r ng ve rb .

In t he g ra da t ion r ows a s r epe a t e d b elow, t he v owels pri n ted

-

b l a c k a r e in t he m s elv e s c on c lus iv e ( irr e g ula r itie s apa rt) a s t o t he

cl ass of t he ve rb
c they e found s in c e they occ urs in whi h ar ,

n owhe r e e l e in s tr on r a s t o t hose
1
e b s in the s m e p
s ts v
g a ar

pr in t ed n it lic t he r e is m or e o les s u n c e rt in ty whic h is

i a r a ,

re m o ed howe e r b y the hin ts giv e n t the foot

v v a .

C la s s Infin . P a s t S in g . P a s t P lu r . Pa s t P a r t .

“
I .
( S hin e i a i i

II . C r eep

( He lp
“
IIIa .

( r b .
“
D in k

IV Bea r
.

V ( T r ead
“
. e

V I ( F a re
“
. a

V II .
( R edupl ) . cc, e e o, e
2252
The on ly un e c rt in ty there fore lies b et we en Clas se s II III
a .
, .
,

IV . an d V .
, a n d t ha t is c om ple t e ly dis pe lle d b y t he f ollowin g

t t
s a em en s : t
T he s t e m -v o we l in C l as s e s II .
(
“
C re ep an d V .

t c t e r e is n o un c e rt in t —is fo l
“ — b e w e e n whi h
( T r e ad h y a

l owe d b y a s ingl e c o n s on an t whic h is n ot l or ( e xc ep t r

in p s t p rt s c n d o
a n f la n f .n h o n
or e s ee ,
r re ,
or or e ,
r or e ,
r re

T he s t e m -v o w e l in C l a s s III is fo l l ow e d b y t wo .
( or

m or e ) co n s on a nt s , th e fir s t of w h ic h is a n a s al in ( )
6

( a ) ( He lp
“
b ut n ot in

T he s t e m -v o w e l in C l as s IV . is fol l owe d b y
l or r o nl y ( e xc ep t in br e c n)a .

1 It is as s um e d t h at dr inc a n , e .
g .
,
l
wi l n ot b e tak en for a pas t p lur . or

p as t pa t r . of Cl as s I .
72 I N F L EC T I ON . 73

73 C l as s II ( “
C re e p G r a da t ion row :
‘

. -
éo fi , ea 11 o .

P a r adigm c r eo
pa n , c ré a
p ,
c ru on
p , e ro pe n .

Pr es ent
In dic a tiv e .

P lur .

S u bj un cti v e .

P lur .

Imp er a tiv e .

eré o
p , c r é op a6

Infin itiv e .

c r é opa n , da t .
-
an ne

P a r tic ip les .

e r eo e n de
p ge erop en

A m on g t he c om m on e r ve rb s of this c l a s s are

b é oda n , c om m a n d
b r é ot a n , br ea k
el é ofa n , s ev er

dr é oga n , en du r e b rfie a n , en oy
j
fié og a n , fl y b fig a n , b ow
fié ot a n , fl oa t dufa n , div e

g é ot a n , p our lfie a n , loc k

g ré ot a n , weep hi t a n , s too
p
hr é owan , r ue s efifa n , s hov e

leogan , lie s lfipa n , g lide

N OT E . V e rb s with a in t he p resen t ar e o the rwis e p e rfe ct ly

reg ul a r : bug a n , beag , b ug on , bog en
'

.
 74 V ERB S . 73

Irr e gul a r .

( ) a f ollow in g c om e u n de r V e r n e r s L w
The
’
a wi h t r
in pl c e of
a n d d in p l c e of 6 in p s t
s, a
plur a nd p t ,
a . a as
pa rt :

cé o n ch o e
sa ,
o s c uron g e c ore n
dr eos a n , fa ll dr uron g e d r or e n

for lé os a n , los e for lur on for lore n

fré osa n , f r eez e fr u ron ge froren
hr é osa n , fa ll hr ur on g e hr or e n

s é o6 a n , see the s udon

ge s ode n

Whe r ea s V e rn e r s ’
La w f a ils in

ab r eo6 a n , f a il ab ro6 e n

( b) F or t he c on tr ct ed
a ve rb s fl e n o ,
teon ( d r )
aw , s ee 81 .

74 . C l as s IIIa G r a da tion r ow :
-
e, eo ea 11 o .

P a ra digm : helpa n , he alp, hulpon , holpe n .

Pr es ent
In dic a tiv e .

S u bj u n c tiv e .

m
I p er a tiv e .

he lp, helpa6

Infin itiv e .

he lpa n , da t . an n e
-

helpe n de ge holpe n
74 I N F LEC T I ON . 74

A m on g the c om m one r ve rb s this c las s ar e

b elg a n , be a ng r
y b eorga n , pi g tect
de l fa n , dig e eor fa n , c a r v e

m e lt an , m elt feohta n, fig ht
s we lga n , s wa llow hw eor fa n , tu r n
s w e lla n , s well m eolc a n , m ilk
s we ltan di s t eorfa n , die
, e
weor pa n , thr ow

N OT E .
(1 ) The ea of t he pas t s ing . is a b r ea kin g of a ,

an d t he r e s is a b re k in g of e
co of t he p . a . The r ea s on why om e s

v e r b s ha e e n d o the rs ea in t he p r e se n t
v a is, th t e b rok e b e for e I
a

o nl
y hen followed b y c o k
w r

Irr e gul a r .

( ) U n de r Ve r n e r La w 1 6 9) c om e s
’
a s

w e or6an , be com e wea r6 wur don g e wo rden

( b) F or the ve rb féola n '

, p en e tra t e ,
s ee 81 .

c
( ) In t hre e ve rb s e ie a ft e r p a la a t lg ( s ee 1 43 )

gielda n , yield, p ay geald g ul don

g iellan ,
yell g e
()
al l
g u ll on

gielpa n , b oa s t g e alp gulpon

d
( ) Two ve rb s hav e u in t he p r es

mu rn a n ,
m our n m ea rn m urn on
s
pur n a n ( s
p or n a n ) , sp ur n s
p e a rn s
purn on

( )
e M e ta thes is of r is s ee n in ber s ta n *
br es ta n
‘
an d 6 er sea u
* 6 r es a/nc c e t he n or m l c h
3 he n a an
ge of a to as
( s ee 1 0 0 ) in t he

pa s t s in g . in s t e d of b r e ak in g
a

b e rs ta n , bu r s t b aer s t b u r s ton g eb or s t en
6e rs e a u, thr es h 6 eers c 6 urs c on ge6ors c en

1
An as te ri k b f
s e o e a r r
wo d den ote s tha t it is n ot e x tan t in th at form .
 70 V ERB S 75
fl

(f ) T he root -
v owe l is n ot follo wed b y c on son n t s th t p roduc e
a a

b rea k in g ( s ee 3 ) in

b regda n , b r a n dis h b raeg d b r ugdon

s t re
gdan, s t ew r s t re
e
gd s t r ug don

t
wi h whi h m ay b e c rem em b e red t he a n om a lous

frigna n , in q u ir e fraegn frugn on g e frugn e n

Non e. ( 2) h
A ll t ese v e rb ft n dr
s o e op hc
9 wit om pen sa to ry l en g t h en ing

of the p rc e edin g v o w l (
e see th u s:

b ré dan ( 3 rd s ing . britt) b reEd

'

brud on

frinan [fran ( Cl ass frfinon

(3) S treg da n is l c
a so on ug ate d
j weak .

75 . C l as s IIIb (
“
D r in k G rad tion
a r ow :
-
i (
a u u .

Pa radigm : drin c a n , dr on e , drun c on , dr un c e n .

Pr es ent
In dica ti v e

S u bj un c tiv e

Imp er a tive
dr in c , drin c a6

Infin itiv e
dr in c a n , da t .
-
a nn e

Pa rticip les
dr in c e n de g e dr un c en

A m ong t he c om m on e r ve rb s of this c l as s are

bg idan , b in d on gin nan b egin

,
s t in c a n , s tin k

( )
b linn a n , c eas e s m c a n , s in k s wim m a n , s w im
lim pa m, hgpp en s in
g a n , s ing win n a n , fig ht
76 IN F LEC I ION .
'‘
76

N oTE s .
(1 ) T he P rim itiv e G erm an ic gradation row
Cl III w - of as s as

e u n
a T h di rg nc . fr m th i f th Engl i h ub cl
e ve e H lp
es o s o e s s -
a s s es
“
e
”

a nd Dri k
“
du t ch ng n whi ch t nk p l c p rt l y in G rm nic n d
”
are e o a es o r
a e a e a a

p r tly in OE
a ( i) G rm ni c > i b f r n . 1+ n n e t p d in n
a e e o e a sa co so an z c . r ca

a n d h lp ( ii) G rm n ic u >
e an . in tr n g p t p rt e pt b f r
a o s o as a s ,
ex ce e o e

n l+
as a n n nt co p g h lp n g d un n
so a
( iiiz) OE
c > g
. b f re n o l e , e r ce . . a e o e a asa

(s ee d > ( br k in g ) b f r r l h + n n nt p d gn h lp
an ea ea e o e , , eo so a : c . r c, ea .

( iv ) S ee 7 4 , N ote

(2) D ubl c o e on s on an ts ar e ll
us ua y s im plified w h en fin a l : s wimma n ,

p as t s in g . sw
gm(m) , im perat . s in g . s wim .

Irr e gul a r .

( )a M e t a thes is of r is s een in bi( e) r n a n

r in n a n e xt an t in tér in n a n
( )
a n d i e rn a n
( ) .

b i( e ) rn a n ( b eor n a n ) bur n b orn b a rn b urn on , g e b urn en ,

i( e ) r n an r u n , or n a r n urn on g e u rn en ,

( b) F in da n has quas i weak pa s t s in g f un de a s well as fgnd -

.

c
( ) F or br in a n s ee
g 9 0 a n d for 6 u n g on 6 u n g en § 8 0 N 6 ,
-
,
-
, ,
. .

76 . C l as s IV (
“
B e ar G r a da t ion —
row : e as as o .

P a r a digm : b e r an , b eer , b eeron , g eb or en .

Pr es ent
In dic a ti v e .

b ere
hir ( e) s t ( b ie r s t )
b ir (e ) 6 ( b ie r6 , 1 40 )

b e r a6

S u bj u n ctiv e .

P lu r .

Imp era tive .

b er, b era6
Infin itiv e .

be ran ,
da t .
-
a nn e

b e r en de geb or e n
 77 V ERB S . 77

The on l
y im po rta n t ve rb s of t his cl a ss a r e

b re c an, br ea k hela n , c nc
o ea l te r an , tea r
c l
s t e a n , s tea l

Irr e gul ar .

( )
a S c ier a n , s he a r ,
c ut , t
has diph hon gis e d t he v owe ls of t he
fir t t hre
s e
p a rt s, ae > é a
,
un de t he in fl ue n e o f r c
p l t l s (
a a a o see g 1 43 ) b ut s a c r ,
s c eer on , a re a lso found in p oe try
—
i
s c e ra n s c ea r
( s erv
e r) s c é a r on
( s e aer on ) g e s c or e n

( b) Es p e c ia lly im p ort a n t a re

c um an, c om e o
( )
w om c
( )
w 6 m on
( g e ) c urne n ( c ym e n )
n im a n , ta ke n6m ( nam ) n 6 m on
( n am on
) g e n um en .

NOTE . T he 6 of the p a s t s ing . is b rr w d fr

o o e om the pas t p ur l .
,
rh
pe aps

on the l
an a ogy of Cl as s VI . F or the oth r w l
e vo e s s ee 1 4 6 , 1 48 .

77 . C l as s V (
“
T re ad G r a da t ion -
r ow : e as as e .

P a r ad igm : t r e da n, treed ,
t r fidon , t r e de n .

Pr es ent
In dica tiv e .

S u bj u nc tive .

Imp er a tiv e .

t r e d, tred a6

Infin itiv e .

t re da n , da t .
- a nn e

P a r ticip les .

t r e de n de ge t r eden
78 I N FL EC T I ON .

g 7 8

The on ly im port a n t ve rb s of this c lass a re

drepan , s tr ike s
p r e e a u , s ea
p k
me tan ,
m e te, measu r e weg a n , c a rry
wre c a n , a v eng e

Irr e gul a r .

Un de r V e r n e r s Law 1 6 9) c om e
’

( )
a

c we6a n , s ay c wae6 d
c w ae on ge c weden
w e s am, b e wees w aeron 96)

Whe r ea s t he la w f a ils in

( ge n e s a n , s ur v iv e
) ( ge ) mses ( ge ) n fis on g e n e s en
le san , collect lees l es s on g eles en

( )
b D iphthon gisa tion due to pala t al g is s e en in a ll pa rt s of

g ie fan ,
g ive 1 43 ) g e af
g ea fon n

-
g ie ta n , g et -
g e a t g
-
é a t on -
gie t e n

c
( ) Eta n an d it s c om poun d fr etan hav e a in pa s t s in
g
t
e a n , ea t
"

i t fi ton geet e n
fre t an , dev ou r fr fit fr é t on fr eten

( d) F or the w e ak p re s e nt s bidda n , f r icg a/n , licg a n, si tta/n

6 i0 g a n , see 80 , an d for t he co ntrac t e d ve rb s g efé on , p léon ,

s é on , s ee 81 .

78 . C l as s V I (
“
F are G r a da tion —
row : a o o a .

Pa r adi gm : fa r an, for, foron fa ren

, .

Pr es ent
In dic a tiv e .

S u bj u n ctiv e .
80 I N FL EC TI ON . 79

79 . C l as s V II ( R e du p lie atin g) .

Infin an d P a st P a r t .

S te m wels E
'

-
vo a, , e a, éa , <, 0
3
P ar adi gm s : fe a lla n , feoll, feoll on , fealle n .

l é tan , let , leton , l é t e n .

Pr es ent
In dica tiv e .

S ing l . . fe a ll e la
Tet e feoll let
2 fiels t lé ts t feoll e le te
_
.

3 . fiel6 l set ( t ) feoll let

P lu r fea ll a6 l aet a6 feollon leton

‘

S ubj u n c tiv e .

l fite
l é te n

Imp er a tiv e .

fe all, feall a6 l é t, l ee
‘

t a6

Infin itiv e
—
.

fea lla n , l eaet a n , da t .

-
a nn e

P a r ti ip lesc .

fea llen de la
s t en de g e fea llen g el fite n

N OT E r em n a n t in EWS p ros e of the ea rlie r

.
( )
1 The onl y .

r eduplic a tion in t he p s t t en s e is een in h b t a from s e

hata n b u t le l fr om laca n d fr om eed n ( n ) d or d fr om

o c ,
r eor r a ,
o re

( n ) d é d n n d leor t fr om te a m
o r a ,
e p r e s e r ed in p oe t ic al or
a , ar v

n on WS te xt s
-
. .

The foll owi ng e t he c hi e f v e rb s o f th is c l as s They e

ar . ar

di ided in to t wo s ub c l s s es a cc or din g t o t he ow el of t he p s t
v -
a v a

t ens e an d e then g roupe d cc ordin g to t he ow el of the

,
ar a v

p r e se n t .

NB A ll dup lic ting

. e bs h v e 6 0 in the p as t ten se
re a v r a ,

e x c e p t t hos e wit h in t he p r es en t s te m n d hat n

as lac a n ,
a a , ,

d
s ca a n , an d blgn da n ( b len d) .
 79 V ERB S . 81

1 . P as t t ens e in 60 .

( i) b lawa n , b lo w m awa n , m ow

c h aw n kn w a ,
o s aw a n , s ow

e r aw n cr w a ,
o s w a a n , s weep
p
6 r aw an , thr ow

( ii) fea lda n , fold w e a lc a n , r o ll

fe alla n , fa ll we a lda n , wie ld

hea lda n , hold w ea lla n , well

w ea x a n , g r ow

( )
iii b ea ta n , bea t
- hea w a n , hew
hlea pan , leap

a na n , s um m o n s
ponnan,
j oin

b lo t a n , sa r c ific e t pa n , thr ea ten

b lowa n , bloom r Owa n , r o w
fl ewa n , fl ow s
pow an , su cceed
g r owa n g r ow ,
s ga u , s ou n d, s woon

II . P as t t e n s e in e .

( ) vi hata n , com m an d, c a ll laea n , p la y

s c ada n , div ide

NOT E .
( 2) B es ide s sc d da n, s eed, e tc .
,
we fin d s c ea dan , g esc é a den , wit h
dip thh on gis ed v owe l ft r p l
a e a a ta l se an d an a n om a l ous p as t sc éa d .

( v ii) dr ea d rfi da n , c ou n se l

li t an , let s la
Ta a n , s leep
p

N OT E .
( )
3 Th re e of t hese ve rb s ha v e a ls o wea k f or m s

dr eeda n a n d s lé hav e t he we a k pa s ts dr eedde, s leép te, w e ll

' '

-
an as
p
-

as
pa s pa t rt . while r eeda n , c oun s e l, r ead, is a l wa
y s

wea k in W S xc ept fo cc urren c e of t he t pa rt r eede n

‘

e r on e o
.
, pa s . .

6
82 IN F LEC IION
’ ‘
. 80

Ir r e gul a r .

( ) Gon ga n , g gnga n , g o, ha s pas t te n s e g eong (g a ng ) an d

‘

g gn g de, pp g eg gn g en
. In pr ose , on ly code, t he pa s t te n s e of g ai n
.

( see is us e d .

( 6) F or t he we ak p re s e nt wép a n , an d the co nt rac te d

v er b s
f6 n hen s ee 80
, , , 81 .

(c ) Bua n, dwe l , pp g eb un,l . s upp li

es the p lc
a e of its l os t p as t ten se fr om

the weak b uia n , b ad e, g ebad .

WEA K P R E S EN T S .

80 . In Clas s e s V the re e .
,
VI . an d V II . ar a fe w verb s,

ot he r wise s tr on g whos e p r e s en t s r e s em b le t hos e of

, we a k v e rb s

i e we r e orig in a ll y fo rm ed wi t h j or Th
( . . e
y re a

Infin . P as t S ing . P as t P l . P as t P a r t .

C las s V T r e ad

b idda n , r e u es t
q b é don

fric gan , inq uire

liega n , lie
sitta n ,
s it

6ie gan , ta ke

C la s s V I (
“
Fare

hgb b a n , hea v e g ehafe n

hlie hha n , la ug h
s e g66 a n , inj ur e
s c ie ppa n , c r ea te

s t ee
pp an
( s tg
pp an
) ,
s te
p
s w gria n , s wea r

Clas s V II ( R e dupl ) .

w epa n , weep w é opon g e wOp en

 5 8 0 V ERB S . 3

P ar a digm s : b idda n , lioga n , hgb b an , s w e r ia n , w epan .

P R ES EN T In dica tiv e .

liege heb b e
lig ( e ) s t hef( e ) s t
lig ( e ) 6 ( li6 ) h@f( e ) 6

lieg a6 hgb b a6

P R ES EN T S u bj u n c tiv e .

lieg e hgb b e
lie ge n hgb b en

s ron

P A S T S ubj u n c tiv e .

l eege hofe
l eege n hofe n

Imp er a tiv e .

Infin itiv e .

Dat
.

( to) b idda n n e lic ga n n e t b a nn e s w e rian n e w é pan n e

P a r tic ip les .

lie ge n de hgb b en de s we r ie n de wepen de

g e le
g en
g e ha fen
g e s w or e n
g e wOp en

6 2
84 I NFL ECT I ON . 80

N OT ES .
( )
1 Lik e liog a n a r e c onj uga t ed t he p r e sen t s of
fr icg a n , 6 icg a n a n d lik e b idda n t he
p r e s en t s of a ll t he othe r
ve rb s with doub lec on s on an t s .

( )
2 T he
p r in c ipal p rt s as gi e n on p 8 2 m us t b e c om a ,
v .
,

mitted t o m e m ory b e c u s e of t heir g r ea t irr egula r ity an d t he

,
a

us e le s s n e ss of pplying 7 0 7 1 t o t he m
a , ,
.

e irr e g ul r it ie s of t hes e e rb s r e a ll see n in t he ir

( 3 ) Th a v a

p r in c ip l p a rt s
a O t he r wis e t.hey a r e c onj uga te d in the p r e en t , s

like r eg u la we k v er bs a n d in the p s t like r eg u la r s tr ong

r a ,
a

v er bs .

( )
4 The s e ve rb s m ay b e r e c ogni s e d as ha v ing we ak
p r e s e nt s
in four w ay s , whic h will b e b es t a ppr e c ia t ed b y
c om pa ris on with t he tes t s for s tron g a n d for wea k v e rb s in 6 4
They hav e m u ta ted r oot-v owels thr oug hou t the p r es en t
()
i .

S tr on g p r esen t s hav e m ut a t ed v ow els in the 2n d an d 3 rd s ing .

on ly

( )
ii In t he m aj or ity of them t he riginal owels t he
o v ,

mu t t ed form s of whi c h are s een in t he

a
p r es e n t e c on t in e d in
,
ar a

t he pas t p rt ic iple s S tr on g e r b s of C l s s es V V I a n d V II
a . v a . .
, .
,

h e the s m e v owels in the p r es e n t a n d in t he p s t pa rt ic iple

av a a .

( iii) The or igin al j whic h is t o b e tra c ed in t he doub led ,

c on son n ts n d in the i of s wgria n ( s ee N ot e

a a is a m r k of a

we k p r e s e n t s
a .

e im pe r t iv e s in g in e e xc ep t in we e c ulia r
( )
i Th v
( pa
)
a n is
p .
-

t o we ak v e r b s .

(5 ) B id th ir w k pr n t th
1
es es rb h w r l th r i gu
e ea es e s, ese v e s s o s ev e a o e r re

l iti
ar es W ft n m t with th in tru i
. e o e w l t which tt nti n w
ee e s ve v o e ,
o a e o as

c ll d in 3 4
a e in f i g ( ) n li g ( ) 6 i g ( ) n li g 6
r c t Sw i
e a , c e an, c e a , c ea ,
e c . er a n

a l t rn t with
e a es It i p ibl th t th p t p rt fr g n frig n s os s e a e as a s . e e , e ,

b l g t th ry irr gul r rb f ign n f Cl III E tog u nd od n

e on o e ve e a ve r a o as s . o a sc o

c m un d r V rn r L w B id e6 6 n th r i tr ng in fin
o e e e e
’
s a . 6 nes e s sc a e e s a s o
-
. s c ea a ,

a nd b id es ed w k p t
es s e c6 d D iph th gi ti n ft r p l t l i
a ea as se e e . on sa o a e a a a so s

s een in s c ea6 a n , g esc eap en, sc eod ( cc seed ) ,

an d ( cc s eep ) . In s c iepp a n ,

If 1
the s tuden t is puz z l ed b y t is h n ote he wil find l
P rt II
a .
g8 1 V ERB S . 85

h
t is dip t ong is ation has hh b ee n f ll owed
b y m utation ( s ee g
o In hliehha n,
the s am e v owe lh r as es u l t d fr
e om m utation of ok en a The br . v owe l in 6 ea h,

as in s ea h is a br ki g
ea n of o rigi l na (1 . T he o of s woren

l ik th e a t of 6 wog e n r c ding w
(g is due to the in uen fl c e of the p e e .

Th in t rch ng
e f bl d f in heb b
e i a i d b y th f ct th t b b in
e o ) an an s e x pl a ne e a a

OE r pr .t rl i r fj Th d ubl d c n n t ( g gg ) f th pr nt
e ese n s e a e . e o e o s on a s c z o e e se s

t nd f
s a rl i r c n n n t +j d th u = th i ( = ri) f we i r b ing
or ea e o so a ,
an s e r o s r a n, e

th n ly c n
e o n n t th t w n t d ubl d
o ft r h rt w l th ugh in
so a a as o o e a e a s o vo e ro

flu f f ll wi g j
en ce o o o n .

C O N T R A C T ED V ER B S .

81 . A ll s trong
rb who e pre e n t s t e n originally e nde d ve s s s r

in h lo e t he h n d c on tr ct b e for e e e ry t e r m in t ion b egin n in g

,
s a a v a

w it h owe l In f ct h r e m in s on ly b e for e t he —
a v . st 6 of t he
a a ,
-
,

2 md nd 3 d s in g p r e s
a n d w he n fi n l in t he 2 n d s in
r .
g im pe r .
,
a a . a

ti e n d l st n d 3 d s in g pas t ; it h s b ee n repl c e d b y g in t he
v a a r . a a

pr e t plur ( a n d de r i e d p rt s ) n d p s t p rt in a cc ord n c e w ith

. . v a a a a . a

Ve rn e r s La w ( se e ’

The c hi e f trong c on tr cted

s a ve rb s a re

C la s s .

“
6"
l
( leon , len d thr iv e )
( 6
I. Shin e on ,
a

t eon , a ccus e wr eon , cove r

II .
(
“
C r eep fié on , flee t eon ,
dr a w

( Help
“ e
IIIa . fé ola n , p en etr a te

V . T read ge fé on , j
r e oi e c s é on , s ee

plé on , a dv en tu r e

VI .
(
“
Fa r e fléa n , fl a y s lea n , s la
y
lea n , bla m e 6 wea n , wa sh

V II R e du lic a t in
.
( p g) fOn, se iz e hOn , ha ng

The num e s in
1
br
a ke ts e e to the o owin
g br c rfr f ll n ote s
rcl c rc rb (
.

2
S t i t y s p e aking , fEOla n is n ot a on t a te d v e s ee b ut
c
the m os t on v e n ien t p a e to g ive its onj ug ation l c c .
86 I N FL ECTI ON .
g8 1

P ar ad igm s .

I . t eon II t é on
.

PA S T

fea lh
f
[ ]b
a le f ulg e ( 2)

fe alh

[fT
aal ]
on fulgon

P AS T
—
[f—aale
] fulge
[faele n
] fu lg en

Infin itiv e

( t o) t eon ne t eon n e fé olanne

88 I N FLECTI ON .
g8 1

NOT ES c rc . l f th 2nd nd 3 d in g pr i
(1 ) T he un on t a ted v owe o e a r s . es . s a

m ut ti n f th un c n tr ct d
a o
w l ( br k n in Cl
o eIII V VI ) wh ich i
o a e vo e o e as s es .
, .
,
. s

pr r d in th im p r ti ing T hi will b b tt r und r t d wh n th

es e v e e e a ve s . s e e e e s oo e e

pr h i t ric f rm
e s o f th infiniti gi no s o e v e are ve :

I te n tib n
. o
*
a .

*
II . teon teub an .

( breaking)
* *
III . fé olan feolh an felhan .

V . s é on
*
se h (w) an

gefé on -fehan

VI . s l é an
*
s lahan .

*
V II . fon t an .

The p as t pl
( 2) .
fulg on ( an d deriv ed p a ts) is a r rr e, an d pp . is
wan tin g h r l c h b nfr
In t ei p . n d pp cc rding t
a e av e ee o m ed a p as t p u l r . a . a o o

Cl IV ( “ B r
as s ea

( 3 ) Th p t p lur nd pp eg n g n
e as n c ily gi n in th
. a . se o , se e , are e essar ve e

p r digm b c u
a a th y , th m d l fe a th th r
se rb f th cl b ut
e are e o e or e o e ve s o e as s ,

( lik pp l g ) th y
e . n t th u u l f rm
s a en A i en b th r t f
ar e o e s a o s. s s s ee a ov e , e oo o

c n rigin lly n d d in hw wh ich in th p t p l ur n d pp > g w b y V rn r

’
s a o a e e , e as . a . e e s

L w ; g w> g
a in OE b ut > w in WS pr or 10 S 1 69 .
, . os e . ee .

(4 ) Th 9 f th p t p lur h b n x t n d d t th ing in Cl
e o e as VI . as ee e e e o e s . as ses .

a nd VII F rm lik wh l t r th n lag

. o s e s ar e a e a s .

( 5 ) T hr ugh th id n tity f th c n tr ct d f rm
o f te n ( L )
e nd e o e o a e o s o o a

te no th f rm r p d r in t Cl II n d w f ll w d b y w é n
e o e ass e ov e o as s . a as o o e r o ,

so t h t w f q u n tly m t with uch f rm

a e re t e h tug n w e k u r g n
e ee s o s as a , o ,
r a , o e ,

b l ngin g t rb f Cl I
e o o ve s o as s .

( 6) C nn c t d with 6 6 o th i th p t p l ur 6 ung n th pp 6 u g n
e e 0 72, r v e , ar e e as . o , e . n e ,

a n d th dj g 6 ung n di tin gui h d xc ll n t b l n ging t Cl

e a . e e , III t s s e , e e e , e o o ass .
, o

which cl 6e n as s it lf rigin ll y b l ng d
o se o a e o e .
 82 V ERBs 89

II . WEA K V ER BS .

82 . We a k ve rb s a re div ided in t o four cl a sses

Wea n VVe en )
i

C lass I -
,
in -
a n and -
ia n , w it h

m ut at e d s t em -
v ow e l t h r ou gh out .

C lass II ( lis t t
1
in -
an in wi h

m ut at e d t
s e m -v o we l in th e p r e s e nt o n l y .

in ia n , wit h t he
1
C la ss III Look -

s t e m -v ow e l n ot m ut at e d .

C las s IV ( M ix ed) fe w rb s c onj ug ted rt ly lik e

1
,
in an
-
a ve a
p a

C la ss I . an d pa rt ly lik e C la s s III .
( s ee lis t giv e n in

g
T he p in ipa l pa s r c rt d pa s t
a re fi t
t he in n i iv e , pa s t S in
gula r ,
an

a rt c c ar v e r ule s for fo r m in
p i ipl e It is un n e
es
. s
y t o g i g t he ot he r
pa rts from t he m , b eyon d t his : F ollow the p a r a dig m s F or t he .

ways and m ea n s of dis t in guis hin g we ak ve rb s from s trong see

§ 64 .

Weak ve rb b tr
s e ay h ir w
ch r ct r in c rt in h it ncy
t e e akn e s s of a a e a e a es a as

t th cl
o e ng t d
ass th y b l
t th l ng th f th ir r t yll bl
e e o whi ch
o an as o e e o e oo -
s a e,

l d th m t tim t tr f r th m l fr m n p r digm n d cl t
ea s e a es o an s e e s e v es o o e a a a as s o

an th r
o On c d cid th p r dig m th t
e . w k
e e rb f ll w n d th r t
e e a a a a ea ve o o s a e es

1 8 easy .

1
S iev e rdoes n ot m ake
s a s e pa ate r cl as s of T el ve l ”
rb H nc Cl
s . e e as s
III .
( ab ov e) = S iev e s
’
as s r Cl II Cl .
, as s IV ( b
. a ov e ) = S iev e s ’
r Cl III as s .
90 I N FLEC T I ON .

C las s I “
( We a n We e n
-

P rim ary p a r adigm s :

Or igin al s hort t
s em : wgn n a n , a cc us tom ( we an ) .

Or igin a l lon g s t em : wen a n , (

s e w ee n )
'

su o
pp .

P R ES ENT In dic a tiv e .

wenn e
wgn es t
wgn e6

w gnn a6

P R ES ENT S u bj u nc tiv e .

P A S T In dica tiv e .

P A S T S u bj u n c tive .

Imp er a tiv e .

Infinitiv e .

( )
t o w gnn a n n e wena nn e

P ar tic ip les .

wgn n e n de wé n e nde

gew gn ed ( pl .
g e wgn e de) gew en ed ( p l .
 92 IN FLEC TI ON § 84

84 . S e c on d a r y p ar adigm s : ne ri
an , s av e ; gier wa n , p re
p ar e ; s w gb b a n , p u t to s leep ; s et ta n , s et ; lec ga n , la y .

S ing l . n gr ie sett e
2 . n er e s t ( )
s gt e s t

3 . r
n e e6 se tt
Plu r .
g ier wa6

P R ES ENT S u bj u n c tiv e .

gi er we s web b e

P lu r ie r we n s wgb b e n
.
g

P A S T S u bj un c tiv e .

s wgfe de
g ier e de
P lu r ie r e de n s w efe de n
.
g

Imp er a tiv e .

2 . r
ne e

P lu r 2 . . n er i a6

Infin itiv e .

D at ( )
t o n gr ia nn e
gier w a n n e s w gb b a nn e s gt t a nn e lgc ga nn e
‘

P a r ticip les .

n er ien de gie r we n de s wg b b en de s ett e n de lec gen de

g e n gr e d e
g g ie
( )
r w ed
g e s wgfe d
g e s gt
( )
t g e lg
gd, l e -

p l ge n gr ede
.
geg ie r ede g es wgfe de g e s ette g elegde
 94 I N FLECT I ON . 8 6, 8 7

86 . G ie rw an , s wgb b an , s
gt t an l gc g an ,

( i) C ier wa n . Lik e this ve rb are c onj ug ted a

S ie rw an, dec eiv e s m ier wa n , a n oin t wie l wa n , r oll

NOT E .
(1 ) In LWS .
, b es ides pas s ing ov e to r Cl III ass

s ieria n , e tc . h, t es e v erb w r s e e s om e tim es c

on j ug ated wit h w thr ugh o out an d

s om etim es with o ut w thr ug h o out , n o two ve rb b s e ing a lik e .

( ) 11 S wgb ba n . F or bb <
f +j c
p hgbba n , 80 La t e r , t his v e rb
. .

a lso
p a s sed ov e r in t o Cl a ss III Look s wgfia n , s wg ode, e t c
f .

( )
iii S gtta n . Lik e s gtta n are c onj uga t ed a ll w e ak ve rb s
e n din
g in tta n , e g
-
. .

b wetta n , whet Q n de tta n , confess

let ta n , hin der On e tt an , ha s ten
lic e tt a n , sim u la te s ar e t t a n ,
g r iev e
N OT ES .
( 2) V e rb s in dda n -
lik e hr gdda n ,
,
r es cue ,
s n c
y opa e t
lik e s gtta n in their p t for m s as h/rgdde, g ehr gdd .

(3 ) Th p ly yll bl
e o r t in th
s a es e a e tt in the s in g . im pe r ativ e : Onette .

( iv ) Lik e lgcg a n is c onj uga t e d wgcg a n ,

Lgcg a n . a
gi t tea ,
as

r ega rds t he s im plifica tion of cg to g b ut pa s t wgg ede, et c .

87 . 2 nd an d 3 r d S in g . P re s e nt : Ru les for C la ss es I .

an d II .

(1) S yn c op e Of e is us ua l rigin l long s tem s in origin al

in o a

s ho rt s tem s onl
y a ft e r c, s a nd t n d o cc s ion a lly ft e r l
,
a nd g a a a .

Ex s wén es t wen s t, wen e 6 wen 6 d c le6 d l6 c ny ( e) 6 fr om

‘

.
,
e ae s

c nyss a n , s gtt from s gtta n , r g 6 fr om

c gcc n wgc6 fr om wer n ; a ,
cca

l
s g e6 s gl6 , lgg e6 lgg 6 .

( 2) C on s on ant -c h an ge in c on s e quen c e of s
yn c ope t a k e s
pla c e a cc or din g t o t he r ules la id down in § 6 9, when e v e r t he
c on dition s the r e s pe cifi ed ar e p resen t Ex s : ( hwgte6 . . hwgtt
fr om hwgtta n fylle6 >fyl6 from fylla n c376e6 cy6 (6 ) from cy6 an ;
lades t leets t, laden leet( t)
’

from lade n hyde 6

'

hyt( t)
hyda n ;
’

fr om
‘

for ielde6 >for ielt from for ielda n wgn de6 wgn t from wen da n , a n d
s o on .
§ 88 v
V ERB S . 95

88 . P as t T en s e — V e rb s
th t fO m their p s t t e ns e b y a r a

a dding de im m e dia t ely to t he r oot ylla b le ( in c luding t he r e for e

- -
s

a ll or ig in l lon g s t m ;
a ee 5 8 3
) e s ubj e ct t o t he f ollow in
e s s
g ar

rule s

(1) D oub le s t e rn —
fina ls a re s im l
p i fie d : a fier r a n ,
a fier de
c gn n a n , c gn de ; fylla n fylde ,
.

( 2) A fte r c
a v oi e les s s em - fin a l, t c , p (p ), t, as, f , ss , -
de -
te

P ast Pa s t

pm
-
drgn c a n , g iv e to dr in k dr en c t e S la
TSpa n , s leep Si t g“
dyppa n , dip dypt e me t an , fin d me tte
liex a n , s hin e liex te pyfia n , p uf pyft e
c
ys s a n , kis s c
ys t e

(3) A ft e r a c on son an t -
dd e - de an d -t t e -
te

Q n dwyr da n , a ns wer Q n dwyrde awes t a n , la y was te awes t e

s en da n , s en d s gn de faes t an , fa s ten f s te
as

( 4) 6 d > dd in la t e r text s : cy6a n ( m ak e k n own ) , ey6 de a nd

c ydde .

(5 ) V e rb s in c on s on n t l n r s hould ha e syll b ic l
a , , ,
v a ,
n, r,

in t he pa s t ,
b ut m or e fre q ue n t ly t hey t k e t he e n din g ede o a -
r -
ode

se
gla n , sa il se
g de
l b ytla n , bu ild b ytlede

a p erfo m
a n, r a de efn e de
t im b ra n , bu ild t im b r ede , t im b r ode .

m na n
( n am e ) los e s n: n em de n e m n ode
) .

NOT E . L ate r th , e se ve rb f rm
s o ed p r e s en ts a so a l cc rdio ng to Cl as s III
L ook t im b r ia n , e tc .

( 6) r t
A ppa e n ly in im i a ion of t t ve rb s in Cla s s II . ve rb s in c
som e t t
im e s a k e ht for c t in t he pa s t t en se an d pa s t pa rt
Past PP
Olec c e ( ) an fl a tter
,
Olec t e Oleht e
_
h ea ls ap p r oa ch n é a lé c te -
1 aehte
iec ( e ) an , inc r ea s e ie c t e ie ht e eie c ed e i ht
g g e

6 ryc c ( e ) a n , opp r es s 6 r yc te 6 ryht e g e6 ryc c e d

 96 I N FL ECT I ON .
g 8 9

89 . P as t P a rt ic ip l e .

()
i Un infl ec ted . The uni n fl e c t ed pp . us ua lly e nds in -
c d
b ut ( ) fter
a ow el ded
a a v - as a rule d( d) , an d ted-
t t) , while
(
( 6) ft e r c on son n t
a d o a r t, t he e n din g -
cd wa s O fte n dropped .

Thus we fin d

( ) t é la n , bla m e E l d ld )
‘

a pp .
g e t a e g e t fi
ma
Tat a n , a/nn o
y Tet ( t )
ge n a
t ob r zTedan , c
s a tter t ob r § d( d)
—
leiedan , lea d
e ea 6 m eda n , hum b le
g
un de r6 i e da n , s u bdu e

( b) b egyrda n , s urr ound

s c ielda n , s hield g es c ield e d

( )
s gn da n , s en d g es en d( ed)
on dwyr dan , a n s wer
geQ n dwyr d
b efaes ta n , c
se ur e b e f as s t
at yht a n , en ti e c atyht

( )
ii Infl ec ted
rigin a l s hort s t em s t he re i syn c ope of
. In o s e

on ly fte r d t In origin l lon g s tem s syn cope of e is us u l

a ,
. a
,
a

b e for e a t e r min t ion b eginning w it h a owel b ut un s yn c op t ed a v a

form s a e ls o c omm on e xc ept ft e r d t A fte r

r a v oic e les s
,
a ,
. a

c ons onan t d > t as in t he pas t t en se E s . x

Un infl e ted Infl ec ted p l ) c .

S h r t c nys s n kn ck
o a ,g e n ys e d o
g e c n s e de
y c

s et ta n , s et g e s et
( )
t g e s gt t e

Long fylla n , fill g e fylle d g efylde

cy6 an , m a ke kn own g e cy6 ed ge c y6 de ( la te
g e c ydd e
)
n gm ( n e ) de
n gm n a n , n a/m e g en gm n e d g e

b e s en ca n , im m er s e b es en c e d b es gn c t e
awie rg a n , cu rse awie r g e d awier g ( e ) de

l fida n , lea d ge l é dde .

Of c our s e
pp t h t s
yn sc o.a t
p e in a t he un in fl e c t e d form ( nom . s in
g .
)
r em ain s yn c op t e d in in fl e ction
a .

1
Th t i th thr
a s, x t n t f rm
e ee e a o s ar e g eea6 meded, g eéa6 médd, g eea6 med .
98 I N FL EC TI ON . 90

N OT ES .
(1 ) F or the int usiv e r e, so o ft en f
oun d w hr e ev e r c or g was
o rigi lly f ll
na o owe d b yj , s ee 34, N 6 . .

(2 ) V rbe s in -ec c fr qu e en t ly b rr o ow the g of the p r es . in the p as t ten se

an d pp .
,
ev e n in EWS . : lehte, r ehte , g er eht, etc .

T he us ual p as t o m s of b ep é c a n , r e
(3) b e a n , tes c an ,fr
av e h b rro owe d the
r
v owel O f the p es e n t , b ut r ahte , tak te a n d taht o u in EWS - cc r .

( 4) F or b reng an , the r
s t on g r
b ing a n ( rare pp . b run g en ) of Cl as s

(
“
Dr in k is m o e o ten r f f oun d.

(5) O cc as ion a l pp s . cc rdin g t Cl

a o o as s I . ar e m et wit h ,
su ch a s ons teled,

g etele d .

(6) It is e x ce edingly good practice for the s tuden t to e x pl ain ,

b y the aid

of P art II .
,
the rl e a tion s b e tween the v owe s of l the p es en t an d t r h os e of the

p as t f rmo rb It i th r f r
s o f th es e v e s. s e e o e n ot don e for hi m e hr e, b ut the
f ll wi g n t m y h lp him i m f th chi f difficul ti
o o n o es a e n so e o e e es :

well n t —th r i n br kin g in OE b f r ll l +j

c a e c e e s o ea . e o e <

6 en n—6 oht G rm ic 6 ht ; b 6 ht *
ca6 akt e e e an an a so r e .

6 yn n —6 uht G m n i 6 u k i with l gth ni g (

ca be< er a c n a, en e n as a ov e ) in c om

p n ti n f th l
e sa of th n l or e os s o e as a .

P ar a digm s : ( ) a O rig in a l S hort s t em s, tglla n .

( )
b Or igin a l lon g t
s em s , se a n c .

P R ESEN T In dic a tiv e .

P lu r .

P R ES EN T S u bj u n c tiv e .

s ec e n
 90 V ERB S . 99

P A ST Indica tiv e .

S ohton

P A S T S u bj un ctiv e .

Imp e r a tiv e .

c
S e a6

Infin itiv e .

t glla nn e S ec a n n e

P ar tic ip les .

N OT ES . 7
( ) It is ob v ious t ha t t he on ly im po rt n t
a diffe r e n c e
b e twee n t he r
a b ov e
p g m s an d t ho e of
a a di 8 3 is in the c h n g e s a

of owe l in t he p s t f o r m s of tgll n a n d s ec n
v a a a .

( 8 ) Lik e tgll n e c onj ug t ed ll t he or ig in l s hort s t em

a ar a a a s
,

ie
. . t em s with
s hort owe l f ollowed b y a doub le d c on s on an t
a s v

c n son n t + g ) lik e sec n ll t he origin al long s te m s i e tho e

o a a ,
a , . . s

wit h lon g ow e l n d t hos e with

a v ,
a s hort owel follow ed b y t wo
a v

( ffe r en t ) c on s on n t s
di a .
1 00 I N F LEC T I ON . 91

C l as s III L ook

91 . The ve rb st hi s cl
ry n um erous so are thos e
of a s s are v e

of C las s I . t oge the r they

out n um b e r a ll t he ot he r cl e ass s,

s tron g n d we k a Look e rb s
a a ll ha e in fi n it i e in
. ia n -
v v v -

( e xc e t t he fe w c on tr a ct ed
p e r b s in t he r oot owel v -
v

is m ut t ed onl y in t he c s e of
a fe w l t e forma t ion s fr om n oun s
a a a ,

n d a dj s wit h m u t t e d owe ls s u c h s gn dia n to e nd fr om

a . a v
gu de ,
a , , ,

a n d g r en ia n t o b e c om e g r e e n fr om g r en e
, ,
.

P ar adi gm loc ia n , look .

Pres ent
In dica tiv e .

lOc ode
loc odes t
lOc ode

P lu r . lac e don o don

-
)
S u bj u nc tiv e .

Imp er a tiv e .

lOc a , IOc ia 6

Infin itiv e .

lOc ian , da t .
-
a nn e

P a r tic ip les .

lec ie n de gelOe od

N OT ES .
( )
1 N ot e tha t t he -
a6 , whi c h in ev e ry othe r clas s
r
m a k s t he p e s plu r . r al ,
he r e r
m a k s the 3 r d S in
g .
p r e s whil e t he
,

pl u r
a l ha s -ia 6 .

(2) The p es en t s tem s r of h cl

t is rigin ll y n d d in oj whi ch did
as s o a e e - o,

n ot c aus e m utation of the r oot-v o w l ; h n c th r rity f m ut t d r t

e e e e a o a e oo

vo w l e s in t h ese v e rb s . The o rigi na l j i pr r d n t n ly in th c tr ct d

s ese v e o o e on a e

ve rb s, b ut in the c omm on v a ri n t a s ig e for te an d iga , ig ea for ia : lo cig e,

‘

lec ig en , lec ig ende, loc ig (e) a6 ,

(3 ) F or -o de, -
od, we fin d l es s fr q u tly
e en -a de, -
ude, -a d , -ud, r r ly
a e -e de,
-
cd ; b ut -
edon is no rm l cc rding t
a a o o 12 .
 1 02 I NFLECT I ON . 93

C l as s IV : M ix e d V e rb s .

93 . He r e b elong a fe w ve rb s w hi h c a re c onj ug ted a

pa rtly
lik e C la s s I .
pa rt ly lik e C la s s III F ylg ( e) a n , folg ia n ,
and . follow,
is c om ple t e ly c onj uga t e d a cc or din g t o b ot h c las s es : pa s t fylg de ,

f g
ol ode, e t c .T he f ou r v e rb s ha bba n , ha v e, libb a n , liv e , s gc
g ( e) a n ,
s ay, a n d hycg ( e) a n , think re giv en in f ull b elow
,
a
,
with t he pa rt s
tha t b elon g t o ea ch clas s in s ep r te c olum n s
a a .

Cl as s 1 . Cl III
as s . Cl as s I . Cl as s III .

PR ES ENT Indi c a tive .

lib b a6

PR ES EN T S ubj unc tiv e .

PA ST In dica tive .

PA ST S ubj un tiv e c .

Imp er a tiv e .

lib b a6

Infinitive .

hab b an lib b an

P a r tic i
ples .

lib b en de lifiende
gelifd
 93 V ERB S . 1 03

Cl as s I . Cl as s III . Cl as s I . Cl as s III .

PR ES ENT In di c a t ve i .

hyg( e ) s t hogas t
hyg( e ) 6 hoga6

hyc g ( e ) a6

PR ES EN T S ubj un tive c .

PA S T In dica tiv e .

—
S ing l . . s segde , s eade 98 2 ) hogde
. b ogode
2 . s ae n St ,
s fi de s t hogdes t hogodes t
3 . s eegde , s i de hogde hogode

sa
e gdon , s eedon hogdon hogedon

PA S T S ubj unc tiv e .

Plur . 2 . hyc g( e ) a6

Infi nitiv e .

s ec g e an ( ) hyc g( e ) an

P rticip l
a es .

hyc gen de

gehogod

NOT ES .

(1 ) To C lass III b elon g

. origin ally only the 2 nd and 3 rd
S ing. res indi
p . e . an d t he 2 n d s ing . im p e r tia v e, to C lass I
. all t he ot he r
r es e n t f rmT he p as t was
s o m e d b y adding de, t he p as t pa frby rt
p o -
. .

adding -d, im m ediately t o the r t

oo s yllab le , an d the e o e n ot s t i t ly -
rfr rc
on t he an alo
gy of a n y las s ; b ut t he o ig in al pas co m s a re
giv e n r t fr
unde r Cl as s I, be
. c aus e th ey cl
ose ly r e s e m b le thos e o f th t c l a ass .

( 2 ) A negativ e form of ha bba n is form ed b y p refix ing ne z n a b ba n ,

n cefde, g encefd which is conj ugated thr oughout lik e ha bba n .

1 04 I N F LECT I ON . 9 4 , 95

(3 ) Pres en t form s of libba n with fi fg , , for b b , lij ia n , tifg a n, e tc . , ar e n ot

c
un om m on , b ut ar e r
p op e y dia e ta rl lc l
E o egu a y ep a es to in . r l rl r l c l tra e

f rm
o s, leofa6 , e tc .
,
a n d t en we h f h
av e p as t o m s leo ode ,
ge leofod fr .

( 4) Tewan , s h ow, Cl ass I .

, has l
a so an in fin éowia n, . Cl III n d
as s .
, a an

odd c om b in ation of the two eowa n . T he f llo owin g f rmo s o ccur in EWS
Infin . iewan eowian cowan
3 r d s ing p . r es . iew(e ) 6
‘
eowa6 cowe6
3 rd p l . iewa6 cowia6
S ubj p . r es . ie we é owi( g) e
P as t . iewde ( LWS . é owode ) é owde
P as t p a t r .
g eiewe d ( p l geiewde ) .
geé owod

94 . How We ak V e rb
t o t e ll th e C l as s of a .

We a re now in position t o t ell the cl s s of n y weak e r b a a a v

wit hou t diffic ulty ( p rt from t he un c e rta in ty due t o e rb s of

a a v

Cl s s I p s s ing o e r t o Clas s III s e e

a . a 85 8 6 v .
, , ,

e rb s of C l s s II n d C l s s IV M x
( ) Th
a e v
( i ed
) a . a a .

ar e a ll m e n tion e d in 90 93 t he onl y un c e rt ain ty t he r e for e is ,

b e t w een C las s es I a n d III . .

V e rb s in n b e lon g t o C las s I
( )
6 -
a .

III ex c p t thos e n me d in .
,
e a

85 ( all S hort s t em s ) .

c
( ) V e r b s wit h m ut a t e d r oot owe l b elon g t o C l s s I -
v a .

unm ut a t e d III .

b ut a few l on g s t em s in i n b e lon gin g to C l s s III s uc h s -

a a .
,
a

gndi n h e a m ut a t ed owel as e x plain ed in

a ,
av 91 v .

III . P A S T P R ES EN T -
V ER BS .

95 . The r e
twel e e rb s in OE wh s e p re s e nts ar e ol d
are v v . o

s t r on g p as t t e n s e s fr om w hi c h n ew we k p s t t e n s es ha e b een
, a a v

f orm ed Hen c e they e oft e n c alle d P re t eriti e P res en t

. ar v -
”

a n d a ls o
“
S tr on g We ak e rb s The ir p s t te n s es
-
e c onj uga t ed v . a ar

lik e tho e of r eg ul r weak v e rb s T heir p r es e n t s r e ta in t wo

s a .

tra c es of the olde r c onj uga tion of s tr ong p s t t ens es in the 2n d a ,

1 06 I N F LEC T I ON . 95

III ( “ Drin k III IV ( B ear

“

PR ESEN T Indi c a tive .

1 .
( ) , dea r ( r) da r e
e gu n , 6 earf, n eed ( ge ) m gn , r emem be r
know ( how to)
2 . c gn s t de ar s t ( g e) a s t
3 . c gn n ( ) dea rr ( ge) m gn
c un n on dur r on ( ) m un on )
‘

ge a6
-

PR ES EN T S ubj un c tiv e .

c un n e dyrre, du rre 6 yrfe, 6 ur fe ( ge ) m yne ( ge ) m une

,

c un n en dyrr en , durr en 6 yrfe n, 6 urfe n ( ge ) m yn en (ge) m une n

,

PA S T In di ca tive .

1 . c u6 e do rt s e 6 orft e
2 . c u6 e s t dors tes t 6 orft es t
3 . c u6 e do rt
s e 6 orft e

c u6 on dors ton 6 orfton

PA ST c
S ubj un tiv e .

S ing . c 11 6 e
‘

dort s e 6 orft e
Plu r . cu6 en dor ten
s 6 orfte n

Imp er a tive .

c unn an [du rran] ( ge) m un an

Pa rticip les .

P r es . 6 earfen de ( ge ) m un ende
P a st .
( )
ge c un n en (ge ) m un en
( adj ) , known
 95 V ERB S . 1 07

IV V VI

PR E EN T Indic
S a t ive .

S ing 1 . . s c e al, must m cg a n ,

ca 3 rd p e r s . m ot, m ay
2 . s c ea lt m ea ht , m iht on ly m os t
3 . s c c al m aag be g n ea h,
e -
m ot
su fic es
sc ulon, s c eolon m agon -
nugon m oton

PR ES EN T S ubj un tive c .

S ing . s oyle , s c ul e m eeg e

s c yle n , s c ulen m eege n

PA S T Indi c a tive .

S ing 1 . . s c e olde
( ) m eaht e , m ihte
2 . s c ( e ) oldes t m eahtes t, m ihtes t
3 . s c ( e ) olde m eaht e, m ihte

s c e oldon
( ) m e a ht on , m ihton

PA S T S ubj un tive c .

S ing . s c e olde
( ) m ea hte , m ihte
s c ( e ) olde n m eaht en , m ihte n

Plu r . 2 .

s c ulan -
n ugan ] [m otan]

N OTES (1) . For wita n, et c .

,
we find in EWS wiota n , wieta n , . e tc .

( b y o m utat ion )
-
. t r f rm
A n o he o of te n
t he p as t s es in EWS . is wis se .

T he n e ga t i f rm
ve o of wita n is n
yta n, with y thr ugh o out .

( 2) A g a n has ti f rm n ag
a n e ga ve o a n, n ah, e tc .
 1 08 I N FL EC T I ON .
g 9 6

IV . A N OM A LOU S V ER BS .

96 . F our a n om a lous ve rb s in OE . are of ve ry fr e quen t

cc urr en c e ( a) beon , wes a n , b e ; ( 6 ) den do ; c
‘

o
, ( ) g ri n
go ; ,

( d) willa n , will .

B e on we s an b e
'

(a) , , .

Pr es ent

wiéron

S ubj un c tiv e .

b e)
b eon

Imp er a tiv e .

we s , w e sa6 b eo, b eo6

Infin itiv e .

w e san b eon , da t b eonn e .

c
P a r ti ip les .

we s en de b é on de wa n ting

N OT ES .
(1 ) T he form s of this ve rb b egin nin g wit h a v ow el

an d a ll t he pa s t ten se ar e c om poun ded with ne ,

n ot : n eom , n is ,

n ees, n ecr on , e tc .

(2) The -m of com is al m os t the l r m ind r

so e e e of the f c t th
a a t all h t ese

an om al ous ve rb s on ec bl e ong ed to th cl
e f as s o ve rb s in -
mi (c p . Gr eek

( E
u/d , 7 1 0mm) .

(3) The a b ov e v e rb is fr om hrt ee dis tin t c r oots : the f rm b ginning

o s e

wit h b fr om o n e, t h os e with w fr m o a c
s e on d, an d all th th
e o fr m er s o a

t h ird .
1 10 I N FL ECTI ON . 96

( d) Willan ,
will .

Pres ent
Indi ca tive .

S ubj unc tiv e .

Plu r .

Imp er a tive .

P lur . 2 .
[n ylla6 ,
n ella6 ]
Infi nitive .

willan

P a r tic i
p le .

willen de

N OTE .
(5 ) Willa n t
un i e s with ne to f rmo rb
a n e gat iv e v e ,
whi ch
t r t
has y or e for i h oughou t he p es en : nyl( 1 ) e , n el( l) e , r t n olde, e tc . In
WS n o im pe a iv e is found b ut the nega iv e plu al
. r t t r .
 PA RT II . PHONOLOGY .

97 . In this P a rt the tte m pt is m a de t o

a
giv e s u h a n c
a cc oun t of t he pr in c ip l a s oun d c h n ge s t h t t ook
c -
a a
p la e b e we e n t
t he G e r m n ic pe r iod
a n d t he e n d of t he O ld En li h
a
g pe r iod s ,

a s w ill s uffic e fo t he in t ellige n t c m pr e he n ion of t he A cc ide n c e

r o s

in P rt I a While n o diffic ulty h s b e e n hirk d it g oe s without

. a s e ,

sa in g t h t m n y diffic ultie s a e e xc lude d fr om t he s c op e of

a a r
y
a n e le m e n t r y t e xt b ook
a T he lim it s
-
n d o r de r of e x pos ition
. a

a dopt e d it w ill b e c on n ie n t t o t t e s u cc in ct ly he r e
ve A tt e n tion
s a .

i gi e n a l m os t e xc lus i e ly t o t he owe ls of s tr es s e d yll b les ;

s v v v s a

t he ow els of un s tr e sed syll b les

v se in c lude d on l
y so f a they ar ar as

ar e es se n t i l t o t he u n d r s t n din g o f t he c h n g es in s tr e s e d
a e a a s

v owels ; fe w p r g r phs
a e de ot e d t o t he m os t im ort n t
a a a ar
p v a

c h ng in c on s on n t s N o m ore is s a id a b out c h n ges t h t

a es a . a a

to k pl c e b e t wee n In do G e r m n ic n d G e rm n ic ( e t he t a b le
o a -
a a a se ,

§ ) l ,
or d ur in g t h e G e r m n ic p e r io d t h n is n e c e s a
s r y fo t he ,
a a r

e x l n t ion of s ub e q u e n t c h n g e
a s A fe w de e lopm e n t s m n i a s v a
p a .

fe te d ft e r t he E rly Wes t S x on pe r iod

s a a e m e n t ion e d fo a t he ar r

sa k e of c om ple t en es s b ut in e a c h c s e it is c le r ly in dic t d th t
,
a a a e a

t hey e l te
ar a .

The or de r of e x pos it ion is t his ( ) S t a rt in

g w it h t he : a

G w er of tr es e d ow el w e fin d t he n orm l e q ui
s s v s, a

va le n t of e c h ow e l s oun d in OE whi c h g i e u s t he s e rie s of

a v -
.
,
v s

OE p r im r y ow els
. a 1 00
v T hes e e t he n in c lude d ar

in ac om p r ti e t b le with t ho e of othe r G e rm an ic l n gu g es
a a v a s a a
 112 P H ON O LO GY . 98

ch n ges whi ch produc ed t he s e c on da ry o

( )
b The s oun d- a ,
r

de ri a t i e ow els a e n ext dealt w it h s ep r t ely n d e x m ple s

v v v ,
r a a ,
a a

g i e nv u n d e r e c h he d 1 1 4 ( ) Thae u p w r d his t o ry a 0 a

of e c h OE s tr es s ed
a ow e l n d di hth n g b ot h p rim a ry n d v o
p . a ,
a

se c on d r y is
gi e n in t b ul r for m
a , ( d ) T he pr in c ip l
v a a a

h e n om e n a se e n in t he de e lo m e n t of t he O E c on s on a n t a e
p p v . s r

b r ie fl y s e t f ort h 1 64

ST R ES S ED V OWELS .

A D OWN W A R D HIS TORY ~—O E P rim ary V owe l s . . .

98 c los e of t he G e rm anic pe riod i e b e fore the

. A t t he ,
. .

de t h of t he p r e n t l n g uag e in g i in g b irt h to di le cts whic h

a a a v a

b e c am e t he G e rm ni c lan g u ge t he s ys t em of s tr es s ed owels
a a s, v

w s s f oll ow s
a a

1
a, e , ll)
i , u; a w
) in , , s , i t“, 6 , E
M a i, a n , e n

NOT ES clud n t n ly rigi l i b ut th i th t r fr m

.
(1 ) T hi s i in es , o o o na , e a a os e o

e in th G rm n ic p ri d ( ) b f r n
e e l+ na n n t wh n c th diff
e nc o , a e o e as a co so a , e e e ere e

Of w l in OE d in n
vo e d h lp n b l ngin g t th . m cl
r f tr g
ca an e a e o o e sa e ass o s on

ve rb ; ( b) b f r i j i th m th n x t yll bl wh c th diff r c
s e o e or n e sa e or e e s a e, en e e e en e

of w l in OE bidd n ( b dj n) n d th p t p rt g b d n
vo e . a < e a a e as a . e e e .

( 2 ) G rm n ic h d l t rigin l e m yba n by c m p ri n f
a os o a 0 , as a e s ee a o a so o

L t h tu with G th ic y d E g y r d
a . or s E ry G rm nic o in tr d ar s, n . a . ve e a o s ess e

syll bl ath n h d ri n du i g th G rm
e s, e ic p ri d i
, a cc rd n c with
a se r n e e an e o n a o a e

th f ll win g im p rt
e o t l w
o E rl i r G erm nic u > u d r th i fl u c
o an f a a e a o n e e n en e o

wr
.

w w w ww
r t ct d fr ch h r
Mr
in te v e n e d, u was p o e e om an e . T is l aw has the m o s t m a k ed
ol ogy . T hu
( a ) dep en ds thes, on

diffe c b tw n uch OE p t p rt
en e e ee s . as a s . a s g edr unc en (Cl as s 3 b ) a n d all s tron g

p t
asp rt w i th ra t w l s ( Cl
. 2 3 F t
oo h w-
l f
vot h n di g
e 0 a s s es , a, or e vo e o e e n

- n w
e in G rm as a ic n d thi cc rdin g t th l w c u d th ch g
e an , a s, a o o e a ,
a se e an e

u> in ll tr ng p t p rt wh r u w
o a s o t p r t ct d b y n
as l c a nt s . e e as n o o e e as a on s on a .

A g in a n k n wl dg
,
o f ( b) d p n d th u d r t din g f OE i m ut ti n
a o e e o e e s e n e s an o .
-
a o .

F wh r
or i OE g ld b ing n
e e as t m th
n rigi l u f th
. o t> in
, e a o-s e , e o na o e roo o

G rm nic un d r th i fl u c f th f ll win g ; i th d ri ti dj cti

e a e e n en e o e o o o n e e va ve a e ve

T h num b r in br ck t r f r t th n t
1
e e s a e s e e o e o es .
1 14 P H ON O L OGY . 1 0 1 , 1 02

( )
2 OE . a is al wa f
ys oun d in t he im pe r ti
a v e s in
g . of s trong
ve rb s of C la s s 6 fa r fr om fa r e/n .

( b) t othe r in s t an c es — p rt from the s pe c ial in fl ue n c es

In m os a a

a n d s oun d c h n g e s w hic h a e de l t w ith in

-
a 1 1 4 f oll —a > as r a . .

T his m us t b e r e g a rde d s the n or m l de elopm e n t j us t as th t of a a v ,

a

d is t o a It is t he r ule in c los e d s yll b le s n d b e for e n e which

. a ,
a a

is n ot w e ak e n ed fr om 0 o u : d g day ; f t es s el bleec b l c k r ee ,
a ,
v ,
a

b r tr d
a ,
n d t he ot he r p s t s in g s
ee ,
a of t he 4th n d 5 t h s tr on
g a . a

clas s e s ; he n c e in m g c n a p s t pre e n t of the 5 th c l s s ;

“
a ,
a ,
a -
s a

b g d pas t of br g d n b r n dis h
rx ,
7 4 e f ) ; desg es d ge e t c
e a ,
a ,
.
,
x ,
.

sac e fi e ld ; fe g er f air
f a de
( e )r < a r, e , .

E s s t ea df s t in t he ge n n d da t s in g of
N OT E ( )
3 O i
. . x a . a . .

m as c n d n e u t e r n ou n s of t he o r din r y de c l e n s ion s u c h
. a s da g a ,
a ,

f e t a b o e ; b ut in ll othe r fl e ion l for m s of n oun s a nd e r b s

e ,
v a x a v

whe r e w ould b e n or m l a is c rr ie d o e r fr om for m s w he r e

x is a ,
a v a

n o rm l : hw te in s tr um e n t l m s c a n d n e u t s in g
a a , n d n om ac e a a . . . a . .

m as c pl of ht . a ct iv e ; hw te
.
g e n s in g m s c ,n d n e ut e r on a s, . . a . a ,

t he a n a lo
gy of kwa tu, kwa ta , hwa tu m ; SO fa r e f a/ren far en de
, , ,

followin g fa r a n , et c .

101 .
(W ) . G erm . e O ft en r em ains in OE e g . . . in m a n y v e b s r
of t he 3 r d, 4 t h and 5 th s tr n g c l s s e s s u c h s
o a , a help a n , ber a/n
b r ec a n , tr eda n , pp .
ge t eden ; a n d in f ld fi eld ;
r e ,
helm , helm e t ;
weg , way, et c .

W G e rm i 98 , N ot e 1 ) fte n r em ains in O E ;
i

102 .
( ) . .
( s ee o

e
g in t he p a s t plur a l a n d pa s t pa rt s t e m s
. . v . of s tr on g e r b s of t he

1 s t C las s : s eine, s cin on , g es c in en , e t c ; in t he pron s ie, in c , hit ; . .

pa s t p r es e n t v e rb
”
in t he wi ta n ; in is , is ; in fis c, fish ;
-

m ic el, g r e at
rb s of t he s tron g Cla s s IIIb
,
e tc .
; in ve
’

dri n n win n a n fi ght e t c

ca , in blin d b lin d ; in t he 2 n d n d
, ,
.
,
a

3 d s in g of s tr on g
r e r b s of t he 3 d
. 4th a n d 5 th C l s s e s v r ,
a :

hilp s t kilp 6 fr om help a n bir ( e) t bir ( e )6 fr om be a n its t itt fr om

, s ,
r ,

p r es e n t s of t he 5 th Cla ss of s tr on g e rb s
“w
t n ; a n d in
e a/ e k a v

b idda n , a sk ; sitta n , e t c .
 1 03 — 1 0 5 P RI MA RY V OWELS . 115

N OTES .
(1 ) (W ) . G rm ;
e i has weak en e d t o e in m ec , m e , an d in s ev e a rl
ot h r pr
e on om in a l f rm o s in w i h ch th e e was su s e b qu tly l en e ng t h e n e d, e .
g .

me, to m e, m e ( s ee
( 2) OE i is . r pl c
e a ed b y y ( s om e tim e s e ) in the n e ga tiv e f rm f wit no s o a

a nd willa n , nyta n , nyl la n ( nella n) , e tc .

,
an d o cc as ion a lly in th r w rd o e o s,

e s pe ci lly in LWS
a . Cp t he
. r pl c
e a e m e n t of EWS ie b y LWS y . .

103 .
(W ) . Ge m r . 0
( see 98 , N 2 ) . us ua lly rem a in s in O E ; .

e g in pa s t pa s of Cla s s e s II , IIIa
. . rt . . . and IV . of s tron g ve rb s
g eboden , g eholp en , g ebor en a n d in

g old, g old w olc ( e ) n , c loud folg ia n , to f ollow

c op b rd
s s c ot un
, g shot a ,
o e f r , ov er

c or n c r n ,
o

a nd m ny o t h r wor ds a e .

N OT E W
( ) G e rm o u in . . . a n um b e r of w o ds , r e .
g .

dur u doo w ull wo l

, r ,
o l ufia n , to lov e
fugol bi d b ucc , bu ck r a, c n uc ia n , to kn o ck
f ull fu ll r us t u s t
, ,
r u a
p f ,_
ab ove

luf u lo e w ulf w lf
,
v ,
o fur 6 or , fu r ther ( c
p .

for 6 )
F or this c han ge n o re a s on ha s b een ass i n ed
g .

104 . W
( ) . Germ . u ften r em in s ; e g in p s t plur ls of
o a . . a a

of s tr on
t he 2 n d an d 3 rd C la s s es g e r b s bu don hulp n ch n con ;v : ,
o ,
a

in pa s t p rts a . of Cla s s IIIb .

gedr u n cen an d in
u s two
s un u, s on un c ,
( )
to

g run d , g r ou n d b urg, s tr ong hold lun g re , qg

i ckl
y

N OT E .
(W ) . G e rm . u > o in t he s tres se d pre fix ar
( out of,

wi hou t t) e .
g .

or l Qg e, wa r or s org La t . se eu r u s
)
or 6 a , s kill or m od, desp on den t

105 Ger m W G e rm a 99) ( ) OE a, ( 6) us ua lly

—
. . ae . a .

OE . ziti .

( ) a O E d is . found ,
i e. . W . Germ d . rem ain s ( 1 ) b efor e w ,

e .

g . t he pas t pl u r al et c of s eon ,
'

s awon c ldwu
( cla w) tawia n ,

8 —2
 116 PHON OL OGY . 1 0 6— 1 0 9

( p r ep r e ) a ,
an d t he foreign w ord p awa ( c
pe a oc k ) ( ) In n
2 . a

op en s
yllab le b e fo r e a gutt u r l a v ow e l, in t e rc h n gin g wit h a : a

s ldp a n oc s le
ep a n , t o S leep ; lag on leég on , st l f li g n ; ld
‘

oc
p a
p o . c a c

n ia n cc leEc n ia n ( i O ) ,
t o hea l ; m dg a s cc m a g a s, m ag um cc m aag u m ,
l of m ag , kin s m a n
p . .

( W
( b)S ) as IS t he n or m a l de v e lo m e n t of G e r m a ni c
OE .
p . as

through W G e rm a j us t a s C E 3 3 is of G e rm a ( c p
. .
, . . .

Ex am ple s a r e s e en in t he p as t pls of s tr on g C las s es IV a n d V . .

b eér on tr a don ; in s om e R eduplic a t in g v e r b s la ta n et c ; in t he

' '

v .
, , ,

p r iv a ti e
p r e fix e
g
v m en un in ha b it e d a n d in r e
e d
x
( r ede . . se ,
‘

wxp n ( we a pon ) s tr at t L s tr at a ) e tc ,
.
, .

N OT E G e r m a n ic a 98 N 3 ) > OE 6 ; b ut a s t his is in
.
, . .

r e ality a c a s e of n a s al in fl uen c e it is dea lt with in 1 5 2 .

106 .
( W tte r th t p s sed in to
) . G e rm . 5 is t he on ly le a a

En glish w ithout un de rg oin g an y c h n ge It i of c om p r t i ely a . s a a v

r re occ urren c e E s he he re m ed r ewar d ; n d pas t te n s es

a . x . r, ,
a

in e of R e duplic tin g e r b s : l3 t s lep on e t ( S ie e r ) a v , ,

c . v s .

10 7 . W
( ) . G e r m i > O E i in t he g r e a t m aj ority of in s t a n c es ;
. .

e .
g . a ll the p re s en
pa t rt s of s tron g ve rb s of C la s s I . : s c in a n , s cin ,

s ci n en de, e t c .
fer 6 ih6
o 81 an d 98 , N 4 ) . from of er6 § on xc
( el)
e

lif ( lif e) , wi s (w is e ) , wi s ia n ( t o dir e ct ) , etc .

108 . W
( ) . G e rm 6 . a lm os t a lwa
ys OE 6 . e .
g p . as t te n ses
of s tr on g e r b v s of Clas s V I .
for f5 r on
‘

,
hen c e in m et ( m ay) , a

a s t p r es e n t of Cla s s V I s om e R e duplic a t in g v e r b s
p
-
.

b lOwan , to bloom r
g owa n , to g r ow s g a n , to s ou nd

an d in
dom , doom Ofos t , ha s te s wot e, s weetl
y
w r oht , a ccu sa tion
g od, g ood S oht e, s ou ht
g

109 . W
( ) . G e rm
rem ains in O E e g . fi a lm os t a lwa
ys . . .

a oris t r e n t s of t he 2 n d c l s s of s tr on
p e s
g v e rb s : liic a n ( loc k ) a
-
,

b ug n ( b ow) e t c ; tun (e n c los ur e ) f at ( foul) r um ( r oom y) 6 uhte

a , .
, , ,

( s e e g 98 N 4 ) fr om 6 ync a n
, ( see m.
) .
118 P H O N O L O GY .
g 1 1 3

es
pe ci
ly w he r e t he y a r e a s n um e r ous as in Ic ela n dic an d Old
al

En glish, would s im ply b e t o r ob t he t a b le of a n y us e it m a y ha v e .

N OR M A L CORR ES P ON D EN C ES OF S T R ES S ED

V OW ELS .

Germ a ni c G othi c Ic el an di c OHG .

a ( g 98 N , . 3)

75:
2
( W . G e r m a)
.

jO ( y) eo, _
io ( iu)
g 1 1 4 SO U N D LA WS -
. 1 19

B . T HE OLD EN G LIS H S OUN D LA WS -

.

1 14 . Un de r t he c on e nie n t nd c om pr he n s i e he d
a b ov e v a e v a

in g it i p ropos e d t o tr c e the c hie f de elopm n t s of t he G e r m n ic

s a v e a

s tre om th n o m l c esp n de n c s ) h c
d
s se owe l v
( p t f s a ar r w i h e r a or r o e ,

took pl c e in the O E pe ri d pre his to ric n d hi tor ic U n de r

a . o ,
a s .

t hi he ding e in c lude d ( ) C h n ges due t o followin g owe ls

s a ar a a v ,

o n eighb ou r in c on s on n t s c s of c on s on n t s ;
( b ) t g ( ) t o t he lo a ,
s a

d L e n g t he n in d S h rt w t h rr an ge m e n t
( ) g n o e n in
g F a
o llo in g is . a

t he l ws of
a oun d c h n ge a e c on s ide r e d un de r t he followin g
s -
a r

nam es

( )
a I . I or J -
M ut at ion
II . U or O M ut a t ion
-

( U

( )
b III . P a la ta l M uta t ion ( M ut .

IV . Br eakin g ( Erk g ) .

V . G lide D iph hon gis a ion

-
t t ( Glide
VI . P ala t a l D ipht hon gis a t ion ( Pa l .

V II . M on ophthon gis a t ion ( P a l .

V III In fl uen c e of pr e c e din g

. W( W
IX . followin g W ( Infl .

X . N as al ( Infl .

( c ) XI . Len g t hen in g in c om pen sa tion for los t N a sal

( Los s N ) -
.

XII . C on tr a ct ion

X III . Le n g t he n in g in c om pe ns tion a for los s of G or H

s s G, Los s H
( Lo )- -
.

d
( ) XIV . Le n g the nin g ( Le n g thg ) .

XV . S hort en in g ( S horts ) .
1 20 P H ON O L OGY . 115

Thefor egoin g n am es ( if s om e tim e s c lum s y) a e ign ific n t ; r s a

t h t is t o s y t he y s ugges t w ith s uffic ie n t c le r n e s s t he n tu r e

a a , a a

of t he
p r oc s se s which t hey de n ot e
e T he ab b r e i t ion s in p a r e n . v a

t hes es e c on en ien t s ub s titute s e s pe c ially for the lon g e r nam es

ar v , ,

a nd fr e q ue n t l s a e m akin a r e fe r e n c e
v
y g .

115 . It is n ot p o x a ct c hr on ologic al
s s ib le to a ssi n
g t he e

o r de r in w hic h t he p r oc e s s e s r e p r es e n te d b o e c m e in to Ope r a v a a

tion S om e of them e g Br e k in g w e r e c om ple te d in p r ehis to ric

.
, . . a ,

tim es othe r s h d h rdly m an ifes t e d them sel e t the c m m en c e

,
a a v s a o

m e n t of t he his t or ic OE pe riod e g U— M ut t ion ; s om e of them

.
,
. . a

m u t h e b ee n in ope r t ion o e r
s av c on ide r b le pe riod of t im e
a v a s a ,

e.
g . P a l a t l M u t a t
a io n B u t b y c r e f ul. ob s e r t ion of t h e
p o a va r

c es s e t h t p r e c ede a n d t he p r o c es s es t ha t follow othe r p r oc es s e s

s a , ,

in t h s u cc e s s i e s oun d c ha n g es of t he s am e w or d the p r e s e n t
e v -
,

w rit e r ha s for m ul te d t he followin g s c hem e of p r oc e s s e s in th e

a

a p p r o xim at e o r d e r o f t h e ir a p p e a r a n c e w hic h is p r ob a b ly ,

n ot e ry f v from t he tr ut h Thos e on t he s am e le el ar e
ar . v

su
pp os e d t o b e n e a r ly y
s n c h r o n ou s b u t d t es ar e n ot s si ned
g ,
a a

( for ab b r e v ia t ion s s ee b o e ) a v .

S horte n in g

Br e akin g C on tr a ct ion Infl N .

-

Le n g t he n in g

P al D iph
. . Los s —
N

I M ut a t ion

U M u ta t ion Infl . W

W Infl-
. M ut P al. . Los s G, H - -

P a la ta l M on ophthon gisa t ion

1 22 PHON OLO GY . 1 1 8, 1 1 9

I . I -
M UTA T ION .

118 . I -
M ut a tion is t he in fl ue n c e
follow ng i e x e rted by a i
"
or j upon t he ow el s oun d of s tr e s ed s ll b le b w hi c h t h t a s a a
v
y y
-
,

s oun d is
p rt i lly s s im ila t e d t o t he s oun d of t he m u t t in g le tte r
a a a a .

In t his m u t t ion t he m ut t in g s oun ds b e in g p la ta l t he e ffe ct is

a ,
a a ,

a
p la
a t lis aat ion i e t h e r e pl c e m e,
n t of l
. e s s p
.a la t l v ow e l b
y a a a a

m or e p la t l o we l in e e r y in t n c e
a a v The i o j t ha t c u e d t he
v s a . r a s

m ut a t ion ha s e ithe r dis ppe r e d o w e k e n e d t o e in m os t c ases a a r a

in his t oric OE e xc e p t ion s how e e r ar e s e e n in s u c h

. e rb as ,
v ,
v s

n gr ia n z n gr a nj and in som e ad s
j g .
, e . . hgfig ( heav
y) ,
wielisc ( f or e i n
g ) w hile n um e ous r tr c es
a Of m ut a t in g i an d j hav e
b een oin t ed out in the A ccide n c e On t he o the r ha n d, t he i in
p .

ve rb s of t he 3 rd w e a k cl a ss
(
“
Look loc ia n , lufia n , is a we ak en
in g of 6, the r e fore does n ot c ause i m ut tion ( see
an d -
a

M ut ation an d G rad ation M ut t ion is pe rfe ctly s im ple . a a

p h e n om e n on ; b u t t he s ub j e ct h s b ee n o b s c u r e d n d c on f use d b y a a

it s b ein g c las s e d a n d e x pla in e d ide b y s ide w ith G r ada t ion wit h s ,

whic h it ha s n o c on c ei b le c onn e ction e xc e p t b y w y of c on tr s t va a a .

G r ad ation is r el tion of di f e n
a t o w els in wor ds de r i e d fr om
a er v v

on e r oot e xis t in
g side b y s ide a t the s m e tim ; M ut atio n is a a e

c ha n g e of owe l in on e v n d the s a m e w d whi c h t on e pe r iod a or ,

a ,

the re for e h d on e v owel s oun d n d t l ter tim e a n othe r ( the

,
a -
,
a a a a

m ut t e d owe l )
a vG r ad tion is a r ela tion of difi ren t v owels to
. a e

on e a n ot he r ; M ut a tion is a c ha ng e in t he his t o ry of on e owel v .

119 . M ut at ion c on fusion h s re s ulted e xp l ain e d . G rea t a

from loose ide s an d s ta tem en ts s t o the epoc h when deri tiv e

a a va

wor ds we r e form ed This is a n im port an t poin t an d m us t b e .

clea red up on c e for all F rom the OE n oun g old it is S id . .

,
a ,

w s for m e d a n dj e ct i e gylden t hus : g old + in > gylden

a a Un v , .

fort un tely the OE i m ut tion of o is (3 and if the re fore t he

a ,
.
- a ,

ab o e v dj e cti e ha d b ee n an OE for m t ion t all it would ha e

a v . a a ,
v

b ee n g glden n ot gylden A g in fr om a n OE n oun wu n s c w s

,
*
, a ,
. a

for m ed it is s id a e rb wys c n ( wis h) thus : wu nsc + i n

,
a ,
v a ,
a

wwns c i n wus c ia n
a wy ca n b ut un fort un at ely t he OE s , ,
.
 1 20 SO U N D LA WS -
. 1 23

n oun
*
wu n sc p r ob b ilit
nev e y E r e x is t ed
e n S ie e ,
in a ll a . v v rs

a llow him e lf to pe k of t he i m u t t ion of c

s s nd 5
S a lthoug h -
a o a 0 ,
a

he him se lf t t q uit e c le r ly e l whe r

s a es
“
th t t he of t he In do a se e a e

Europe n P r e n t S pe c h w a r eg ul rly c h n ge d t o G e r m n ic i
a e as a a a

w he n t he n xt s yll b le c n t in e d n i o e t h t is t o y in
a o a a r a sa ,

ev er y w r d in which OE i m u t tion c ou ld p
o ,
ibly t ke p l .
-
a os s a ac e,

G e m ni c r an d en i n d iu w hic h in t he p e —
e a m u t t ion p e r iod
a ,
r a

Of O E i n d io
.
( n d n ot o acc u r t el
y p S k in g co nda ,
a a ea ,
a

The tr ut h is s im ply t his m o t O E de r i t i e w or ds e n ot : s . va v ar

OE f or m t ion s t ll s w e k n ow fr om t he ir e x is t in g in on e o
. a a a ,
a r

m or e of t he c ogn t e l n g u g es n d t he r e for e l o in t he p r e n t
a a a a a s a

G e r m n ic M ny of t he m a e of im m em or i l an t iquity Thi is
a . a r a . s

j u t s true of t he 2n d a n d 3 d s ing p re of e rb s of t he
s a r . s . v s a

p r in c'
ip l p rt F r
a o m t he r e m
a o t e n
s c es
. t r of hat n e g t he re a o a ,
. .
,

had on c e b e en for m e d 3 d s in g pr s s om e t hin g lik e hat ti a r . e . e .

On c e f r m d t hi wo r d h d n in dep n de n t e x is t e n c an d c m e
o e ,
s a a e e a

un de r s oun d l w s w hic h did n ot -

ffe ct hdt n It re c hed t he OE
a a a . a .

e m ut t ion p e r iod in t he fo rm hati6 > O E hw

r a a S o w it h t he
p
-
. .

ot he r w o r d n m e d a b o e Gyld n n d t he C HG g u ldin p r o e
s a v . e a . v

t h e x i t e n c e o f a G e r m a n ic p r e n t dj e ct i e whos e i pr es e r e d
e s a a v ,
v

the r dic l u fr om c h n ge t o o
a a 98 N 2 ) un t il t he OE a ,
. .

i m ut a t ion pe r iod
-
OE wy c n n d OHG wun ken p ro e t he . . s a a . s v

e xis t e n c e of a G e r m ani c wu ns kj n fr om w hic h of c ou r s e wys c n

‘

a ,
a

is dir e ct ly de c e n de d a n d n ot fr om n OE *wu n s a t he fict it iou

s ,
a .
,
s

p r e n t of
a e r b w it h r e l b lue G e r m n ic b lood in its
a v e in s a a v .

120 . We ha v e r
y s ee n t ha t the r e wa s wha t m ay b e
a l ead

c a lled a G e r m a nic i m u t a t ion ( g 9 8 , N 1 ,

-
b y w hic h e i a n d .

eu > in . The r e is t he re for e n o OE m uta tion e > i ; e v e ry s uc h .

ch g e , a s in hilp ( e) 6 , 3 rd s in g
an . of help an , bir ( e ) 6 of ber a n , tr itt of

tr eda n , in bidda n a n d t he o he p r es e n t s of t he T r ea d t r “w
e ak
” ”

c las s (c p pp g ebeden) , ha a a dy occ urr ed in G e rm a n ic But

. . d lre .

t his G e rm a n ic i c ou d a n d did, in s o m e ords , s uffe r b r eak ing

l w “

t o ie , and t hen un de rw n t in
e OE . a s e on d c i mu-
t a t ion , v iz . io is .

1
S iev e r s
’
OE G . r a mm a r C , ook s
’
t r an s ation ,l 45 .
1 24 P H ON OL O GY .
g 1 2 1

A n ex a m ple is seen in G e rm n ic ke dj o hi dj o OE *hio dj o a r r . r

hi de he rds m n
er , S im il r ly u un de r we n t doub le m ut a t ion
a . a e ,

fir s t in G e r m an ic t he n in C B u iu OE i o ie ,
: e . .

I M ut t ion in OE c an follo w Br eak in g P l D iph In fl N

-
a .
,
a . .
,
.
-
,

Lo s N s -
n d C on tr ct ion
a n d c n it s e lf b e followe d b Infl W a a a
y
-
, , .
,

an d Lo s C H s M uta ted for m s of En glish pr ope r n am es s u c h a s

- -
.
,

Kgn t Tgm es p r o e t ha t I M u t t ion is t o b e d te d ft e r t he

, ,
v -
a a a

S x on Con q ue t
a P og t s he s ugg e s t s a b out t he ye r 6 0 0 A D
s . a c r a . .

The r e s ults of I M ut t ion in OE m y c on v e n ien t ly b e S hown -

a . a

as follows
( i) ( a se
q ( ) se ( ii ) a 5

( iii) ea ie ( iv ) ea ie

(v ) io ie ( v i) (iu 10 ie

( v ii) o 5

( x)
i 11 V

121 .
()
i ( a a
g . In p osi tion s in which o rigin a l a

c ould s uf
fe r
M uta tion it ha d a lr ea dy b e c om e as or Q
I -
,
1 0 0 ( b) ,
1 4 8 ) b e for e t he I M u ta t ion pe r iod ( e xc ep t a s s t a t ed in
-
N ot e

Ex a m ple s : lgcg a n ( y) ,
la
p l g p
ee , a s t s in
c .
g of licg a n ; . s gtta/n

( ) p
se t , c . s ec t, pa s t S in
g . of s itta n ; tglla n , c p ta lu ( t a le ) ; . n gr ia/n

t t —
j S t em and
“
we ak
( t o s av e
) ; m gte
( ea ) ,
m an i
-
s em ; hgll, a

p re s en ts r cl ( r a is e )
” “ ”
of t he Fa e ass : hgbba n ,
c
p pp g ehofen
. .

s c g66 a n
( in j ure ) ,
a n d s wgr ia n
( s we a r) .

N OT ES .
( )
1 x in s t e a d of g is r egul rly foun d
a in t he 2n d
an d 3 r d s ing p r es of s tr on g v e r b s of Cla s s V I feer s t, fa r6 , fr om
. . .

f a r a n in t he m ut a t e d pa s t p a rt s o f t he s a m e C la s s , g e
f a r en oc .

g f e a r en , e t c .
fs t, haf 6 ,
in hae fr om ha b ba n in s a gs t, s a g 6 cc s gg s t,

gg 6 , from s g g a n in s t pp n s tgpp a n a nd un iforml y in f s t n

c x a cc a er
/

s e c ure r
( ) h f t n ( i
,
m p is on ) e t c
x a ,
.

fl n c e of t he i fi
( )
2 T he in u e
( b ut n ot j) of n l s llab le
y a a

e n e tr t ed t o t he in it i l s yll b le a n d c a us e d m ut t ion if t he a a a
p a ,

s e c on d s ll b le was s hort a n d h d a g utt ur al

a owe l E s a v x
y . .
 1 26 P H ON O L OGY . 1 2 6— 1 29

126 .
( v i) io ie , He re b e long ples us ua lly a ll t he e x am

g iv e n un de r 20 , as e x p l a in e d in 1 1 9 cr iep 6 , s ci et, 3 r d s in g p e s . r .

of c r eop a n
( cr ee p
) ,
s c é ota n t
( S hoo ) ; g etr iewe ( ue ) , c p tr éow tr .

( tr uth) li ( c ) hta u ( ill mi te ) l ( g ) ; s ti ( e) r a n ( guide ) ,

eoht li h t
‘

u n a , pc .

da n c e ; s tr i en a n t
cp . s teor
( g ui ) ( ob a in ) , c p g es tr é on ( pos ses s ion s ) ;
.

'

as we ll a s f i en d, fr i en d, da t s in g a n d . . n om .
p l . of f i ond ( en em y) ,

fr i on d ( frien d) .

127 .
( ( )
v ii
) g , o
g . a Ex am ples of Q >g: s tgn t, 3 rd
s in
g p.r es of s tgn dam
(
. s t an d
) b g (
n d b on d
) i s t em c p b pn d pas t ,
-
, .
,

of b in da/n ; m gn ( n ) da t a n d pl of a
s in g .
( )
n m an
; s tr gn g r a , . .
, ,

c om par of s tr Q ng fr gm m a n ( perfor m ) c p fr gm ( b old) n gm n a n

.
, .

( t o n am e ) c p a (
a nam e
, ) s gn da n t o sen d
.
( ) c
p (
s gn d m ess a e )
g , .

tgm ia n ( t o ta m e ) c p igm ( t a m e ) ,
. .

e onl y e x a m ple s of o > § a r e : dghter

( )
b Th da t of dohtor , .

a ught e r ; gae n rg en ( m or n
( d ) p l of oxa ( ox
) m g ) c p m org en ;
, .
, .

gf es
( e a v es
) gl e ( )
oil .

128 ( viii) >é Ex s blew6 , gr ew6 3 r d s in g p r es of t he

‘

. o . . : , . .

R e duplic a t in g ve rb s blOw an
( b l )
oom , g r owa n ; t he weak p r es e n t
“ ” -

wep a n ( we e p) , pp wbp en ; s wey ( s oun d) , c p

cp . . . s wbg a n
( to r oa r ) ;
of br 6 6 or ; s wete ( s wee t , c s w ee tly) ;
br é 6 er , da t ) s wb te
( dema n
‘

.
p .

( to j udge ) p dam ( doom ) ; e ,fs ta n ( t o ha s ten ) , c p Qfos t ( has t e ) ;

c . .

s ec a n t o s e e k , c p s ohte sought ) ; ewen wom a n , i- s t e m ; g ec wema n

( ) ( ( ) .

( p l ) g dat a nd l f g b s ( g oos e ) ; s m e6 e ( s m oot h) , c p

’

t o e ase ; es , p o . . .

s m 66 e ( s m oothly) ; g es e6 a n ( t o p r ov e ) c p 3 66 ( tr ue ) ; ehta n ( t o
'

.
,

p ur s ue ) c p oht ( pe r s e c ution ) ; f ehs t f eh6 2 n d a n d 3 rd s in g p r e s

,
.
, , . .

of fan ( t o s e iz e ) .

129 .
( )
ix 11 > y . Ex s . 3 rd S in g p r es of c u m a n ( c om e ) ;
: cym 6, . .

t he “
p as t p re s en t
-
”
s ubj un ctiv e s dyg e, dyr r e, g em yne, s e le, g
6 yrfe,
'

c
p dug on , .
p ku ng or ; g esyn to
etc .
; hyng r a n ( t o hu ng e r) ,
c .

a lth , c n d s oun d ; byr i g , da t of b ur g fort ; p ytt ( pit ;

( he
) p g es u ( ) ( ) .
( ) ) .

wylfen ( s he wolf ) , c p wu lf ; wyllen ( woolle n ) , c p wu ll ; fylla n

-
. .

( fill) , c
p .
fu ll . In n ea rly a ll o t he r in s t an c es , su ch as
gylden
(g olde n
) , gyden ( g oddes s
) ( b uy ) , y, bycg a n
app ea r s t o b e t he
i m ut a tion
-
of o
( in g old, g od, bohte) , a s it is s ill O e n s a id t o b e t ft .
 1 3 0, 1 3 1 SO U N D L A WS -
. 1 27

But t he tr uth is t h t y c n n ot po ib ly b e t he m ut tion of fo

a a ss a o r

n ot on ly i g t he m u t t ion o f o
s nd 0 o w l h s t w o m ut t da ,
a 11 v e a a e

for m s b ut w e h e lre dy e e n t h t G e r m n ic u w pr ote cted

av a a s a a as

b y f ollow in g i j fr om t he c h n g e in t o 0 whic h w s un de rg n e
a , ,
a ,
a o

b y t he p ir w or d g ld g d b ht e t
a -
( e e g 98 N
s o ,
o ,
o e, c . s ,
.

N OT E . A ft e r p a la a l t g c ,
w e n ot
,
in fr e
q u
s o, e n t ly fin d i fo r

y : g ing r a , g ing es t ( a l ways w it h i) c om p r n d s upe r l of iung

,
a . a .
,

g eong ( young) ; se ile cc s c yle , e t c .

13 0 .
(x) u > §i . Ex a m ple s : bry
7e6, lgc6 , 3 rd S in g .
pre s of .

b r uc a n ( e nj oy) ,
l ei cun ( lock ) ; br yd ( b id )
e ,r
fys t ( fis t ) ,
i s te m s
c j 6a n ( to m a k e k n own ) ,
cp . 0 1 26
( k n o wn ; fy
) sa n
( t o ha s te n ) ,

cp .
fus ( e a ge r) wgs c a n ( to wis h) .

II . U M U TA TION .

131 . U M ut at ion
-
( un de r c
whi h w e in lude O c -
M ut a tion ) is
t he infl ue n c e e x e rc i ed b y a following l s w el upon a g utt u r a vo

s tres se d i or in c on s e quen c e of w hich i e in n tic ip tion of

,
e, a, ,
. . a a

t he f oll owi n g g ut t ur l ow e l g u tt u r al
g lide oun d a r os e a ft e r
a v ,
a -
s

t he s tr e s s e d ow e l n d in t im e f or m e d
v dipht hon g wit h it
,
a a .

T hus

( i) i + a, o, u > io ,

( )
ii e a, o, u e o,

( iii) a u ea se a
) .

T he v ow el a tion in W S n d u m ut tion
doe s n ot s uffe r o- m ut a .
,
a -
a

o f i ers vr r e In dee d t he e ffe ct s of t hi in fl uen c e

a r lly
a
y .

g e n e s a

ar e er v lim it e d in WS c om r e d w it h t he o the r di le cts The

y s p .
,
a a a .

gutt ur l v owe ls t ha t c us e d t his m ut t ion b e ing owe ls of un

a a a ,
v

s tr e s s e d s ll b les ha e s o fr e ue n t l
y qa
y w e k e n e d in his tor ic tim e s
,
v a ,

u to o 0 t , etc th t s om e k n ow le dge of pr ehis toric form s is

o a, .
,
a

n e ce s s r
y in or de r t o dis cr im in t e u m ut t ion s from o ( )
a a - a a

m ut tions a .
1 28 P HON O LOGY . 1 3 2—1 3 4

U—
M uta t ion c ould
follow ed in t he his t ory of the s m e
be , a

wo rd b y WIn fl
,
b ut n o ot he r c h n g e e ithe r p r e c e ded or
-
. a

followed it It i un iform ly wa n ting b e for e 0 a nd g In m os t

. s .

wor d in whic h t his m u t a t ion is s e en for m with t he or igin al

s ,
s

vowe l un c h n g e d e l o f oun d
a ar a s .

13 2 .
( i)
( ) T hii > io
s is b
y fa r the m os e en si v e
eo . t xt
Of t he h e e e ffe s in W S
t r It is e s pe ia lly om m on in EWS
ct . c c .

t r r
La e , t he s oun d e v e e d t o s im ple i, or t he e ffe rt
wa s dis guis e d ct
b y t he ope a ion of WIn flr t E a m ples a r e -
. x
( )
a u - mu a t tion s
fr e o6 o, p ea c e s iolofr , s e olfor , s ilv er

m ioloc , m eole , m ilk liom u, p l of lim , lim b

.

cus tom S iodu, s wiot ul, s we ot ol, lear c

o a m ut t ion s
( )
b ( ) -
a

wiot n c u n s ello a ,
o rs c lio
pian , to c all
b ior a of them ,
t iolia n , to a im a t
n io6 or , down wa r ds liofa6 , lives ( fr om libba n )
n eo6 a n , fr om ben ea th

N OT E . rem em b e r ed th t m os t of the b ov e wor ds

It is t o b e a a

a r e a lso foun d in EWS with origin l i un chan ged hi s ido et c

. a ra, ,
.

13 3 .
( ii) e eo r tt c
is p e y om m on , b ut is n ot as a r ule c a us e d
infl e c tion al u . x
E a m ples a r e :

( )
a u—
mu a t tion s
e ofor , boa r weor od, tr oop
he ofon , hea v en s w e os t or , s is ter

he or ot , ha r t s eofon , s ev en .

( b) o a
( ) -
mu t tion s
a

weola , wea l weor old, wor ld

13 4 .
( iii) a > ea is yv er rare in EWS p r os e, b ein g foun d
.

on ly in t he thr ee wor ds ea la , gen . ea lo6

( )
a le , c ear u
( s orr ow ,
)
s lea cn es ( s la ck n e s s ) . A s for m s with ea ar e c om m on in poe i tc al
1 30 P HON OL OGY .
§ 1 36

( )
iii ea e in L WS . b e fo r e h ( x ) . Ex am ples : s eh s ea h

( saw) ; s leh < s lea h, 2 n d S in g im pe . ra ti ve o f s lea n

'

( s trik e ) .

( iv ) WS b e for e h g c Exa m ple s ar e S een in t he

Ea e in L .
, , .

pa s t s in g of s tr on g e r b s of Cla s s II : teh tea h fr om tee n t o

'

. v . < ,

dr w ; beg b ea g fr om b ug a n t o b ow ; lec lea c fr om luc a n to

' ' ’

a < ,
< ,

loc k a n d in 6 h 6 c h ( t hough) e t c This is t he c a s e in whic h

'

e a .
,

Br ea kin g did n ot p r e c e de .

IV . BR EA K IN G .

13 6 r o c e s s of t he s m e n t ur e as U—
Br eak in g is M ut t ion
a
.
p a a a ,

b ut w c aus e d b y foll owing g uttur l cons n nts To e se the

as
”

a o a . a

tr n ition fr m t he p l tal owels

a s o a
) e i to
gu tt
a aur l h v se , , ,
a a ,

c o e r ed l ( i e l followed b y n othe r c on s on n t ) o c o e red r

v . . a a ,
r v
“

im m e di t e ly followin g a g utt ur l glide s oun d r o e whi ch s oon

a ,
a -
a s ,

form ed a diphthon g with t he p re c edin g owel Thus v .

()
i ( a as u h, r l c on s t ) . ea et c .

( )
ii e o h, r l ( c + or h) eo e tc .

( )
iii i o h, r io (cc ) et c .

This t a b le s how s ffe ct ed b y b re king

at a
glan ce t he v ow els a a ,

it s c us e s n d c on dit ion
a a a n d it s r es ul t s Al th ugh t he owels s, . o v

a ffe ct e d a n d t he r es ul t s e t he s m e s in t he s im ila r
p r o c es
ar of a a s

U M ut t ion it is onl y r r e ly p oss ib le t o c on foun d the t wo

-
a ,
a .

Exc e pt in m on o yll b le whe r e u m u t t ion is n e c e a r ily

s a s, -
a ss

pos s ib le b r e k in g w s lw ys c on dit ion e d b y t wo foll owi n g eon

,
a a a a

s on n t s ;
a whe r e s u m u t t ion did n ot pe n e tr te throug h t wo
a -
a a

c on on n t s e xc ept in r r e in s t n c e s ( such s s we t 6ioss u m

s a ,
a a a os or ,

6 iss u m ) .

Br e akin g follows S hort en in g ( of f oll ow e d in t he

i ) ; it c an be ,

his t or yof on e a nd t he s am e w o r d b y I M ut t ion P l t l M u t a

,
-
a ,
a a a

tion ,
P al M on . .
,
W—
In fl .
,
an d LOS S -
H .
 1 37 —1 3 9 SO U N D LA WS -
. 1 31

13 7 .
( i) ( a m> ea b e fo r e h ( x ) , c ov e r ed r ,
and c o e re d
v l .

Ex a m ple s a re n um e ous : r f ea lla n (f a ll ) , hea lda n ( hol d) ,

wea x a n

(g r ow
) of t he R e duplic t in g c l s s of
,
tr on g e rb s ; p
a s t s in g of a s v a .

s tr ong e rb s of t he Help c l s s : h lp from h lp n w 6

v
“ ”
a ea e a ,
ea r

from w o 6 n ( to b e c om e ) f ht fr om f oht n ( to fi ght) ; hen c e

e r a ,
ea e a

in the p s t—
“
pr e s e n t erb s d r tr c
”
a
( ) 6 rf o f t h e 3
v d s o n
g las s
ea r ,
ea ,
r

sea h fr om r st r s en t e r b be
“ ”
eo n
( )
s ee ; s i
sm il ly in t h e p p e a a - v

g n h ( it s uffi c e ) ; le h s in g im p e t of s lé n ( s tr ik e ) ; m e ht
e- ea s s a , . ra . a a ,

me hte p rt s of t he p s t— p re sen t e r b m g fe (h ir ) ; We lh
“ ”
a ,
a a v a ax a a

( W e ls hm n ;
) S x n a
( S x on
) ; l ea
( c h al k ) f or e ig n wor d
a s c ea c a ,
a

in tr odu c ed t a n rly pe riod ; ll the form s of be u (g r o e)

a ea a ar v ,

be lu ( e v il)
a u
( rm our ) n d of t he dj s g u (y r e) n e u
,
s ea r a ,
a a . ca r a ,
ar

( n rr ow ) in t he un infl e c t e d for m s of ll w hic h t he b r ok e n owe l

a ,
a v

is b orr ow e d fr om t he ob lique c s e s ; c ld ( Old) ; ca ll ( ll) ; ca m a a a r

( r e tc hed) ; e ht ( e ight ) ;
w ni n
a
( to e r n )
a ea r a a .

N OT ES (1 ) b e f or e c o e r e d l s om e t im es r em in s : f ll n
'

. a v a a a ,

h ld n
a lda ll W lh
,
a ,
a ,
a .

( 2 ) ll e rlier l + j doe s n ot c ause b r e kin g b e c us e t he ll

< a a ,
a

had b e c om e p l t l : hgll ( he ll) j s t e m s gll n ( gi e ) tgll n ( t ell )

a a a ,
-
a v a .

M e t t he s i f t ok pl c e ft r r e kin g pe r iod
( 3 ) o o
a es t h e B r a a a -

hen c e the r e is n o b r ea kin g in b s t ( b u r t ) b n n ( b u r n eer s ,

x r a ,

tr n s ) n ( hous e) g s ( gr ) no in b s ta n ( b urs t) 6 s a n
a ,
ee r ,
eer ass ,
r er ,
er c

( thr esh) ; b ut e xc ep tion lly b o n n b in n n ( b ur n in tr n s )

,
a , e r a r a ,
a .

ha s a b r ok e n owe l v .

13 8 .
(1 1 ) e > eo b efor e h, c o e re d
v r, lo an d lh
. Ex am ple s
feohta n ( fight ) ( thr ow ) Help cl s ; s h
“ ”
,
weorp a n ,
of t he as eo ,

i g im pe r a t of s é on ;
s n . . c n eoht
( a se r v an t) ; c or 6 ( ea rth) ; h
e d eor

( he dr
) se
( ) p helm
olh s ea l , c
( he lm e t ) s teor r a
. a se
( s t r) f ( s elf )
ol ,

e xc eption al form f ; teohhia n ( a rra nge ) ; m eolc a n ( m ilk )

Of s el .

139 i e o b e f or e I
c o e r ed ; b ut e x m ples e
.
( )
iii > io ( ) t an d v r a ar

few b e c use in m n y wor ds i m u t tion s upe r e n e d ( ee

,
a 1 25 )
a -
a v s

Wi ht ( I le of Wight ) beo n n ( t o b ur n ) leo n i n ( to le rn ) le ht

o s ,
r a ,
r a a , o

( light e sy) betw oh betweox ( b e t wixt )

,
a , e , .
1 32 P HON OL OGY . 1 4 0 , 1 41

V . G LID E D IP HTHON G IS A TION

-
1
.

140 . The a b ov e roc es s

n am e is us ed he r e t o de n ot e a p ,

s im il r in c h r ct e r t o U M ut t ion n d Br e k in g
a a a n d pe rh p -
a a a ,
a a s

a ris in g in imit t ion of t he m b ut di ffe r in g fr om t he m in t h t t he

a ,
a

lid i s p la t l I t i r ob b le t h t in im it t ion of i > i b e for e

‘
s a
g e p a a . a ,
a o

g u tt u r l i ai b e f or e r, p l t lised en d t he n t he s a m e di h
pa a a a r, a

t hon gis t ion r os e b e fore ot he r c on s onan t s It foll ows an d is

a a .
,

foll owed b y n o othe r c h n ge In e e ry word in whic h it is s een

,
a . v ,

un ch n g e d i is
a lso foun d Ex am ple s a e : bi( ) n n ( b urn )
a . r e r a ,

i er na n ( ru n ) of t he D r ink
“
,
cl s s bi( ) s t bi( e) 6 2n d an d 3 d a e r ,
r ,
r

e r) s t n ( b ur s t ) ;
s in g of b . n
( b b i ( )
er a s t 2 n d n d 3 d s in g of b
a e r ,
a r . er a

hi( e) e n a n d d t of heo ( s he ) hi ( )
e ne c e of In"
a
( h e
) g i ( f
) 6 a e
gr e, . .
,
.
,

ong i e ( ) tt 3 rd S in g . of g iefa n , ong ieta n 77) si e n

( ) don

( a re ) .

VI . P A L A T A L D IP HTH ON G IS A TION .

141 . is giv e n t o a s e r ies of c ha n g es whic h

The a b ov e n am e

c on sis t in the in tr odu ction of a pala t al glide ( i or e ) b e t we en

‘ ’

a n in it ia l pala t al c on s on a n t ( j , g , s e, c ) a n d a f oll owin g s tr es s ed

v ow el gli d e
; t h
ae e w a ds o m e d a di ph hon g wi h t he ft r r f r t t
foll owin g v ow e l, a n d hen , b e in g t he s e le m en of t he t fir t t
t
diph hon g , ook ov e t he s es s t
This is t he ge n e a l n a u e r tr . r t r
of t he chan ge ; the p rt icula r c s es e s om ewh t n um erous a a ar a ,

O cc urrin g s they do in the downwa r d his tory of G e r m n ic

,
a , a

s tr e s s e d e o u a 6 u ,
i a,They e c on enie n tly um m ris ed
, , , , ,
a . ar v s a

in thr e e c l s s es a

P al t ali s t ion of u a ft e r ini t i l j

()
1 6 a a av , o, , ,
a a .

( )
ii P l t lis t ion of
p r im r
a a a
y e ft e r in itial p l t lis ed
a a
2
,
as, ee a a a a

c g s
, ,
e .

( )
ii i P l t li t ion of a a a a
0 Q u a a ft e r in it i l
sa
pala t , a, , , o, , , a a

lis e d se .

h q l l c bl
T i s n am e is e ua l y app i a e to U Mutation and B ea kin g ; b ut t ey
1 -
r h
ar e a eady et telr b
n a m e d ; an d a s im i a r l r b c
o j e tion m ig t b e ur g e d ag ain s t h
r
the t e m M uta tion , whi ch c l c
ou d of our s e b e use d of a ny an ge W atev e ch h r
.

2
L e the nor ma l OE dev e op m en ts o f e m an i e , a , £6
. l .Gr c .
1 34 P H ONOL OGY . 1 44, 1 4 5

( c) 5 Ex a m ple s : s c é a/r on ,
pa s t pl of s c ier a n ; g éafon ,
.

-
g éa ton , pa s
. t pl .
g iefa n , g ieta n
of -
s c é ap ( s he ep ) In 0 5 68 6 *
c éas i,
.

P a l D iph ha s
. . b ee n f ollowe d b y I— M uta tion .

N OT E On ly pr im a ry e, a , w, s uffe r t his c ha nge

.
( 2) The .

m ut a t e d v owels g, a , Q 1 2 1 , 1 22 , 1 2 7 ) a r e un a ffe ct e d b y it

g es cgp en ( pp of s ciepp a n ) , g aedelin g , tag aeder e

. .

144 .
( iii) A ft e r initial s e, guttur al ffe red t he
v owe l s s u

followin g ch n ges b ut n ot un iform ly a , in e e ry wo r d in whic h t he

v

c h nges re s een the origin l owel

a a ,
a v is als o foun d e en in the ,
v

s am e t e xt .

e r b s of t he Fare cl
( )
a ea s een in a, ,
v a ss , e .
g . s ceaca n oc

s ca ca n
( s ha k e ) , pp .
( )
s c e a c en .

( b) d > Ea , s ee n in s c é a da/n oc s c d da m
( t o dis in g uis h) t of t he
Reduplic a t ing c las s .

( ) 0 o > eo, s een in sceop cc s opc ( b a r d) , s c eolde oc s colde from

s ha ll
s c ea l ( ) .

( d) Q 3 0 , s ee n in s c eom u cc sc gm u
( s ha m e) .

(e) 6 > é o, s e en in pas t t en s es of t he “

F are c lass ,
e .
g .

3 0 61) fr om
s céoc cc 3 0 60
( s hook
) ,
cc s ciepp a n .

(f ) u 6 0 , s e en in s ceolon cc s c u lon , pl of
. t he p as -
p t res en t
ve rb s cea l ( s hall ) This 6 0 m y b e b orr . a ow ed om s c eolde fr a b ov e ,
s in c e it is t he onl y in s t n c e in EWS a .

(g ) 12 > 5 0 in LWS on ly : s c ofim f ( s hov e )

’

. e cc s cd a n .

V II . P A LA TA L M ON OP HTH ON G IS A TION

145 .
p r oc e s s w c
This is
hi h c on s is t s in t he c h n gae of t he a

diphthon g s e in t o t he p l t a l m n ophthon gs e through

’ “

a, ea , a a o ,
e,

t he in fl ue n c e of ini t ial p l t l j c g s c It is fr e que n tly the a a a , , , .

c om ple tion of t he p l t lisin g pr oc e s s b egun in P a l D iph b ut it a a a . .

,

m y als o f ollow Br e ak in g an d Los G

a It is it s elf follo we d b y n o s- .

ot he r c h n ge It is s ee n in t he down w r d his t ory of G e rm ni c

a . a a

a, a "an d a u .
 1 46 SO U N D L A WS -
. 1 35

NOT E . S ie v e r s m ak e s the ta tic a c l rr r f incl udi g th i ph n m n n

e o o n s e o e o

un de rP l a a ta l M ut a tion , a l th ugh b ing f rw rd i fl u nc it i x cl ud d

o ,
e a o a n e e, s e e

b y his defin itio n of M uta tion .

C la s s ifi e d e x am
ples a re

( ) a F ollowin g onP a l D iph z— yef

. .
yea f (g av e
) ,
ong et on g ea t

(p rc ei e v ed
) ,
soel s c ea l
( s ha ll) , oes ter c eas ter
( c s t le
a
) on g e ten
'

on
g é a ten , pa s t s ub u n j ct i ve o f ong ieta n . A ft e r j —
g ér g éar .

( )
6 F ollowin g on Br e a kin g — c elf ‘
<
f(
c ea l c l f ) a .

—on gé n in s t )
( ) F ollow in g Los s G ( ng é a n
'

0 on -
a
ga o Ong ea g n

( P al .

(d) In L WS . éa G e rm . an
) E, as in t he pa s t s in g . of

ve rb s of t he “
C ree p c la s s 0 63 c éa s
( c hos e
) , 9 86 g é a t ( pou red) ,

8 0 56 s c éa t
( s hot ) .

V III . IN F LU EN C E O F P R EC ED IN G W .

146 . T he s e m i- v ow e l ha s a clos e a flin it

y t o t he v o we ls

u an d O, an d it s in fl ue n c e
t en d t o s ub s titute on e of them fo s r

t h dipht hon g i
e rise n thr ugh Bre king or U M ut tion
s o, 30, a o a -
a .

This c h n g e t he r e f r e in lm s t e e ry in s t n c e follow Br e kin g

a o a o v a s a

o U M ut tion it is it e lf followed b y n o othe r c h nge

r -
a s a .

The t wo c hie f c e wit h e le ct e d e x m ple e as s, s a s, ar

W w b b ot h wi a n d wio
( ) i o a u s u al l y u ( nd e en u ) ut a v ,

s om e t im e r e m in _ wu du ( wood) r rely wi du ; wu du we
s a , a o

( wid ow
) b e ide widu w ; w ht ( W ight t hin g) b es ide wiht
,
s e a , ,

s wu t l ( c le r )
o b es ide s wiot l ; b et ( w) u h b t( w) u x ( b e t wixt )
a ,
o ,
e ,

b es ide betwih, betweoh, etc .

( b) weo us ua lly rem a in e d, b ut a ls o wo an d in LWS w u .

wor old '

r ( w o ld
) weor old worb ig ( trsee t
) weor b ig s wos tor

( is te r ) LWS
s ,
. s w u s te r , s weos tor LWS . s wwr d
( s wo r d) s weor d
'
.

NO T E . A pp a r en t ly i l s o a te d in s tan c es of wo < wa are s e en in geswore n ,

o f s wer ia n a nd g eb wog en , pp of Owé a n
‘

pp . , .
 1 36 PHON O L OGY . 1 47 , 1 48

IX . IN F LU EN C E OF F OLLOWIN G W .

147 tr n sition b et wee n a

. To g n d followin
eas e
gthe a
,
e, ,
a

w ,
u glide
a r os e whic h with t he pr e c edin g owels for m ed t he
’
a ,
v

dipht hon g s c m u an d t he s e n orm lly p e d in t o EW S

,
e E éo
, a ass . a,

111 The on ly ot he r c h n ge with w hic h t hi c m e in t o

, a s a

r el t ion w s I M ut t ion b y whi c h it was p re c eded in sev e ral

a a -
a ,

wor ds In ll howe e r t he r e a e b ut fe w e x m ple s

. a ,
v ,
r a .

( ) w a uw é a w, in f éa we, fe w
‘

a a s e en .

( 6) e w > eu w > é ow, s ee n in t he in fl e ct e d fo r m s of

r
s e v an t ,
k n ee , tr éo(w) , tree ,
e .
g ge n
. . s
g Oéowes,
. c n éowes .

N OT E S .
(1 ) T he 60 of the n om . sg . is due t o vo a c l i ti sa on of the w an d

c ont a r ct i on , w b e in g a ft rw rd b rr
e a s o o wed fr om the O bliqu c e a s es .

( 2) G es ewen , pp . of s éon ( s ee) ,

is an e x ception .

( ) 0 F ollow in g I M ut ation gw > euw > é ow

-
, ,
s een in m éowle
s tr éowede s tr ewede s tr ew e d
( m aid) ,
oc
( ) e tc , .

X . IN FLU EN C E OF F OLLOWIN G N A SA L .

148 . The in fl ue n c e of a followin g n a s l a lr e a ,

a dy s een in
G e r m an ic 98 , N 1 , .
p r odu c e d in t he p r e hi s t or ic OE pe r iod
.

t he fiv e followin g well m a r k e d c h n ge s a

G rme .

This is on e of t he ea rlies t of t he OE in fl ue n . ces

b e in g pe r hap s ,

s
y n chron ous re k in g
wi h B t a . It c an be followe d b y P a l D iph , . .

Los s N , -
a n d I M u t tion a n d
-
a ,
ev e n b y t he la s t t wo in su cc es sion
in t he sa m e w or d ( e g . .
 1 38 P HONO L OGY . 1 5 3, 1 5 4

XI . C OM P EN S A T OR Y LEN G T HEN IN G F OR LOS S

OF N A S A L .

153 . Jus t as in G e r m a n ic ev e ry a, i, u, o cc urrin g b e fo r e

n h, > d, E, d c om pen s a tion f t he los s of the n ; s o in t he
in or

p rehis t oric O E pe r iod ( Q 6 3> E n d u

. 1 2 in c om e n s t ion
p ,
a ,
1 ,
a a

fo t he los s of n or m b e for e t he thr ee ot he r oic eles s pir n t s

r v s a ,

j , s O This c h n ge m y b e p r e c eded b y In fl N (in t he c han ge

, . a a .
-

a a n d is fr e q ue n t l
y f ollowe d b
y I—M u t a t ion 1 28 ,

C la ssifi ed x am ples a re
e

— s EO j our n e
tr
( ) a i>i on g f E
f y ,fi e s v .

( ) Q
6 > 0 — g g oos e ; we t oot h ; Od r s e c on d ; 3 6 6 tr ue ;
z
‘

os , , e ,
,

em etic s m oot hl fie omf te) s oftly

y; So
, s , .

c
( ) u u — hz Zs l hous e l z m out h as us c Oe c d Oe
,
‘ ’

, , , ,

p rt s of t he p s t p r e s en t
a e r b s ca n n n k n ow
a
( ) n n n gr n t
( ) v a a a
-
, a .

N OT E . N is los t in all t he a b ov e w or ds b ut flf and s o t/ie .

XII . C ON T R A CTION .

15 4 . C on tra ct ion is t he b len din g of t wo following v owel

s ou n ds in t o on e t us The t wo s oun ds
in o rde r to a v oid hia .

ha e in m os t in s t n c e s b een b r ought t oge the r t hr oug h the los s

v a

of c on s on n t u ually h s om e tim es j or w r rely n ot he

a a ,
s , ,
a a r

c on s on n t ; b ut the r e r e m n y in t n c es in which n o c on s on a n t
a a a s a

h s b en los t
a e The r e e t w o k in ds of C on tr a ct ion
. Con tr ct ion
ar . a

p rop e r in whic h origin l a oi e 3 o 5 f or m s a d ip hth on g w ith

, a , , ,
7, r .

t he f ollow in g v owe l a n d whic h is lm os t l w ys p r e c ede d b y t he

,
a a a

los s of a c on s on n t ;
n d A b s o r t ion
p in
aw h ic h a lon
g o wel
a ,
v ,

OE a E y Ea Eo S im ply b s or b s the followin g un s tr e ss ed

"

.
,
a , , , , ,
a

v ow e l an d whic h is oft en n ot r ec e de d b t h e l os s of a c on s on n t a
, p y .

C on tr ct ion pr ope r is r r e ly f ollow e d b y I M ut tion

a n o ot he r
a -
a

c han ge p r e c ede or follows it A b orption is m uc h l te r in d te

s . s a a ,

a n d c an f ollow Br e a k in n d I M u t t ion
g a a
-
.
 1 5 5—1 5 7 SO U N D LA WS -
. 1 39

The follow mg are t he m os t im port n t c a a s es

( i) a, a h W) , gutt ur a l v ow e l ea

( ii) e h) eo

( iii) i i , h j) ,
io ( 0)
5

( iv ) i j) e ie

( )
v A b s o r p t ion s .

15 5 .
()
i W G e rm . . a, a gu t t u r a l v o we l ea a fte r los s
Ex a m ples — c on tra ct ed rb s “
re ”
of h or w . t he ve of t he Fa
cl ass : l an
f
a
e la /
ta n
) ,
S la y ; flEan , fl a
y ; lEa n , b la m e ; OwEan ,

wa s h ; an d a ll
pr es e n t f or m s of t he s a m e , e xc e t 2 n d a n d 3 r d
p
S in
g . in di c . an d 2n d S in
g . im p e ra t . : l a,
( I) S la
y, e t c ; tEa r .

Ha hur ) ,
te r ;
a Ea wa ter ; c lEa < c lci wu , cla w ;
né a r *
n ci h0 r
) ,
n ea e r r .

15 6 .
( )
ii e + g ut t u r a 1 v ow e l > éo afte r loss of h . Ex
z — t he
c ontr c t ed e rb s of the T re d cl s
“ ”
: go n
am
ple s a v a a s e

* eha n
f ), rej oic e ; p lEon dv e n ture ; sEon see ; ,
a

go e
( )
I r ej,oi c e e t c ; p s t t e n s e in E0 o f t he R
,
e dup l ic t in
g
. a s a

cl r e ulting from t he c ontr ction of t he e of t he r eduplic t ed

a s s, s a a

s
y ll b l e a w it h t h e f o ll ow in
g s tr e s e d o w e l hE ld *h h ld
e ) s v o a ,

j lf lol) folde d e t c ; t
* *
hE ldon he ld ; o ld
o ,
tw h0 ) e a , , . o e ,

doub t ; tE E S *
teh0 5 ) t e n t h
‘

o a a , .

fte r los of h o gu tt u r al v ow e l
“'

15 7 .
( )
iii i , 1 50 a s r

j, o w rit ho u t lo s of c on on n t E x m pl e — the c on tr ct e d e r b s
s s a . a s : a v

S hin e c l s s O on ) thr i e ; lE n le n d ; tE n
“ * h n ”
o f t he 5 a : i i a ,
v o ,
o ,

a cc u e ; w i n c o e r ; OEO ( I) thri e e t c o t *bihci t) b o s t ;

s r o ,
v ,
v , .
,
a

e t wee n
* i wi h n
b t
e n m o b t a u um
) b f i ond en e m y ; ,

f r Eon Z frie n d ; hi o
c ,
hé n
) s he Eo fe m of S E t h t ,
s , .
,
a .

N OT E T he m u t t ion of t his i o ( E ) is s e e n in t he d t in g
. a 0 a . S .

a n d nom .
p l .
f iend fr i en d , .

( iv ) i + e > ie a fte r los s of j . Ex a m ple s : s ie

*
s i7e
) ,
be ;
hie, he r , they ; Er ie, t hr ee .
1 40 P H ONOLOGY .

g 1 5 8

15 8 . A b s or p t ion s . S ele cte d e xam ples a re a rranged un der

t he ab s o rb ing v owe ls

v ow e l — tci tahe) , t oe ;
( ) a a a r d, r oe in
; ga 9 6a m ) ,

v ow e l z —s a s
*
( 6) a Ees
se
) , g en . of 3 a , s ea ee

q
ob li u e S in g . of Q ,
la w .

( c) o v ow e l o —t he c on tra ct ed ve rb s of t he R e duplic at

in g cl a ss : f on
*
j 5 ha n ) ,
hon , ha n g ; a n d a ll p r es e n t for m s
s e iz e

of t he s am e , e xc e pt 2 n d a n d 3 r d S in g in die a n d 2 n d s in g . . .

*w
im pe rat .
f E,
( )
I s e iz e , e t c ; dé n
. do ; was okes ) ,

g en . of woh, cr ook e d .

( )
d ii v owe l s om e tim es ii — g ebiin g ebii en ) , g ebii d
*
ge
bri ed) , pp . of (M a n , b rig ea n , dwell .

( ) e y
‘

v owe l s om e tim es g — dr ysz

g en . of dr y
],
m a gi ian c b ut pl dr ya s , . e tc .

(f ) ea v ow e l
‘

éa —fr Ea * ran a
j )
f ,
lo d r s e v e al r in
fl e c t ed form s of hea k, high : hEa s
‘

*h a h
E es ) e t c , . 4 6) it s we ak
form ,
hEa , et c .
fEa da t .
f Ea m ,
fe w .

(9) 50 v ow e l eo the c on tr cted e rb s of the C reep

a v

cla s s : fl Eon *
fl eu ha n ) ,
fl ee ; tEon dr a w ; fl Eo ( I) fl ee ; flEon de
, , ,

fl eeing ,
etc .

NOT ES .
(1 ) It s ee m s b ette r to att rib ut e su ch f rm o s as Eos , gen . O f eoh,

h r o g
o s e, s, en . of feoh m on ey ,
L
, tof C om p e n s a o t ry L n gth e en in g for OS S o

h p l u A b rp ti th im p l C n tr cti n i h r th r * *
s so on , t an o S E E e o a o ,
. e . os < oes < eo es a e

th n a bcu th l tt r upp iti

e a C tr cti n m u t h
s e on e a e s os on on a o s av e

f ll w d B r ki
o o e ea n g whi ch
, m im p r b bl ; wh rsee A b rp ti n i
s m uch o a e e e as so o s a

l t r ch g
a e an e , as h asb n ttd ee s a e .

( 2 ) U n tr s es se d i l t in b
e s d n in c m p iti n with w rd b gin in g
os e an e o os o o s e n

with w l a vo e or w z —b zi tan < be-ata n , nd n < ne (i n , m s < ne wees , nylla 5 < ne

wil la ii .
1 42 P HON OL OGY . 1 6 1 — 1 63

XIV . L EN G T HEN IN G .

161 . Le n g the n in g of t he fin al v ow e l of a m on osylla b le is

c omm on , p es e ci al ly a f t e r t he los s of a fi n al c on s o na n t . Ex
am l
p es
— s wci , so bi, b y ; 5 12, thou ; n ii , n ow ; an d a fte r los s of

fi n a l c on s ona n t —m E ( t o),
me ; z oE,
we ; g E, ye ; hE, he ( a ll fou r
with E e i) hwa, who and t he p re fix d

XV . S HOR T EN IN G .

162 . S horte n in g
followe d b y Br e k ing of i to i, a ,
is s e en in
t he adj e ct i e l oht = lioht *
liht) light ( n ot heav y)
v e , ,
an d in t he
pr ep betweoh betwih b e t wixt ( g
.
,

C . UP WA RD HIS TORY : S ELECTED EXA MPLES .

163 r de r t o c om plem en t t he t wo pr e c eding div isions

. In o

on t he D o wn w r d His t or y a n d t he S oun d L w
a of t he s tr e s s e d -
a s

v ow e ls we s t rt he r e with the OE
,
a ow e l s oun ds nd
gi e in . v -
a v

t ab ul r form the p rin cip l s tages in their de elopm en t fr om t he

a a v

G e r m n ic owels A l m os t e e ry p os s ib le g e n e logy of t he O E
’
a v . v a .

v owe l s is ill us tr t d b y on e e x m ple : on t he l e ft is t he O E

a e a .

w or d fr om le ft t o r ig ht e gi en t he s u cc e s s i e s t a ge s t hr oug h
ar v v

whic h its s tr e s s ed v owe l h s p ss ed on t he r ight is n e x am ple a a a

of t he or ig in l owel fr om a n othe r G e r m n ic l n g u ge
a v The a a a .

S oun d La w s un de r w hic h e a c h c h n g e c om e s r e in dic t ed b y

-
a a a

a b b r e i ti n s
v a w hen n o s uc h in dic t ion is giv en it is
o a ,

im plie d th t the c h n ge is n or m l
a 1 00 a or in dep en de n t a .

It m u s t b e r em em b e r e d t h t t he s e e on ly illus tr a t ion s s om e of
a ar

them s t n d for t he his t ory of t he s tre s ed owel of m any OE

a s v s .

w or d ; in t he c s of
s few it m ight b e diffic ult t o dduc e a
a e a ,
a

s in gl e ot he r e x am ple With this c aution the t b le m y b e us e d

.
,
a a

v r ie t
in a
y of w ys
a a .
$ 1 63 U P WA RD I
H ST O RY : L C
S E E TE D EXA M P ES L . 1 43

S h o rt V owe l s .

a a O HG .
l
f r a an

ae < a

( hi nt
) se a

e e

e ( P al . M on ) . ea ( P al .

D iph 213 a

e ( Pa l M on ) ea ( Br k g)
c c lf OH G c a lb
. .

e li, a .

ae a

LWS fex , ha i . r
e ( M ut . Pa l .
) ea ( Brk g
)
ae a

m ec , m e e i

“
13 6
leog a n , la g ( M ut ) . as a G o la gja n
.

s en da n , s en d
e ( M ut
) .
9 ( Infl N
) .
-
a G o s a n dj a n
.

r
m e ge n , m o r r ow
g ( M ut ) . 0 G o m aurgin s
.

c 1 1 3)

i
hit, it i 1 G O ita .

m iht , ca ns t ( M ut . Pa l .
) ea
( Brk g
) O HG m a ht .

nim a n , ta ke i ( Ind N ) -
e OH G . n em a n

s ix , s ix i ( M ut P a l . .
) co ( Br kg
) e OHG . s eb s

b e t wih, between i ( Short s ) 1 O

p G.o t w e ihn a 1.

(s 1 1 3 )
1
0 HG = Ol d Hig
. h G rm e an , OS = Old S a
. x on , I = Ic elan dic , G o = G othic ,
. .

Gr e m . e m a ni Gr c .
1 44 P H ON OL OGY .
5 1 63

0
O HG g old
gold, g old
0 o .

s wor e n , s wor n 0 ( W—Infl ) . a G o s wa r a n s

.

LW S . wo ro,
w or k 0 ( W—Infl ) . eo ( Brk g ) e O HG we r k .

s wos t or , s is te r 0 ( W—
I nfl
) .
eo
‘ U M ut
-
.
) e O HG . s w es ter A

OS ur logi
or lege , wa r 0 11 .

9
hQ n d, ha n d Infl N ) a G o han dus
Q (
- .
.

11

s un u, s on u 11 Go . s un us

LW S s wus t or ,
—
.

u WIn fl-
. eo ( U M ut ) . e OH G . s wes t er

s is ter

LW S s wur d,
rt
.

u ( WInfl
) -
. eo (E rk g
) e O HG . ew e

s wor d

wudu , w ood u ( W—
Infl
) . iO ( U—
M ut .
) < 1 O HG . vvit u

w ul f wolf 11 O OHG w olf .

c um e n c om e u ( In d N ) -
0 OHG qu om an .

b et ( w) uh, be u W— ( Infl ) 10 ( Brk g

) < 1
G o t we ihn a1
.

c
p
rt )
. .

h I
( S s
tween o

y ( M ut ) . 11 OS k us s ian.

ea

c e a ru , c ar e ea ( U—M ut .
) a

fe ax , ha ir ea ( Brk g
) se a

P a l D iph )
ge a f, g av e ea ( . . as a

a l D iph )
s c e a c an , s ha ke ea ( P . . a

eo
U M ut ) OHG s we s t er
s w e os t or , s is ter eo ( -
. e .

OHG werk
we or c , wor k eo ( Brk
g
) e .

eo ( P al D iph . .
) 9 OHG c
s am a
s c e om u, s ha m e
.

N) a

OHG s c of
s c e op, ba/r d eo ( P l Daiph . .
) 0 .

Go S k ul un
~ s c e olon
,
s ha ll eo ( P a l D iph . .
) u .

G o le iht s
le oht , n ot heav y eo ( Brk
g
) < i( Short g
) I .
1 46 P HONOL OGY . 1 63

e e G0 . hé r
e ( M u t < 5 ( Infl N
) .
-
a G o fahip
.

e wen , woma n ( M ut ) . 5 ( In fi N .
-
) <W
G o qé ns 1 1 3)
G e rm 5 Ge m r .

. . as

( P al . M on ) . 5a ( P al .

g er , yea r D iph .
) a W . G erm . Go .
j er 1 1 3)
5 G erm . fi
e

s Ec a n , s eek e ( M ut ) o . OS . s okia n

LW S t eh, dr ew
. e ( M ut P a l ) 5 a au
. . G o t auh
.

LW S g é t, p our ed 5
.
( P al M on
.
) e a a u . G o gaut
.

( M ut
) .5 ( L os s N) (
3
-

g e n é b a n , v en tu r e G O gan an pj a n
( nd N )
.

I -
a

lede, la id ( L os s G
) e( M u t ) 29 a . G 0 la gida
.

a l M on
on gé n , ag a in s t
( P .
) Ea ( LOS S G) .
-

OHG in gaga n
) ae
.

e a ( P al D iph . .

e ( LOS S G) e -
OS . t heg a n

e
( L en g thg
) e < i OHG wir .

1 ( LO
i ( LOS S 0 ) i
I ( Len g t hg) i

5 0 G o g ods
.

5 ( In fl N ) .
-
a G o , OHG
. . fahan

5 ( Ind N
) -
< W G erm G o q é m un
c om on
. . .

c am e
’
Ge m r . ae

g os , g oos e 0
( Los s N ) -

9 ( Infl N ) .
-
a OHG ga n s .

b r oden , br a ided 0
( L SS G
) OHG gib rott a n
‘

O -
o .

hole s , o f a hole 5 ( Los s H ) -

0 Op.O HG hol .
 § 1 63 U P WA RD I
H S TO RY : L
S E EC T E D EXA MP ES L . 1 47

lfic a n , lock 11 u G o g a lfik a n

.

hus l, eu ch rist a u ( Los s N

) -
u G o hu n s l .

r
b udon , shook u ( LOS S G) -
u O HG b r ut t on .

5 11 , thou u ( Le n g th‘i
) u Go .
pu

b ryd, br ide ) 37 ( M ut . u G o b r fidi .

cy CSa n m a ke kn own 3"( M ut )

,
5 ( LOS S N ) .
-
u G o k un bj a n
.

o fe r hyd a r r og a n ce if ( LOS S G)
, y ( M ut ) -
. u c
p G o hugs
. .

Eyr el hole, y ( Los s H) y ( M ut ) -

. u c
p O HG t hur uh
. .

te a h, dr ew Ea au G0 . t aub
5a ( Pa l D ip h ) a: W
r
. . .

g é ar , yea Go j r
e 1 1 3)
G e rm 5 r " .

. Ge m 5 .

5 a ( Con tr .
) W . G erm . a G0 . nét z
n é a r , n ea r er
G erm : a
e

sc Ea da n , s e a a te
p r 5 a ( P a l D iph ). . 5 ai Go . s k aida n

fé a w e , few ea au
( Infl . W) a G o fa wa i
.

é a, w a ter 5a C n tr a hw a
( o ) . a Go .

Ea ( Los s H) ea ( Brk g
) OHG w a lh
WEala s
-

Br iton s
.

,
as a
( S in
g .
)
ag a in s t
5a ( Loss G
) -
ea ( Pa l .

OHG ingag a n
on
gé a n, .

D iph ) . ee a

—
10 2
1 48 P H ONOL OGY .
g1 6 3

60

c é os an , choos e 50 6 11 G o k ius a n
.

al D iph ) 5 ( In fl
50 ( P . . .

g é om or, sad N) W G e rm . . 5 OS . j am a r
G e rm . ee

s c é op, c r ea ted eo
( P al D i h
p . .
) < 5 G o ga sk op
.

sc fan , shov e 50 ( P al D i h
p . .
) 5 I. s k fifa

m é owle, gir l
50 ( Infl W) .
e ( M ut ) .

G o m a wilo
.

as a

feOlan , p en etr a te 50 ( Los s -

H) 5 0 ( Brk g
) e G o filha n
. 1 1 3)

c n é ow es , o f a kn ee eo eu ( Infl W) . e O HG k n e wes .

s é on , s ee ao ( Con tr ) e . Go . s aihwa n

5 0 ( P al D iph ) < 5 ( Len gt hs)

. .

g eo, f or m er ly
11
GO .
j u

ie ( M ut ill
ie ( M ut ) . ea

ie ( M ut ) . 5 a ( P a l D iph ) . .

Q W . G erm 5 .

ie ( oss
L -
H) ie ( M ut ) OHG wa lhi s c
.

wielis c , foreig n
( Brk g
)
.

e a, a a

on tr j ai
s ie , be Te ( C .
) < i GO . si

frien d f ,
r ien ds 15 ( M ut
) . 10 ( C on tr .
) < i G o frij on ds
.

io

Eion ( fié on ) , th/r iv e i o ( Con tr .

) < 1

frion d (fré on d) To ( Con tr ) . i

fr ien d
1 50 P H ON OL OGY . 1 6 6 —1 6 8

II . A SS IM ILA TION .

166 . followin g c s es a re w orthy of n ot e

The a

( )
a d > t b e f or e nd ft e r a oic e les s c on son n t
a in t ha
e 2 n d v a :

a nd 3 d in g in die of e r b s
r s .n d in t he .
p s t t en s e s of we k
v ,
a a a

v e r b s of C l s s I 69 a n d in blE
. ts i n b less ( c p b lod) e t c
,
a a ,
.
, .

( )
b 5 > t in t he 2n d ( r i des t ri desfi r i des 5d) an d 3 rd S in
g .

pre s . in die . 6 9) in Ea tte Ea t 5 c ) , tha t ( c onj ) Ea 5 m Ettu,

t
hum ili y ; g i em eli es t, n egle ct ,
e tc .

( c) 53 ss in bliss, j oy, lis s , gr a c e c

p blitSe,
. j oyous ,
li5 e, gen tle .

( d) sr > ss in lé ss a , c om pa r . of lytel, lit t le ; Eis se, Eiss a , in the

'

de c len s ion of ties , thi s .

III . M ETA THES IS .

167 . The y m e t a t hes is t ha t n e e d b e m en t ion e d he r e is

on l

tha t of r ,
whic h is s om e w ha t fr e q uen t, e s pe c ially b e for e r m a n d
c o e r e d 3 : bu
v rna
* r un n a
b ) ,
s
pr in g beer n a n *br a n n a n
j ) ,

b ur n ( tr a n s ) bi( e) r n a n b ur n ( in tr an s .
) ( )
i e rnan

r in n a n
) ,
r un ber s ta n * r
b es ta n ) ,
b ur s t ; Eer s c a n *5 r es ca
n) ,

thre sh hors *kr

oss
) ,
hor s e ; g azrs *
gr a s ) , g ra s s , et c .

IV . G EM IN A TION .

168 W G e r m an ic ge mi n a tion b e for e j has b een r e fe rr e d

. The .

t o in t he A cc iden c e A fte r a s hort v owe l e v e ry c on son an t

.
,

e xc ep t r w a s doub le d b e f or e j
,
s ub s e quen tly t his j m ut a t e d t he

root owel a n d then dropped Hen c e s uc h form s a s thos e of t he

v ,
.

“
we a k pr esen t s 8 0 ) of Cla s ses V a n d V I an d m a ny ot her . .
,

w or ds

heb b a n r a ise hliehhan la ug h s c ie a n cr ea te

, pp , ,

r ec c a n , r ela te t ellan , tell cn

y s s an , thr us t

hredda n , r es cu e fr em m a n , p erform s et t a n , s et

b yc g an , bu y dyn ( n ) , din s c eiif

ia n , inj u r e
b r yeg, ba ck wenn an , a ccus tom
 C ON S ON A N T S .

V . V ERN ER S LA W ’
.

169 . t e rc h n g e of c on s on n t i e n in the p rts of

A n in a a s s se a

a ll c on tr ct e d tr on g e r b s n d of s om e othe r s tr on g e r b s t he
a s v a v ,

e x l n t ion of whic h m us t b e s ought in t he G e r m a n ic p e r iod

a a
p .

P r im it i e G e r m n ic j , h h s In do G e r m p k t s ) r e m in e d
’
v a , ,
-
.
, , , ,
a

un c h n g ed on ly whe n t he owe l n e xt p r e c e din g b or e t he p r in c ip l

a v a

a cc en t ; othe r wi e i e if t he owe l n e xt p re c e ding did n ot b e r

s ,
. . v a

t he p r in c ip l cc e n t o f the wor d f, h b In La t e
‘
a a s v, z
9 , , , , .

G e r m n ic a in O E t he p r in c ip l a cc e n t f e ll on t he r oot s yll b le ;
,
as .
,
a -
a

b ut in the P r im it i e G e r m n ic pe r iod t he a cc e n t m ig ht f ll on
v a a

a n y s yll b le This f ct is illus tr t e d in t he s tr on g v e r b s in

a . a a ,

whic h t he pr e s en t f or m s n d t he p s t in g in die h d the a a s . . a

r in ci l cc e n t on t he r oo t—
a s ll b le w h e r e ll t he o t he r p as t a as a
p p a
y ,

form s had the p rin c ip l cc en t on t he e nding T he re fore t he a a .

ppm n d t he p s t s in g of
a tr on g z e b s r e t a in e d t he
a oi c e le s
. s r v s

S ir a n t s s b
p h f
,
O E‘
,
s 5 h
i)
,
w h ic h i n ll t h e o t he r
.
p ,
st , , ,
a a

form s b e c m e 5 g ( O E d g f T his l w w s dis c o e re d

a z ,
1
, ,
v z . r, , ,
a a v

a n d for m u l t e d b y K r l V e r n e r of C op e n h ge n in 1 8 7 5
a a n d has a ,
a

n e e r b e en q ues t ion e d in c e It s Ope r t ion is oft e n e fe re d t o

'

v s . a r r

b y t he am b iguo u s t r m “
g r m m t ic l c h nge e a a a a

OE h s n ot se p r a t e s ym b ols for t he s oun ds of f n d

. a a and a v,

t he r e f or e t he c ha n g es t h t e ex l in e d b V e r n e r s La w c n
’
a ar a a
p y
on l
y b e s ee n in the in t e r ch n ge of t he f ollowin g p ir s of c on a a

s on n t s
a

( )
a S r
( )
b 5 d

( C) h g

( d) we w
(sa or
aw)
The ve rb s tha t c om e un de r this la w t hose in whic h t he
an d
la wfails h e b een in dic te d in t he
av a A cc ide n c e t he r e for e on ly a
few e x m ples ae n e eded he r e ar .

H r 1 nd 5
1
e e u d with th ir pr
) a are se e ope r ph on eti c l
v a ue , b cl
v oi e ess

( th) n d 5 ic d ( dh)
‘
z a vo e z .
1 52 P H ONO LOGY . 1 69

( )
a s r
( C r e ep choose c uron c oren
“
C ss
la II eEO an ,
s
V ( “T
re a d w e s a n , be wees

In g en es a n , t o s ur v iv e , t he law b ut is s e en in t he
de r iv a t iv e v e r b gen er ian , t o s a v e .

01
( )
6 5

C la s s I S hin e s n i5 a n , c u t s nidon s n ide n

Cp . s nide , cu tting .

C la s s V e we5 a n , s a y c wae5 c w ae don c we den

Cp . c wide , sp ee ch .

(0) h z g

A ll trong c on tra cted v e rb s

s 8 1 ) b elon g he r e e xc ep t s Eon , ,

s ee b ut t hos e of C la s s es V I n d V II we r e a pt t o b or r ow t he g
. a .

of t he p s t pl in t he p s t S in g
a . a .

C la s s V I Fare S IE n s t ike S log s lo on

g a , S lse en
gr

Cp s lgg e s tr ok e
. n d s lag a s
,
l ye r ,
A nd t e we k pr es en t
a h “
,
a . a

of t he s m e cl s s
a a

hl iehhan , la ug h h15 g

( )
d h (W ) = or g (w )
s aw on s e we n
C la s s V (
“T re a d S eon , s ee
s segon se
gen

N OT E . F in al g oft en h a ft e r oi , 6 , a n d som e tim e s a ft e r l or

r, b ut this ha s n ot hin g t o do with V e r n e r s La w
’
Thus s log .
‘

l h s tag s tah
( c
a s en ded) bu r g bur h ( trson ghold
) .
1 54 A PP EN DIX . 1 71 , 1 72

171 . T he Ob liq ue ca s es of ad s j . a n d n oun s ar e use d adv e rb ially .

(1) A c c us a t iv e ( neut . of ad j)
.

eall, en tir ely ealn e weg, a lwa ys

full , fully 5 5 b wile

.
( 5 e) while
,

gen Og, enou

gh n or5 , n or th

t
li ( el ) , little n or 5 weard, n or thwar ds

t n , som ewha t upwea r d, up wa ds r

( 2) G eni iv e t
e alles , a lto ether des ge s , by day
g
n ealles , n ot a t a ll n iht es , by n ig ht
ham we ar des , homewa rds n ie des , n eeds

n or5 wear des , n or thwa rds 5 qn ees , willing ly

u nge wealde s , inv olun ta r ily

a n d e v en c om p oun ded wit h a p r ep os it ion

t O-midde s , in the m ids t

D at iv e S ing . an d pl

eln e , c ur
o a
g eous ly hwilum , sometim es

faen e, ex ces siv ely hwiltidum , s om etim es

hwen e , som ewha t wundrum , wondrous ( ly)

m ic lum , v er
y fl oc c m i lum , in t r oop s

st
yc c e m eelum , p ie cemea l, here a nd ther e

172 . Ot her a dve rb i al r

t e m inat ions are -
a and -
ung a -
ing a )

or a ll
Enun ga, onc e f
ea ll un ga , a ltog ethe r
ierringa, an
g rily
gr un dlun ga , fr om the founda tions
 1 74 P R EF I XES
"
1 73 , . 15O

173 . T he chi f e a dv e rb s of pla c e a re

R es t

hEP, he r e

hwé r, whe r " e

—
EsE r, the
’

r e

in n e, inn an , within
fl t e , ti ta n , outside

up pe , up pa n , u , a bove
p
ufa n , a bo ve

n e o5 a n , ben eath n e o5 a n

fr
o an , fr
o e, before
hi nda n , behind
fe orr ( an ) , far , f
a a r
n é ah, nea r

11 . P REF IXES .

174 . T he f oll owin g are r c

t he p in ipal OE p . r fixe
e s, wi h t s ele cted
e xa m p le s .

5 (l) r
un s t ess ed f rm
o of or a wa
y, and t he n m e r el
y inte n s iv e
af a ra n, t o depa rt ar is a n, t o a rise ( i o da n , t o o de r r .

( 2 ) weak e n ed fr m o ou g aweg , a wa
y.

(3 ) S ho rt ene d fr m o (t wo , ev e r ,
‘
an y ahwwr , a n ywhe e, r ev e ry
whe re

5 a r
p iv a t iv e p rfi e x, wit hout
’
: E/nod,
e dis c uro a
ged ees wind, idle .

a f, rr
a e s t es s e r d f rm o of o f
‘
ofl ,
'

fr om
’
: wfwea rd, ab s e n t ; f 5 gnc
ee ,

g rudg e .

saf e t r ‘
a fter ’
: fter boren
ee ,
t
p os hum ous wft erfylg end, f ollowe r .

fig eve ry E
e
g hweEr . ev e rywh r e e

a t ,
‘
at , fr om
’
: se t wita n, t o t wit ; sets gm ne, t oge the ; r az tn im a n
,
to
t ak e a wa y .
1 56 A PP EN DIX .

g 1 7 4

be r
un s t ess ed f rm
o of bi ‘
b y, a b out

(a ) sp c i e alis es t he m eanings of t ran s itiv e v e rb s : bes gtta n , t o b e s e ; t

besEca n, t o b esee h c .

( b) m ak e s in trans . ve rb s transiti ve : bes cina n, t o illum ina te ;

ber ida n , t o c e n om p as s .

(c) pri ti va ve : bedeEla n, beli5 a n, beneema n , benim a n, bescier ia n,

bes ny5 ia n, t o de p iv e r of .

( d) with ut o as s ign ab le forc e : bebéoda n , t o c om m an d ; bes cufa n,

t o s hov e .

bi by
’
( s ee be bileofa , s us t e n an e c ; bisp ell, e x am ple .

cd
‘
re edlEan, reward ; dniwi n t r n w e a ,
o e e .

for (1 ) ea rli r un tre s d f rm f

e s di tin ct fr m
s e o er s o p re p f
. or ;
de note s loss , des t ructi n ; int n s ifi es ; d t r i r te ; n g t i
o e e e o a s e a v es

fordOn, to des troy forgiefan , to forg iv e

forweor5 an , to p eris h forb eern an , to bwr n up
forwyrd, des tr u tion c fr etan e t an ) , to dev our -

fors pillan , to dest r oy for s eon , to desp ise

r
fo gan , to forg o fors werian , to s wear fa lsely
forgiet an , to forg et forb é odan, to for bid

( 2 ) = the p r ep .
for : fors tgnda n , t o defend ; forfa ra n forridan , , to
in t rc pt
e e .

fore f re ‘
o
forec we5 a n ,
t o fo rt e ell ; fore5 9n c , forethought ; for e

mee re, v e ry gr t ea .

e
g z
-
( ) a origin ally= toge ther (L . c um ) ,
as in g efer e,
'

c om p any ;

g en a n, to fit t o e
g ther
( b) m ak es in tr ns a . ve rb s t rans iti v e, O ft en with the added n o tion
of a ttainm nt gain , s u es s : g ewinna n, t o win, c p winn a n, t o
e ,
cc . fight ;

g ewrn a n , t o g ain b y galloping , c p ae n a n , t o g allop ; g eascia n , t o . r l arn

e

b y as k ing, hea of r .

( 0) in it ial infl e ction of p t participles g bid n g l c d as : e e ,

‘

e o o .

( d) ve ry oft n without a ignab l m eaning : g o d n t

e ss e o a ,
o o rder ;
g ebedhus, ch apel .

in ‘
in
’
: ing gng , ing r es s ; infyr dia n, t o inv ade .

m id - 1
,
with ’
m idwyrhta , cooper t r a o .

1 M id freque ntly = ‘ m id as in midniht, b ut c an th en h rdl y

a be
r ega r ded a s a m e e p efi r r x .
1 58 A PP EN DI X . 1 75

un de r ‘
unde r ’
: und er s tgnd a n , t o unde rst and .

wan ‘
u a n hal, unhealthy; wa ns E
eli , unhappy
'

un
'

g .

t wi5 3 tgn da n, t o wit hs tand ;

’

Wi5 ‘
wit h again s
’
:
f
ui 5 eohtend,
adv e s a r ry .

Wi5 er ‘
ag ain s t , re wi5 erfl ita , wi5 er winn a , oppon en t ,
adv e s a r ry;
wi5 ers ta l, re s is t an e c .

ymb (ym b e )
‘
a oun d r ’
:
ym bsitta n, inv es ; ym be5 gnc, t r fle cti
e on .

III . S UF FIXES .

175 . T he p in ipal OE r c . s uffi e s x ( e xc e pt a dv e rb i al, s ee 1 7 0 —3 )

are he r e giv en in on e lis t in a lphab e tic al o rd r e . S om e of t he su ffix es

c
in lude d e xi t d l s e a so as indep en de n t wo ds in OE , r . and m ight m r o e

c rr ctly b r g rd d
o e e e a e as r
fo m in g c om p oun ds ; b ut c om p oun ds
p as s in t o
d ri ti
e va in th c ur
v es e o s e of tim e, a nd it has b een t hought b e t t e t o r err ,

if at all , on the S ide of in clu s ion .

-
a5 n oun m as c .
,
ab s t a r ct : fis ca 5 fi hing ; hun t
,
s o5 , hun ing t .

b§
-
r e, a d j .
,
‘
b ea ing r ’
: wass tm beEr e, fruitful ; lu tbd s r e, de s i r ab le .

-c un d, ad j . de no ting n at ur e : g odc un d, div ine ; heofonc und, he av e nly .

dOm, -
dom ,
’
n oun m as c .
,
us u ab s . tr ct a frEodOm , fre e dom ; leEcedom
m e di in e c .

el s , n oun m as c . byrg els , t om b ; c

r e els , in c ens e .

-
eh n oun n eu t .
,
so m tim e e s dimin . : c liewen , s phe e r ; cy cen,

chick en .

-
en n oun fem .
,
ft n p rs n gyd n godde ; by g n tom b
o e a e o : e ,
ss r e ,
.

-
en ad j . of ma t ri l et ; gyld n gold n h£ 5 en heathen
e a c . e ,
e : ,
.

n oun m as c g nt ag nd wn r ; S ci pp end Creat or ;

.
,
a e : e ,
o e e ,

frEon d , friend .

-er
e, -
er ,
’
n oun m as c .
,
age n t: b Ecer e, s crib e ; fiscere , fis he ; g od r
s
p eller s , ev an ge lis t .

-er n , n oun n eut .

,
hous e
’
: hor s er n, t ; bla
s ab le cer n , lan tern .

-e rne ,
-
ern , ad
’
j lo c al : nor5 ern e, n rt h rn
o e .
 1 75 S U FF I XES . 1 59

-
es t re ,
-
s te r ,
n Oun fe m .
, pe r s on : webbestr e, s p in s t e r; witc ges tre,
p r op he t es s .

: e tt an er b ,
v : licetta n , t o f e ig n .

fees t f t t f s cgm ses t, s ha m e as t f

’
ad s tgde ees t, s ea d a s t
f f
-
,
-
as , j . : ; .

-
feald f ld ,
-
o ,
’
ad j . : m gn zgfea ld, m an i old ; 5 r itigfea ld, t hi ty old f r f .

-
fu11 , -
ful, ’
ad j . c ea r ull, a n f xi u ; o s s
ynnfull, guilty .

-
h5 d, -
hood, ’
n oun m as c ab tr c t
.
,
s a : c ildhci d, childh ood m eeg denhad,
vi rginity .

-
ig , -
y,
’
ad j . : halig , holy ; m odig , p roud ; welig , wealt hy .

-
iht, ad j . heor uhoc iht, s a v age ly r b a b ed ; hr Eodiht, r eedy .

-
ing , n oun m as c .
; (a ) pa tr nym ic
o : ee5 eling , pr in c e ; E iselwulfing ,
s on of Et he lwulf .

( b) t
wi hout as s igna b le f rc o e : ier ming , p oo w r r et c h ; hearing , he rr ing ;
s cilling , s hillin g .

- isc , -
is h,
’
ad j . : Eng lis c ,
Englis h ; wielis c, f r ign ; ildi childi h
o e c s c, s .

4 5 0, -
lo k , c ’
n oun n e ut .
,
a bst r c t f htla
a : eo c, fighting ; w dl i w dl ck e c c, e o .

—
-
1§ c a n, v e rb : nEa leEc a n, t o a ppr ch ; 5 r i tlee oa s ca n , to e m b olde n .

1 é as , ad j em elE heedless c elEa s , r ec kle ss

’
- -
les s , . : g i as , rE .

lic , g Edlic, goodly ; wiflic, wom anly ;

ly, ’
ad
- -
j . : unaber en dlic, ih
t oler ab le ; ung esewenli c, in v is ib le .

-
l ie s t ( 15 as t ) ,
- les s nes s ,
’
n orm fem .
,
ab s t a r ct :
g iem elies t, n eglig e n e ; c
s le
Ep lEa s t, s le eple s s n es s .

-
1ing , - ling , ’
n oun m as c .
,
dim in .
, or de not ing a ff cti
e on or c on tem pt

r
dEor ling , da ling ; g eo ng ling , youth ; hyr ling , hi e ling r .

NB . . On b ac c lin g, on hin derling, ba ckwa ds r .

m 6 d, m in ded, Ea 5 m od, hum b le m inded

’
- - ad j .
-
.

- ne s , -
n es s ,
’
n oun fe m .
,
ab s t a r ct : g Ednes, goodn ess ; forsewennes ,

c ont em p t .

o
-
0 1 , ad j . : s tic ol, r ough s wic ol, de ceitful .

wi den ,
n oun fe m .
,
ab s t a r ct : meEg reEden , relation s hip ; g ec wedreeden,
'

ag eem enr t m gnr é d en , hom age .

- ric e ,
-
r ie ,
’
n oun n eut . bis cop r ice, b is hop i rc cyner ice, kingdom .
1 60 A PP EN DIX . 1 75

-
s cip e, -s hip, ’
n oun m as c .
,
ab s tract : frEondscip e ,
friendship ;
hweetsczpe, b oldne ss .

S ian, v e rb blEtsia n, t o b le s s c lé ns ia n, t o Cle an s e .

-
S t afas, noun m as c .
pl .
,
ab s tract : arstafas, fa v ou r; facens tafas ,

t r ch ry
ea e .

-
s um, -
s om e ,
’
ad j . : tedious
wynsum, Wins om e ; lgng sum, .

- tieme , ad j . : hgfig ti m grie ous ; 5 wE ti me perv e r e

e e, v 0r e ,
s .

n un fem ab s tract trengt h fé h5

’
-
th, o t gng 5 ( u)
.
, : s r ,
s ,

t t
hos ili y .

( pre c eded b y m utated r t v ow l) fe m ab s tract : heElu,

‘

- u oo -
e ,
n oun .
,

heal h t mgnig u, m ul i t tude .

- ung ( ing) , in g
-
,
’
n oun fem .
,
ab s tract : blEtsung , b less ing ; miltsung ,
me rcy .

-
weard, -
ward, ’
ad j .
,
lo cal an d tem por al : n or 5 wear d , n orthward
tEwea r d, future .

-wgnde, adj . : halwgnde, he al hy ; hwilwgnde, t tr an s i o t ry .

-
weor5 , wier5 9 , wo hy adj : -
rt ,
’
. ar weor5 , v ene ab le r ; teElwier5 3 ,
b lam e wo rt hy; un té lwiertse, b lam ele s s .

r ihtwis , right eous ; ung escEa dwis, un in t elligen t .

C A M B R ID GE : P R I N TED BY J . A ND C . F. C LA Y , AT T HE UN VE S T I R I Y P R ES S .
 Hya t t , A l f r e d John
An e l e me nt a r y Ol d En g l i s h
g r amma r

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