Formulation:

This is the second stage of speech production, when the messages are framed into words, phrases, and
clauses by the speaker. Essentially, this process involves translating the conceptual representation into a
linguistic form. In short, this process involves;

 Grammatical Encoding
 Morphological encoding
 Phonetic Encoding

Speech errors

“Speech errors allow us to peek in on the production process because we know what the speaker
intended to say, but the unintentional mstake freezes the production process momentarily and catches
the linguistic mechanism in one instance of production” (scovel, 2009, p.32)

 Speech errors are made by speakers unintentionally.

 They are very common and occur in everyday speaking.
 In formulation speech, we are often influenced by the sound system of language. For example,
big and fat--- pig fat; fill the pool---fool the pill.

slips of the tongue or tongue-slips

The scientific study of speech errors, commonly called slips of the tongue or tongue-slips, can
provide useful clues to the processes of language production: they can tell us where a speaker
stops to think.

Spoonerism
Spoonerism is an error in speech or deliberate play on words in which corresponding
consonants, vowel or morphemes are switched between two words in a phrase.

e.x:
 “The Lord is shoving leopard” instead of “The Lord is a loving shepherd”
 “we’ll have have the hags flung out” “we’ll have the flags hang out”
 “is the bean dizzy?” “is the Dean busy?

EXAMPLES OF THE EIGHT TYPES OF ERRORS

(1) Shifts, one speech segment disappears from its appropriate place and appears somewhere else.
: That’s so she’ll be ready incase she dicide to hits it. (decides to hit it).
(2) Exchanges are, in fact, double shifts, in which two linguistic units exchange places.
: Fancy getting your model resnosed. (getting your nose remodeled).
(3) Anticipations occur when a later segment takes the place of an earlier one. They are different
from shifts in that the segment that intrudes on another also remains in its correct place and
thus is used twice.
: Bake my bike. (take my bike).
(4) Perseverations appear when a earlier segment replaces a later item.
: He pulled a pantrum. (tantrum).
(5) Additions add linguistic material.
: I didn’t explain this clarefully enough. (carefully enough).
(6) Deletions leave something out.
: I’ll just get up and mutter intelligibly. (unintelligibly).
(7) Substitutions occur when one segment is replaced by an intruder. These are different from the
previously described slips in that the source of the intrusion may not be in the sentence.
: At low speeds it’s too light. (heavy).
(8) Blends apparently occur when more than one word is being considered and the two intended
items “fuse” or blend into a single item.
: That child is looking to be spaddled. (spanked\paddled).