All Syllabus

Electrical Engineering Fundamentals
Prof. Ahmed M. Kamel

Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Cairo University
3rd floor EE Building 8000
Text Book
“Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering”
by Giorgio Rizzoni, Second edition.
1
Learning Objectives
1) Analyze simple DC circuits using basic principles.
2) Write nodal equations for DC and AC circuits.
3) Write loop equations for DC and AC circuits.
4) Solve for node voltage and loop currents in electric circuits.
5) Analyze first order transient DC circuits.
6) Analyze the currents and voltages of AC circuits.
7) Analyze the power of AC circuits.
8) Analyze three phase AC circuits.
9) Analyze the equivalent circuit of the single and three phase transformers.
10) Construct a DC power supply.
2
Contents
1) Electrical quantities and electrical elements.
2) Basic electrical laws.
3) Analysis of DC circuits
4) First order capacitive transients
5) Time varying signals
6) Analysis of AC circuits
7) Three phase circuits
8) Transformers circuits
Study Plan
3
Week
Marks number
Activity
Activity Repetition Weight 3 On line quiz
On 4 On campus quiz
campus 2 12
5 On line quiz
quizzes
On line 6 Project
6 12
quizzes 7 On line quiz
On
campus 6 4 8 Mid term exam
attendance 9 On line quiz
Mid term
1 20 10 Project
exam
Projects 2 12 11 On line quiz
Final 12 On campus quiz
1 40
exam
13 On line quiz 4
Electrical Quantities
 Voltage of a point (The work done to move a unit charge from infinity to the
point) The voltage of a point is analogous to the potential energy.
 The voltage difference between points “a” and “b” is referred to as 𝑽𝒂𝒃
where 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃 Usually the suffix “ab” is omitted.
 If 𝑽𝒂 > 𝑽𝒃 , 𝑽𝒂𝒃 can be represented by
+ -
or a b
a b
5
 Electric current can be defined as the flow of the electric charge
carriers (electrons).
 It is, also, defined as the rate of change of the electric charges at a

point.
 It is measured in amperes.
 One ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of electrical

charge moving past a unique point in a second.
6
 Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical
energy is transferred by an electric circuit.
 It is given by 𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕 ∗ 𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 (𝒕) in watts
 Electric energy
𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕 ∗ 𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 (𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 in Joules
7
Electrical Elements
Active (Sources) Passive (Loads)

𝝆𝑳
 Resistances 𝑹 = ohms (Ω)
𝑨
DC Sources AC Sources 𝑽 = 𝑰 ∗ 𝑹 (Ohm’s Law)
Next Slide Generators ∈𝑨

 Capacitances 𝑪 = µF
𝒅
𝒅𝒗
The reciprocal of a resistance is 𝒊=𝒄
𝒅𝒕
called conductance and is usually
𝟏 𝑵𝟐 𝝁 𝑨
referred to as 𝑮 = 𝜴−𝟏  Coils (Inductors) 𝑳 =
𝒍
mH
𝑹
𝒅𝒊
𝒗=𝑳
𝒅𝒕 8
DC Sources
 Independent Voltage Sources (The voltage of the

source is constant irrespective of the current drawn
from it) Batteries
 Independent Current Sources (The current of the

source is constant irrespective of the voltage across it)
Special Electronic Circuits
9
DC Sources
 Dependent Voltage Sources (The voltage of the

source depends on another voltage or a current
elsewhere in the circuit) Useful in Electronics
 Dependent Current Sources (The current of the

source depends on another voltage or a current
elsewhere in the circuit) Useful in Electronics
10
Remarks and Definitions
1. The sum of powers of all elements of a circuit should equal to
zero.
𝒑𝒅𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 + 𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 = 𝟎
Usually the absorbed power is positive. Hence, the delivered

power is denoted as negative power.
Power is delivered by batteries and current sources .
As capacitors and coils are energy storage elements, they can

deliver power during their discharging process.
Power is absorbed by resistors , capacitors and coils
As capacitors and coils are energy storage elements, they can store
their absorbed power. This is called charging process.
Batteries and current sources may absorb power. In this case they
said to be charging.
2. When an element is delivering power the voltage across the
element and the current through it are in the same direction.
3. When an element is absorbing power the voltage across the

element and the current through it have opposite directions.
4. The resistor is always absorbing power.

5. Throughout the course, “Short circuit” means connection

between two points with no elements.
• The resistance between the two points is zero.
• The two points should have the same voltage.
• The current through the short is circuit-dependent. It may be
infinity and will burn the circuit.
“ab” is short circuited

6. Throughout the course, “open circuit” means no electric
connection between two points.
• The current from one point to the other is zero.
• The resistance between them is infinity.
• They may or may not have a voltage difference.
“ab” is open circuited

7. Source Transformation
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑽𝒔 IAB 𝑽𝒔
VAB 𝑰𝑨𝑩 =
𝑹
𝑰𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰𝒔
VAB
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰𝒔 ∗ 𝑹 IAB
The short circuit currents (Is) and the open circuit voltages (Vs)
are equal iff 𝑽𝒔 = 𝑰𝒔 ∗ 𝑹
7. Source Transformation
𝑽𝒔 = 𝑰𝒔 ∗ 𝑹
Basic Electrical Laws
1. KVL
2. KCL
3. Resistors connected in series and voltage divider rule
4. Resistors connected in parallel and current divider rule
5. Series-Parallel connected resistors
6. Star-Delta transformation
1. KVL
 The principle underlying KVL is that no energy is lost or
created in an electric circuit.
 The sum of all voltages associated with sources must equal

the sum of the load voltages.
 so the net voltage around a closed circuit is zero.

1. KVL (EXAMPLES)
Example 1 𝑬 − 𝑽𝑹𝟏 − 𝑽𝑹𝟐 − 𝑽𝑹𝟑 = 𝟎
OR
+
I VR1
- −𝑬 + 𝑽𝑹𝟏 + 𝑽𝑹𝟐 + 𝑽𝑹𝟑 = 𝟎
+
VR2
-
What are the steps of
+
VR3 applying KVL?
-
1. KVL (EXAMPLES)
Example 2 𝑬 − 𝑽𝑹 − 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝟎
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑬 − 𝑽𝑹 = 𝑬 − 𝑰 𝑹
+ If the current is reversed then
-
VR
+ Vab 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑬 + 𝑽𝑹 = 𝑬 + 𝑰 𝑹
I
If the battery is reversed then
- 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = − 𝑬 − 𝑽𝑹 = −𝑬 − 𝑰 𝑹
If both are is reversed then
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = − 𝑬 + 𝑽𝑹 = −𝑬 + 𝑰 𝑹
2. KCL
 Because charge cannot be created but must be conserved, the
sum of the currents at a node must equal zero
 In an electrical circuit, a node is the junction of more than

two branches.
 A branch contains one or more series electrical elements.

2. KCL Branches Nodes Currents
I1 KCL at node A
I3 I2
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎
B 𝑰𝟑 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
3. Resistors connected in series and voltage divider rule
I I
V1 V2 V3
Vab Vab
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 𝑰 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑰 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑽𝒂𝒃
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒒
𝑹𝟏
Voltage divider rule 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝒂𝒃
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
I
I 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
I1 I2 I3
𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑽𝒂𝒃
Vab Vab = + +
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Special case (two 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

= + = 𝑹𝒆𝒒 =
resistors) 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏
I 𝟏
I 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏
I1 I2 I3 𝑰𝟏 = =𝑰 =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝟏
Vab Vab 𝑹𝒆𝒒
𝟏
𝑹𝟏
Current divider rule 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ +
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝟏
Special case (two 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰
resistors) 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Example 1 : find the current through R2.
I1
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + = 𝑹𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 𝑰=𝟏𝑨
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟔 𝟐
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟐
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰 = 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑨
𝑹𝟐 𝟒
Example 2 : find the current through the 4-ohm resistor.
I1
I2
𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝟒 𝟒 𝟔 𝟐
𝑰= =𝟐𝑨 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐 ∗ = 𝑨 𝑰𝟐 = ∗ = 𝑨
𝟑 ∗𝟔
+𝟑 𝟗 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏𝟐 𝟑
𝟑+𝟔
Example 3 : find the total resistance of the following circuit.
There are neither series nor
parallel resistors.
However, there are star-connected
and delta-connected resistor.
Star-connected resistors are 3

resistances connected as Y.
Can you identify 3 stars in

the circuit?
Example 3 : find the total resistance of the following circuit.
{R2, R4, R1}, {R2, R6, R3}
and {R4, R5, R6}
Delta-connected resistors are 3
resistors connected as Δ.
Can you identify 2 deltas in the
circuit?
{R2, R6, R4} and {R3, R5, R6}
To simplify the circuit delta-connected resistors can be transformed to

star-connected resistors or vice- versa.
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑪
a) From Star to Delta 𝑹𝑨𝑪 = 𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑪 +
𝑹𝑩
𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪
𝑹𝑩𝑪 = 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑪 +
𝑹𝑨
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩
𝑹𝑨𝑩 = 𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑩 +
𝑹𝑪
a) From Star to Delta (returning to example 3)
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟔
𝑹𝑨𝑪 = 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟔 +
A 𝑹𝟐
B 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝑩𝑪 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 +
𝑹𝟔
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟔
𝑹𝑨𝑩 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟔 +
C 𝑹𝟑
A A
B B
C
C
𝑹𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑨𝑩 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 = 𝑹𝟕
𝑹𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑨𝑪 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 = 𝑹𝟖
It is easy now to get the total resistance.

𝑹𝑨𝑪 𝑹𝑨𝑩
b) From Delta to Star 𝑹𝑨 =
𝑹𝑨𝑩 + 𝑹𝑨𝑪 + 𝑹𝑩𝑪
𝑹𝑩𝑪 𝑹𝑨𝑩
𝑹𝑩 =
𝑹𝑩𝑪 𝑹𝑨𝑪
𝑹𝑪 =
b) From Delta to Star (returning to example 3)
𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟔
𝑹𝑨 =
A C 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟔
B
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒
𝑹𝑩 =
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟔
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟔
𝑹𝑪 =
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟔
b) From Delta to Star (returning to example 3)
A C
B A C
B
It is easy now to get the total resistance.

Analysis of complex DC circuits
 Analysis of DC circuits means calculating the voltage across and

the current through each element.
 This enables the designers to choose the appropriate elements and

wires of the circuit to be implement.
 Four analysis methods are available:
1. Node-Voltages Analysis
2. Mesh-Currents Analysis
3. Superposition Theorem
4. Thevenin’s Theorem and its equivalent; Norton’s Theorem.
1. Identify the circuit nodes. Let

their number be n.
In the example n =4.
V1
V2 V3
2. Choose one node as a reference.
The voltage of the reference node
is assumed to be zero.
3. Assume that the other n-1 nodes

have unknown voltages
𝑉𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1. REF
4. Write KCL at each node in terms
of the unknown node voltages
𝑉𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1.
I2 V1 I1
V2 V3
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎
𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑬 I3
+ + =𝟎
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬 REF
𝑽𝟏 + + − 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑 =
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏
Similarly at node 2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝟐 + + − 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟑 =𝟎
𝑹𝟓 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟔 V1
V2 V3
And at node 3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝟑 + + − 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 =𝟎
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟔
REF
Now we have n-1 equations 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬
𝑽𝟏 + + − 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑 =
in n-1 unknowns. 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏
These equations can be

written in a matrix form as 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + + − 𝑽𝟑 =𝟎
follows: 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟓 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟔
𝐺 𝑉=𝐼
G is an (n-1)x(n-1) matrix
that contains the circuit 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + + =𝟎
conductance. 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟔
V is an (n-1)x1 unknown
vector.
I is an (n-1)x1 sources
currents’ vector.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬
1. Node-Voltages Analysis 𝑽𝟏 + +
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟏
− 𝑽𝟐
𝑹𝟒
− 𝑽𝟑
𝑹𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + + − 𝑽𝟑 =𝟎
𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟓 𝑹 𝟒 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟔
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + + =𝟎
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟔
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + − −
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟐 𝑬
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑽𝟏
− + + − 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟓 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟔 𝑽𝟑 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
− − + +
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟔
Solve for the unknown vector V.

1. Node-Voltages Analysis (example 2)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝑬𝟏
𝑽𝟏 + + − 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑 =
𝑹 𝟓 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
V1 V2
REF
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬𝟐
− 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + + − 𝑽𝟑 =
𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
V3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐
− 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + + = −
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝑬𝟏
𝑽𝟏 + + − 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑 =
𝑹 𝟓 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
V2 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
V1 − 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + − 𝑽𝟑 𝟎 = 𝒊𝟐
𝑹𝟔 𝑹 𝟒 𝑹𝟔
REF
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬𝟏
− 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝟎 + 𝑽𝟑 + = − 𝒊𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
V3
Why R2 is not included?

What is the problem with E3?

interchange the reference and V2
V1 V2 V1 = E3 (known)
REF
No need for KCL at node 1
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + + − 𝑽𝟑 =𝟎
𝑹𝟓 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟓 𝑹𝟑
V3 − 𝑽𝟏
𝟏
− 𝑽𝟐
𝟏
+ 𝑽𝟑
𝟏
+
𝟏
=
𝑬𝟏
− 𝒊𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
1. Node-Voltages Analysis (example 4) Super Node Solution
V1, V2 along with E3 can be considered as one
node called super node.
We can write the following equations for

V2 the super node.
V1
REF 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬𝟏
+ 𝑽𝟏 + + 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑 =− + 𝒊𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟓 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑬𝟑
V3 Node 3 equation is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬𝟏
− 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝟎 + 𝑽𝟑 + = − 𝒊𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
2. Mesh Currents Analysis
 A loop is any closed path in an electric

circuit. It may contain other closed
paths. Mesh
 A mesh is a simple closed path in an
electrical circuit.
 The word simple means a mesh does Mesh Mesh

not contain any other closed paths.
1. Identify the circuit Meshes. Let
their number be n.
2. In this example n = 3.
3. For each mesh, assume a I3
circulating current. These
currents are the unknowns.
4. All currents should be in the
same direction (either clock or I1 I2
anti clock wise).
4. Write KVL for each mesh in I3
terms of the unknown currents;
Ik , k = 1,2, … , 𝑛.
+ -
I1 I2
I1 - I3 +
-
(𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟑 ) 𝑹𝟒 + (𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 ) 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑬 + 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟓 = 𝟎
I1 - I2 -
+ I1
+ 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟓 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟏 − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟒 = −𝑬
-
4. Write KVL for each mesh in I3
terms of the unknown currents;
Ik , k = 1,2, … , 𝑛.
𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟓 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟏 − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟒 = −𝑬 I1 I2
Similarly
− 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ) − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟐 = +𝑬 Mesh 2
−𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟒 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟔 ) = 𝟎 Mesh 3

These equations can be written
in a matrix form as follows: 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟓 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟏 − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟒 = −𝑬
𝑅 𝐼=𝑉
R is an n x n matrix that contains
the circuit resistors. − 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ) − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟐 = +𝑬
I is an n x 1 unknown vector.
V is an n x 1 sources voltages’
vector.
−𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟒 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟔 ) = 𝟎
And can be solved to get the

value of the unknown vector I.
2. Mesh Currents Analysis (Example 2)
𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟓 + 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟓 = −𝑬𝟏
I3
− 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒 ) − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟒 = − 𝑬𝟐
I2
I1
−𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟓 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓 + 𝑹𝟔 ) = 𝟎
2. Mesh Currents Analysis (Example 3)
The existence of the current source in

the indicated position forces the current
I3 of the second loop to be (–i2).
I2 is now known.
I2 No need for the equation of mesh 2.

I1
𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟓 + 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟓 = −𝑬𝟏
−𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟓 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓 ) = −𝑬𝟑

2. Mesh Currents Analysis (Example 4) Super Mesh
The super mesh consists of mesh 1 and

mesh 2 without their common branch.
I3
For the super mesh we can write
+𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟓 + 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟐 ) − 𝑰𝟑 (𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓 ) =
−𝑬𝟏
I1 I2
For the common branch we can write
𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 = 𝒊𝟐
Mesh 3
−𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟓 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓 ) = −𝑬𝟑
If an electric circuit contains n sources, the voltage and the current of
each element of the circuit can be given by
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + … + 𝑽𝒏
𝑰𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + … + 𝑰𝒏
Where 𝑽𝒊 and 𝑰𝒊 are the voltage and the current of the element due to
source number 𝒊 while all other sources are zeros.
The word zeros means voltage sources are short circuited and current
sources are open circuited.
I
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑
𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟑 𝑹𝟏
𝑰= + − 𝒊𝟐
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
I1 I2 I3
Usually we solve the superposition problem using :
 The basic laws of electrical circuits
However, we can use either
 The node voltages analysis or
 The mesh currents analysis.

3. Superposition Theorem (Example 1)
Find the current through R3 due to each source.
I1
𝟐𝟎
Current through R3 due to voltage source. 𝑰𝟏 =
𝟏𝟎 + 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓 + 𝟐𝟎
Current through R3 due to current source.
I2
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟓
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 + 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
Total current through R3 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔
Find an expression for the current through R7
E2 does not contribute in the

I required current.
Current through R7 due to E1.
𝟑𝟎 ∗ 𝟓
𝑹𝒂𝒃 = 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟓 + = 𝟓𝟎 𝛀
A 𝟏𝟎
𝟑𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝒂𝒄 = 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 + = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝛀
B 𝟓
𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝒃𝒄 = 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎 + = 𝛀
C 𝟑𝟎 𝟑
B
𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝟖 = = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝛀
𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟔
C
𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝟗 = = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟗 𝛀
𝟏𝟏𝟎
Ia
Ia I1 𝑬𝟏
𝑰𝒂 = 𝑨
𝟗. 𝟎𝟗 + 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓
𝑬𝟏 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟔
𝑰𝟏 = ∗ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑨
𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟒 𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟔
Current through R7 due to E3. Ib
I2
𝑬𝟑
𝑰𝒃 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑𝑬𝟑 𝑨
𝟏𝟓 ∗ 𝟓
I 𝟑𝟎 +
𝟏𝟓 + 𝟓
𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝑬𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑨 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝑬𝟑 𝑨
4. Thevenin’s Theorem
As far as a load is concerned, any network composed of ideal

voltage and current sources, and of linear resistors, may be
represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal voltage
source, Eth , in series with an equivalent resistance, Rth .
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance Rth is defined as the equivalent

resistance of the circuit as seen from the load when the sources
are zeros.
Calculating Thevenin’s equivalent resistance Rth .
1. The load is replaced by a fictitious source.
2. The actual sources of the circuit are set to zero.
3. Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is, then, the equivalent

resistance of the circuit as seen from the fictitious source.
4. Thevenin’s Theorem (calculating Rth)
Calculating Rth assuming that R6 is the load
Step 1
Step 2
Calculating Rth assuming that R6 is the load (step 3)
A B C
It is easy to calculate Rth (let its value be X ohms)

Calculating Rth assuming that R3 is the load
Step 1
Step 2
Calculating Rth assuming that R3 is the load (step 3)
A B C A B C
It is easy to calculate Rth (Its value will be Y ohms)

Thevenin’s equivalent voltage source Eth is defined as the voltage

between the terminals of the load when it is open circuited.
Calculating Thevenin’s equivalent voltage source Eth .
1. The load should be Disconnected.
2. The voltage between the terminals of the load is, then,

calculated using any of the previous analysis techniques.
Calculate Eth when R6 is the load resistance.
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑬𝒕𝒉
A C B
REF
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬
𝑽𝑪 + + =
𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑬𝒕𝒉
𝑽𝒄 A B
𝑽𝑪𝑩 = 𝑹𝟐 C
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
I2 I1
𝑽𝒄
𝑽𝑪𝑨 = 𝑹𝟒
𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓
KVL
REF
𝑽𝑨𝑩 + 𝑽𝑪𝑨 − 𝑽𝑪𝑩 = 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬
𝑽𝑪 + + =
Let 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑸 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
Now we have
A B
A B
Rth = RN =X ohms
Eth = Q volts
Norton’s equivalent circuit
Rth = X ohms
𝑬𝒕𝒉 𝑸
𝑰𝑵 = = Amp
𝑹𝒕𝒉 𝑿
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
I1 A
IT
B
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟒
𝑹𝑻 = + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟓
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟔 + 𝑹𝟒
𝑬
𝑰𝑻 = A
𝑹𝑻 I1
𝑹𝟒
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝑻
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟔 + 𝑹𝟒 IT
KVL B
𝑽𝑨𝑩 + 𝑽𝑹𝟐 + 𝑽𝑹𝟏 − 𝑬 = 𝟎

𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟔 𝑹𝟒
𝑹𝑻 = + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟓
Let 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟔 + 𝑹𝟒
Now we have
A A
Rth = RN = y ohms
volts
Rth = y ohms
𝒘
𝒚
=
𝑹𝒕𝒉
𝑬𝒕𝒉
Eth = w volts
𝑰𝑵 =
B B
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit Norton’s equivalent circuit

Maximum Power Transfer

The power transfer from the circuit to
the load is
𝟐
𝑬𝒕𝒉
𝑷= ∗ 𝑹𝑳
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝑳
This power is maximum when
𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝒕𝒉 𝑬𝒕𝒉 𝟐
The value of 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟒 𝑹𝒕𝒉
Example : Find the maximum power delivered to the load.
2Ω
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟕 𝛀
𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝒕𝒉
5Ω
𝟒
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟒𝟎
𝟒+𝟔+
𝟏𝟒
𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑨 I1 40/14 Ω
𝟏𝟒 𝑬𝟏
𝑬𝟏
𝑬𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑽 I2
𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟒 𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝑻 = + 𝟏𝟎 𝑰𝑻 =
𝟏𝟎 + 𝟒 𝑹𝑻
𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑨
𝟏𝟒
IT
𝑬𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑽 𝑬𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐 𝑽
𝑬𝟐
𝟕Ω I1
𝟐𝑽 𝟕Ω
𝟐𝟐
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒘
𝟒 ∗𝟕
Energy-Storage Elements
Inductors and capacitors are the energy storage elements.
 Inductors (capacitors) connected in series.
 Inductors (capacitors) connected in parallel.
 Energy stored in an inductor ( a capacitor) .
 Inductors (capacitors) in dc circuits at steady state .

I I
V1 V2 V3
Vab Vab
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 𝒅𝑰 𝒅𝑰 𝒅𝑰 𝒅𝑰
𝑳𝒆𝒒 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑳𝟑
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑳𝒆𝒒 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑳𝟑 𝒅𝑰 𝑽𝒂𝒃
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳𝟏
𝒅𝒕 𝑳𝒆𝒒
𝑳𝟏
Voltage divider rule 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝒂𝒃
𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑳𝟑
I I
V1 V2 V3
Vab Vab
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 𝟏
𝑰 𝒅𝒕 =
𝟏
𝑰 𝒅𝒕 +
𝟏
𝑰 𝒅𝒕 +
𝟏
𝑰 𝒅𝒕
𝑪𝒆𝒒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑽𝒂𝒃
= + + 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑪𝒆𝒒
𝑪𝒆𝒒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟏
𝟏
Voltage divider rule 𝑪𝟏
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝒂𝒃
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ +
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
I I
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
I1 I2 I 3
Vab 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝒕

Vab = + +
𝑳𝒆𝒒 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝒕 𝑳𝒆𝒒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑰𝟏 = =𝑰
= + + 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟏
𝑳𝒆𝒒 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝟏
𝑳𝟏
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰
Current divider rule 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ +
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑
I I
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
I1 I2 I3
𝒅𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝑽𝒂𝒃
Vab 𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑
Vab 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑪𝟏
𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑪𝟏 =𝑰
𝒅𝒕 𝑪𝒆𝒒
Current divider rule 𝑪𝟏

𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰
𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑
 Energy stored in an inductor ( a capacitor) .
𝑬 𝒕 = 𝒑 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒊 𝒕 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊(𝒕) 𝟏
For inductors 𝑬 𝒕 = 𝒊 𝒕 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑳 𝒊(𝒕)𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
𝒅𝒗(𝒕) 𝟏
For capacitors 𝑬 𝒕 = 𝑪 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑪 𝒗(𝒕)𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
 Inductors (capacitors) in dc circuits at steady state .
𝒅𝒊
For a coil 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑳 . At steady state 𝒊 is constant.
𝒅𝒕
Then 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝟎. A coil is considered as a short circuit.
𝒅𝒗
For a capacitor 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒄 . At steady state 𝒗 is constant.
𝒅𝒕
Then 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟎. A capacitor is considered as an open circuit.

Example
Example
𝑽𝟐
I1
I2
𝑽𝟏
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟒 𝑨 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐 𝑨 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟔 𝑽
𝑬𝟏 = 𝟖 𝑱 𝑬𝟐 = 𝟒 𝑱 𝑬𝟏 = 𝟕𝟐 𝑱 𝑬𝟐 = 𝟑𝟔 𝑱
First-order capacitive transients
 Usually, sudden application of a voltage or current to a DC circuit
takes place.
 The most common instance of this sudden application of a voltage or

current occurs when a switch is turned on or off.
 When a switch is turned on or off the currents and the voltages of the
circuit start to change to new values.
 They reach their new constant values after a while.
 The period of time during which the voltages and the currents of the
circuit are changing is called Transient Period.
 It is important to study how the voltages and currents are changing
during the transient period. This is called Transient Response or
simply transients.
 Capacitive transients means that the circuit will contain capacitors,

resistors, switches and batteries.
 First-order means that the circuit will contain one capacitor or a

combinations of series and parallel capacitors that can be treated as on
capacitor.
 It also means that the differential equations that govern the voltages
and currents during the transients are first order.
RC Circuits Using KVL
𝑬 = 𝒊 𝑹 + 𝑽𝒄
𝒅 𝑽𝒄
𝑬=𝑪 𝑹 + 𝑽𝒄
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝑽𝒄
𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 = 𝑪 𝑹 Let 𝝉 = 𝑪 𝑹 where 𝝉 is called the time constant.
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅 𝑽𝒄 𝒕
= = − ln(𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 (𝐭)) + 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝝉 𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 𝝉
Assume that at 𝐭 = 𝒕𝟎 the capacitor voltage is 𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕𝟎 )

RC Circuits
𝒕𝟎
𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 = + ln(𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕𝟎 ))
𝝉
Recall that
𝒕
= − ln(𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 (𝐭)) + 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝝉
𝒕 𝒕𝟎
= − ln(𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 (𝐭)) + + ln(𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕𝟎 ))
𝝉 𝝉
𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎
ln(𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 (𝐭)) − ln(𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕𝟎 )) = −
𝝉
RC Circuits
𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕
= 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉
𝑬 − 𝑽 𝒄 𝒕𝟎
𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = [𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 ]𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉
−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉
𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑬 − 𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆
RC Circuits
𝑽 𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑬 − 𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉
𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝟗 − 𝟗 − 𝟏 𝒆−(𝒕−𝟏) 𝟐
6
The capacitor is charging if
5
𝑽𝒄 (𝒕𝟎 ) < 𝑬.
4
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
RC Circuits
𝑽 𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑬 − 𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉
𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝟗 − 𝟗 − 𝟏𝟓 𝒆−(𝒕−𝟏) 𝟐
15
14
13
The capacitor is discharging

if 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 > 𝑬.
12
11
10
9
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
RC Circuits 9
𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝟗 − 𝟗 − 𝟏 𝒆−(𝒕−𝟏) 𝟐 8
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕 − 𝟏 = 𝟐 (𝝉), 𝑽𝒄 𝟑 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟓𝟕 5
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕 − 𝟏 = 𝟒 (𝟐𝝉), 𝑽𝒄 𝟓 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟏𝟕 3
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕 − 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 (𝟓𝝉), 𝑽𝒄 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟒𝟔

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
𝟗−𝟖.𝟗𝟒𝟔
Notice that = 𝟎. 𝟔%. This means that after 𝟓𝝉, the capacitor
𝟗
voltage becomes about 99% of its final value.
Hence, The capacitor is completely charged/discharged in 𝟓𝝉.
Example
Knowing that the capacitor has no
charges at t = 0, draw its voltage
versus time if the switch is closed at t
= 0 and opened after the capacitor is
fully charged.
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟓𝒌𝛀, 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒌𝛀
𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝝁𝑭
𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑬 − 𝑬 − 𝑽 𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉
Example 𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑬 − 𝑬 − 𝑽 𝒄 𝒕 𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉
During charging
𝟓 ∗𝟐𝟎
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = + 𝟓 = 𝟗 𝒌𝛀
𝟐𝟓
𝟐𝟎
𝑬𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏𝟓 ∗ = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽
𝟐𝟎 + 𝟓
𝝉 = 𝟎. 𝟗 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 − (𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎) 𝒆−𝒕 𝟎.𝟗
During discharging
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟓 = 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝛀 VC
𝑬𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎 𝑽 and 𝝉 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝟎 − 𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐 𝒆−(𝒕−𝟒.𝟓) 𝟐.𝟓
t
Example
12
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time-Varying Signals
1. Definition
A time-varying signal is any signal that changes its value with time.
2. Values
Every time-varying signal has
1) Instantaneous value 𝒗(𝒕)
2) Peak value 𝒗(𝒕)𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝟏 𝑻
3) Average value 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝟎
𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
𝟏 𝑻 𝟐
4) Root Mean Square value. 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟎
𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
𝟏 𝑻 𝟐
𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
The meaning of the RMS value of a voltage signal
If a variable source of 𝒗(𝒕) volts is connected to the a resistor of resistance

𝟏 𝑻 𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝑹.
R ohms, it will supply average power equal to 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝟎
𝒗(𝒕)
𝑻
If the variable source is replaced by a DC source of E volts, it will supply

power equal to 𝑷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑬𝟐 𝑹.
The value of E that makes 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑷𝒅𝒄 is 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 .
So, 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 is called the effective value of the voltage 𝒗 𝒕 .

𝟏 𝑻 𝟐
𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
𝑬𝟐 𝒗(𝒕)𝟐
𝒑= 𝒑 𝒕 =
𝑹 𝑹
constant with time instantaneous
The average power dissipated in the resistor if the source is AC with

instantaneous value v(t) is equal to the power dissipated in the
same resistor if the source is DC of E volts iff E equals the
RMS value of v(t).
Example : Find an expression for the instantaneous value of the
following signals. Find, also, its peak, average and RMS values.
V
a
𝑎 a t
2
𝟑𝒕 𝟎 ≤𝒕≤𝟓
𝒗 𝒕 =
𝟏𝟓 𝟓 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟏𝟎
𝒗(𝒕)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓
𝟏 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = ∗ ∗ 𝟏𝟓
𝟏𝟎 𝟐
𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝟏
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟗𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 + 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝒅𝒕
𝟏𝟎 𝟎 𝟓
𝒂
V 𝟐𝒕 𝟎 ≤𝒕≤
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒂
a −𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒂 ≤𝒕≤𝒂
𝟐
𝒗(𝒕)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒂
𝟏 𝒂∗𝒂 𝒂
𝑎 a t 𝑽𝒂𝒗 =
𝒂
∗
𝟐
=
𝟐
2
𝒂
𝒂
𝟏 𝟐
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟒𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 + −𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒂 𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝒂 𝟎
𝒂
𝟐
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕)
𝒗(𝒕)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑻
𝑻=
𝟐𝝅 𝟏
𝝎 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
𝑻
𝟎
𝑻
𝟏 𝟐
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 =
𝑻 𝟐
𝟎
3. Current and voltage wave forms.
If the following voltage wave forms are applied to a resistor of
resistance R, inductor of inductance L and capacitor of capacitance
C, draw their currents wave forms.
V
𝑎 a t
2
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕)
Case 1.1 a resistor of resistance R
3
R=2Ω 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒗(𝒕)/𝑹
2
𝟑𝒕/𝑹 𝟎 ≤𝒕≤𝟓
1
0 𝒊 𝒕 =
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝟏𝟓/𝑹 𝟓 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟏𝟎
Case 1.2 an inductor of inductance L

120
100
80 L=1H
60
𝟏
40
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑳
20
𝒕
𝟑 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝟎≤𝒕 ≤𝟓
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝟏 𝟎
𝒊 𝒕 = ∗ 5 𝑡
𝑳
3𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 15 𝑑𝑡 5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 10
0 5
Case 1.3 a capacitor of capacitance C
3
𝒅𝒗
𝒊 𝒕 =𝑪
C=1F 𝒅𝒕
5 10 t 𝟑 𝟎≤𝒕≤𝟓
𝒊 𝒕 =𝑪
𝟎 𝟓 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟏𝟎
V
a
i
𝑎 a t
a/R 2
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒗(𝒕)/𝑹
𝑎 a t 𝒂
2 𝟐𝒕/𝑹 𝟎 ≤𝒕≤
𝟐
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒂
(−𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒂)/𝑹 ≤𝒕≤𝒂
𝟐
V
a
𝑎2
i 2𝑙 𝑎 a t
2
𝑎
2
4𝑙
𝟏
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑳
𝑎 a t
2 𝒕
𝒂
𝟐 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝟎≤𝒕 ≤
𝟏 𝟎 𝟐
𝒊 𝒕 = ∗ 𝑎
𝑡
𝑳 2 𝑎
2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + (−2𝑡 + 2𝑎) 𝑑𝑡 ≤𝑡≤𝑎
0
𝑎 2
2
V
a
i 𝑎 a t
2
2C
𝒅𝒗
a/2 a 𝒊 𝒕 =𝑪
𝒅𝒕
t
-2C
𝒂
𝟐 𝟎≤𝒕≤
𝒊 𝒕 =𝑪 𝟐
𝒂
−𝟐 ≤𝒕≤𝒂
𝟐
3. Current and voltage wave forms. 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕)
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒗(𝒕)/𝑹 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕)
𝑹
𝟏 −𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝟗𝟎𝟎 )
𝑳 𝝎𝑳 𝝎𝑳

𝒅𝒗 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑪𝝎 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 = 𝑪 𝝎𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 )
𝒊 𝒕 =𝑪
𝒅𝒕
AC Analysis
1. Introduction
 AC means alternating current .
 Alternating means the generated voltages and hence, the resulting

currents are variables of time.
 During the ac analysis only sine waves are considered because

1. it is easy to generate sine wave voltages and
2. when the voltages are sine waves, the resulting currents of
the electrical elements are also sine waves.
AC Analysis
2. Vector representation of a sine wave
 Any sine wave is uniquely determined by its magnitude, phase,
and frequency. 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽
AC Analysis
 Any sine wave is uniquely determined by its magnitude, phase,
and frequency. 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽
 The frequency of all voltages and currents in any linear electrical

circuit is constant. (50Hz in Egypt).
 So any sine wave is uniquely determined by its magnitude and

phase.
 Therefore a sine wave can be represented by a vector of

magnitude equal to the RMS of the wave and angle equals to the
phase of the sine wave.
AC Analysis
 The previous statement means that the signal
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽
can be represented by a vector
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽= 𝒆𝒋𝜽 = 𝑽 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒋𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 ) or 𝑽 = 𝑽 𝜽.
𝟐
 Furthermore, the vector 𝑽 is rotating anti clockwise with the same

frequency as 𝒗(𝒕).
AC Analysis
AC Analysis
AC Analysis
3. The concept of phase lead and phase lag
 The following voltages ω
𝒗𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 , 𝑉1
𝒗𝟐 (𝒕) = 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 and
𝒗𝟑 (𝒕) = 𝟖 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕
can be represented by the vectors 𝑉3
𝟏𝟎 𝟓
300
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 , 𝑽𝟐 = −𝟑𝟎𝟎 300
𝟐 𝟐
𝟖
and 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟎 𝟎.
𝟐 𝑉2
 V1 leads both and V2 lags both.
What about V3?
AC Analysis
4. Currents and voltages analysis and the concept of impedance
4.1. Current and voltage of a resistor ω
Assume 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 𝐼 𝑉
Then 𝒗 𝒕 =𝒊 𝒕 ∗𝑹 2
1.5
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑹 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎 𝒕) 1
0.5
0
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑰= 𝟎𝟎 and 𝑽 = 𝟎𝟎 . -0.5
𝟐 𝟐 -1
-1.5
 The current is in phase with the -2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage.
AC Analysis
4.2. Current and voltage of a capacitor ω
Assume 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 𝐼
𝟏
Then 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒊 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑉
𝑪
2
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎 𝒕 − 𝟗𝟎𝟎 )
1.5
𝝎𝒄 1
0.5
𝑰= 𝟎𝟎 and 𝑽 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎 .
0
𝟐 𝟐 -0.5
-1
 The current leads the voltage by an

-1.5
-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
angle of 90 degrees.
AC Analysis
4.2. Current and voltage of a capacitor
𝑽
Let 𝒁𝒄 = , the capacitive impedance.
𝑰
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟎 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑰= 𝟎𝟎 and 𝑽 = −𝟗𝟎 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝝎𝑪 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
Then 𝒁𝒄 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎 = = −𝒋 𝑿𝒄
𝝎𝑪 𝒋𝝎𝑪
𝟏
𝑿𝒄 = , the capacitive reactance.
𝝎𝒄
AC Analysis
4.3. Current and voltage of a coil ω
Assume 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 𝑉
𝒅𝒊
Then 𝒗 𝒕 =𝑳 𝐼
𝒅𝒕
2
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝝎 𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎 𝒕 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 ) 1.5
𝑰= 𝟎𝟎 and 𝑽 = +𝟗𝟎𝟎 .
0.5
𝟐 𝟐 0
-0.5
 The current lags the voltage by an

-1
-1.5
angle of 90 degrees. -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
AC Analysis
4.3. Current and voltage of a coil
𝑽
Let 𝒁𝑳 = , the inductive impedance.
𝑰
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟎 𝝎 𝑳 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑰= 𝟎𝟎 and 𝑽 = +𝟗𝟎 = +𝟗𝟎𝟎 .
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Then 𝒁𝑳 = 𝒋 𝝎 𝑳 = +𝒋 𝑿𝑳
𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎 𝑳 , the inductive reactance.

AC Analysis
4.4. Current and voltage of a series R-C circuit.
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
Assume 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 𝑰= 𝟎𝟎 i
𝟐
𝟏
Then 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒊 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + 𝒊 𝒕 𝑹
𝑪 v
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 − 𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑹 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎 𝒕)
𝝎𝒄
𝑉𝑅 𝐼
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑹 θ
𝑽= −𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎𝟎
𝝎𝒄 𝟐 𝟐
𝑿𝑪 𝑉C
𝑽 =𝑰 𝑿𝑪 𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 , 𝜽 = tan−𝟏 𝑉
𝑹
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 − 𝜽
 The current leads the voltage by an angle 𝟎𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎𝟎 .
AC Analysis
4.4. Current and voltage of a series R-C circuit
𝑽 i
Let 𝒁 = , the circuit impedance.
𝑰
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑹 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 v
𝑽= −𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎𝟎 ,𝑰= 𝟎𝟎
𝝎𝒄 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
Then 𝐙=𝑹+ = 𝑹 − 𝒋 𝑿𝒄
𝒋𝝎𝑪
𝑅 𝑉𝑅
θ θ
𝑋C Impedance Triangle 𝑉C Voltage Triangle
𝑍 𝑉
AC Analysis
4.5. Current and voltage of a series R-L circuit.
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
Assume 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 𝑰= 𝟎𝟎 i
𝟐
𝒅𝒊
Then 𝒗 𝒕 =𝑳 +𝒊 𝒕 𝑹 v
𝒅𝒕
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑳 𝝎 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑹 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎 𝒕)
𝝎 𝑳 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑹
𝑽= +𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎𝟎 𝑉L 𝑉
𝟐 𝟐
𝑽 =𝑰 𝑿𝑳 𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 , 𝜽 = tan−𝟏
𝑿𝑳 θ
𝑹
𝑉𝑅 𝐼
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽
 The current lags the voltage by an angle 𝟎𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎𝟎 .
AC Analysis
4.5. Current and voltage of a series R-L circuit i
𝑽 v
Let 𝒁 = , the circuit impedance.
𝑰
𝑍
𝝎 𝑳 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑹 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽= +𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎𝟎 , 𝑰 = 𝟎𝟎 𝑋L
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Then 𝐙 = 𝑹 + 𝒋 𝝎 𝑳 = 𝑹 + 𝒋 𝑿𝑳 θ 𝑅
𝑉
𝑉L
Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle
θ 𝑉𝑅
AC Analysis
4.6. Current and voltage of a series R-L-C circuit
i
𝑽
Let 𝒁 = , the circuit impedance. v
𝑰
𝟏
Then 𝐙=𝑹+𝒋𝝎𝑳 + = 𝑹 + 𝒋 (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝒄 )
𝒋𝝎𝑪
The frequency at which 𝒁 = 𝑹 is called the resonance frequency

𝟏
(𝝎 = ).
𝑳𝑪
AC Analysis
4.7. Example
𝑍3 𝑍1
 Find the voltage across the
capacitor if V(t) = 25 sin(3t).
 What will be its value if

1. V(t) = 50 sin(3t + 300) ?
2. V(t) = 25 cos(3t)?
𝟏
𝒁𝟏 = 𝒋 𝟑 ∗ 𝟒 − 𝒋 𝒁𝟑 = 𝟗 + 𝒋 𝟑 ∗ 𝟐
𝟏
𝟑 ∗
𝟏𝟖 𝑽 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟐 = 𝒋 𝟑 ∗ 𝟐 𝑽𝑪 = ∗ ∗ −𝒋 𝟔 = 𝑨 𝑩
𝒁𝒕 𝒁𝟐 + 𝒁𝟏
AC Analysis
4.7. Example
𝑍3 𝑍1
 Find the voltage across the
capacitor if V(t) = 25 sin(3t).
 What will be its value if

1. V(t) = 50 sin(3t + 300) ?
2. 𝑽𝑪 = 𝑨 (𝑩 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 )
2. V(t) = 25 cos(3t)?
OR
𝒗𝑪 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒕 + 𝑩
2. 𝑽𝑪 = 𝑨 𝑩 where
1. 𝑽𝑪 = 𝟐 𝑨 (𝑩 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 ) 𝒗𝑪 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒕 + 𝑩
AC Analysis
Conclusion
 In AC circuits
The resistance has an impedance of 𝑹 ohms
𝟏
The capacitance has an impedance of −𝒋 𝑿𝒄 = −𝒋 (-j ohms)
𝝎𝑪
The coil has an impedance of 𝒋 𝑿𝑳 = 𝒋 𝝎 𝑳 (j ohms)
Using these impedances, all the analysis techniques

studied in the DC part can be used in the AC part.
AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis
If the current of a circuit is given by 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 , then its
voltage will be given by 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽 , θ is the angle of
the circuit impedance.
𝜽 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎 for pure capacitive circuits. 𝒊 𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒗(𝒕)
−𝟗𝟎𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟎𝟎 for capacitive circuits. 𝒊 𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒗(𝒕)
𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎 for pure resistive circuits. 𝒊 𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒗(𝒕)
𝟎𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎𝟎 for inductive circuits. 𝒊 𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒔 𝒗(𝒕)
𝜽 = +𝟗𝟎𝟎 for pure inductive circuits. 𝒊 𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒔 𝒗(𝒕)

AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis
As 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 and 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽 , The circuit
instantaneous power 𝒑(𝒕) is 𝒑 𝒕 = 𝒊 𝒕 ∗ 𝒗(𝒕)
𝒑 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽
𝒑 𝒕 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟐 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽)
𝟐
𝒑 𝒕 = 𝑰 𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐 𝝎 𝒕) + 𝑰 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐 𝝎 𝒕)
Active Instantaneous Power Reactive Instantaneous Power

AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis
For example if I = 1 A, V = 20 V, θ = 300 and ω = π/4 rad/sec, we get

35
10
30 8
6
25
4
2
20
0
15 -2
-4
10
-6
-8
5
-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Active Instantaneous Power Reactive Instantaneous Power

AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis
For example if I = 1 A, V = 20 V, θ = 300 and ω = π/4 rad/sec, we get

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
-5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Total Instantaneous Power

AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis
𝜽 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒑 𝒕 = − 𝑰 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐 𝝎 𝒕) reactive power only
−𝟗𝟎𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟎𝟎 both types of powers.
𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎 𝒑 𝒕 = 𝑰 𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐 𝝎 𝒕) active power only
𝟎𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎𝟎 both types of powers.
𝜽 = +𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒑 𝒕 = + 𝑰 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐 𝝎 𝒕) reactive power only

AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis
The average of the active power is usually denoted by 𝑷 where

𝑷 = 𝑰 𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 in watts.
Which I? Which V? Which θ?
𝑷 = 𝑰 𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑰 𝑰 𝒁 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽). This gives
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹.
The resistor consumes the active power of the circuit.

AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis
The maximum of the reactive power is usually denoted by 𝑸 where

𝐐 = 𝑰 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 in VARs (Volt Ampere Reactive).
Q is positive for inductive circuits and negative for capacitive circuits.
𝑸 = 𝑰 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝑰 𝑰 𝒁 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽). This gives
𝑸 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑿. The energy storage elements store energy in one half of the

cycle and deliver it in the other half.
AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis (The apparent power)
Recall that 𝑷 = 𝑰 𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 and 𝐐 = 𝑰 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 .
The apparent power S in VA (Volt Ampere) is defined as
𝑺 = 𝑷 + 𝒋 𝑸 = 𝑽 𝑰∗ , 𝑰∗ is the complex conjugate of 𝑰.

i
𝑍 𝑉 𝑆
𝑉L 𝑄L v
𝑋L
θ 𝑅 θ 𝑉𝑅 θ 𝑃
AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis (The power factor)
𝑷
The power factor is defined as .
𝑺
𝑆 𝑄L
The importance of this ratio is that it gives by
how much percent the load benefits from the
source power.
θ 𝑃
𝑷
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽). 𝜽 is the angle of the impedance.
𝑺
The p.f. is leading for capacitive circuits and

lagging for inductive circuits.
AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis (Example)
Given R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 9Ω, Rs = 1Ω, XL = 12Ω, XC

= 12Ω and 𝒗𝒔 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎 𝒕).
Find the power factors of the inductive and the

capacitive loads and the p.f. of the supply.
Find the power of each element of the circuit.
Show that the power balance principle is

applicable.
ZL = 9 + j 12 and ZC = 5 – j 12
AC Analysis
𝟏𝟐
The p.f. of the inductive load is 𝒄𝒐𝒔(tan−𝟏 ) = 0.6 lagging.
𝟗
Similarly, the p.f. of the capacitive load is 0.3846 leading.
ZT = (ZL // ZC ) + 1 = 14.5000 - j 3.4286 = RT + j XT
The source p.f. is 0.9732 leading.

𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝑻 = 𝟎 𝒁𝑻 = 4.6184 + j 1.0920, 𝑰𝑻 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟕
𝟐
𝑷𝑺 = (𝟒. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟕)𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟒. 𝟓 watts 𝑸𝑺 = (𝟒. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟕)𝟐 ∗ (−𝟑. 𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟔) VAR
𝑷𝑺 = 𝑽𝑻 𝑰𝑻 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽𝑻 ) watts 𝑸𝑺 = 𝑽𝑻 𝑰𝑻 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝑻 VAR

AC Analysis
The voltage across ZL and ZC is given by

𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽= 𝟎 − 𝑰𝑻 ∗ 𝑹𝑺 = 66.0923 - j 1.0920
𝟐
𝑰𝑪 = 1.9941 + 𝒋4.5858
𝑰𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝟔𝟕 − 𝒋 𝟑. 𝟓𝟎𝟔𝟕
𝑷𝑺 = (𝟒. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟕)𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟒. 𝟓 = 𝑰𝑻 𝟐

𝑹𝒔 + 𝑰𝑪 𝟐
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑳 𝟐
𝑹𝟐
𝑸𝑺 = (𝟒. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟕)𝟐 ∗ −𝟑. 𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟔 = − 𝑰𝑪 𝟐 𝑿𝑪 + 𝑰𝑳 𝟐 𝑿𝑳

AC Analysis
5. Power Analysis (Power factor correction)
This means increasing the power factor. Lo Lo Lo

V(t) ad ad ad
Notice that most of the loads are inductive n 2 1
(positive reactive power) and improvement
of the power factor means decreasing the
reactive power.
𝑆 𝑄L
A capacitor (negative reactive power) is
usually added parallel to the source to
decrease the overall reactive power and
maintains the value of the active power. θ 𝑃
AC Analysis
𝑄L
5. Power Analysis (Power factor correction)
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) is the power factor to be improved 𝑆
to 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝋)
𝑄C
𝑸𝑳 𝑸𝑳 − 𝑸𝑪
tan 𝜽 = and tan 𝝋 =
𝑷 𝑷
θ φ 𝑃
𝑸𝑪 = 𝑷[tan 𝜽 − tan 𝝋]
𝑽𝟐
𝑸𝑪 = Lo Lo Lo
𝑿𝑪
V(t) ad ad ad
𝟏 n 2 1
𝑿𝑪 =
𝝎𝑪
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Why?
 ALL electric power system in the world use 3-phase system to
GENERATE, TRANSMIT and DISTRIBUTE electric power.
 Instantaneous power is constant (not pulsating). This leads to

smoother rotation of electrical machines.
 Three phase circuits are more economical than single phase

because they need less wire for the same power transfer.
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Single Phase Generation
AC Analysis
AC Analysis
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Generation
AC Analysis
AC Analysis
𝑽𝑨 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝑨 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕
𝑽𝑩 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 −𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝑩 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 −𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝑪 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎 𝒕 − 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Phase Sequence
The phase Sequence is the order in which the voltage waveforms of a

poly-phase AC source reach their respective peaks. It is ABC.
Changing the phase Sequence leads to reversing the direction of
rotation of motors and may lead to erroneous readings of some
measuring instruments.
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Connection Types (1. Star Connection)
Phase Voltages
𝑽𝒂𝒏 = 𝑽𝑨 , 𝑽𝒃𝒏 = 𝑽𝑩 , 𝑽𝒄𝒏 = 𝑽𝑪
Line Voltages
They are line to line voltages
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝒂𝒏 − 𝑽𝒃𝒏
𝑽𝒃𝒄 = 𝑽𝒃𝒏 − 𝑽𝒄𝒏
𝑽𝒄𝒂 = 𝑽𝒄𝒏 − 𝑽𝒂𝒏
The line currents equal to Phase currents

AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Connection Types (1. Star Connection)
Line Voltages
They are line to line voltages
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝒂𝒏 − 𝑽𝒃𝒏
𝑽𝒃𝒄 = 𝑽𝒃𝒏 − 𝑽𝒄𝒏
𝑽𝒄𝒂 = 𝑽𝒄𝒏 − 𝑽𝒂𝒏
Line Voltages
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝟑𝑽𝒂𝒏 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒃𝒄 = 𝟑𝑽𝒃𝒏 −𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒄𝒂 = 𝟑𝑽𝒄𝒏 −𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟎
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Connection Types (2. Delta Connection)
Phase Currents
𝑰𝒂𝒃 , 𝑰𝒃𝒄 , 𝑰𝒄𝒂 have 1200 phase shift
Line Currents
𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝒂𝒃 − 𝑰𝒄𝒂
𝑰𝒃 = 𝑰𝒃𝒄 − 𝑰𝒂𝒃
𝑰𝒄 = 𝑰𝒄𝒂 − 𝑰𝒃𝒄
The line voltages equal to Phase voltages

AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Connection Types (2. Delta Connection)
Line Currents
𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝒂𝒃 − 𝑰𝒄𝒂
𝑰𝒃 = 𝑰𝒃𝒄 − 𝑰𝒂𝒃
𝑰𝒄 = 𝑰𝒄𝒂 − 𝑰𝒃𝒄
Line Currents
𝑰𝒂 = 𝟑𝑰𝒂𝒃 −𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒃 = 𝟑𝑰𝒃𝒄 −𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒄 = 𝟑𝑰𝒄𝒂 −𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- 3-φ balanced loads (1. Star Connected)
Source voltage a
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝑳 𝟎𝟎 Ia
𝑽𝒃𝒄 = 𝑽𝑳 −𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
Z
𝑽𝒄𝒂 = 𝑽𝑳 −𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
Line Currents In
n
𝑽𝑳 𝟑
𝑰𝒂 = (−𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽)
𝒁
𝑽𝑳 𝟑 Ic
𝑰𝒃 = (−𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽) c
𝒁
𝑽𝑳 𝟑 b
𝑰𝒄 = (−𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽) Ib
𝒁
Prove that In = 0.
AC Analysis
Power a
𝑷= 𝑽𝒂𝒏 𝑰𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 Ia
+ 𝑽𝒃𝒏 𝑰𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
+ 𝑽𝒄𝒏 𝑰𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 Z
In
𝑷 = 𝟑 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) n
𝑷 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
c Ic
𝑸 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) b
Ib
𝑺 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳
AC Analysis
Single Phase equivalent a
Ia
A 3-φ Y- connected balanced load
can be expressed by its single Z
phase equivalent (repeated two In
more times with 1200 phase shift) n
a
Ia
c Ic
Z
b
Ib
n
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- 3-φ balanced loads (2. Delta Connected)
Source voltage a Iab
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝑳 𝟎𝟎 Ia
𝑽𝒃𝒄 = 𝑽𝑳 −𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒄𝒂 = 𝑽𝑳 −𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
Phase Currents Ic Ica
𝑽𝑳 c Z
𝑰𝒂𝒃 = ( − 𝜽) Ibc
𝒁 Ib
𝑽𝑳 b
𝑰𝒃𝒄 = (−𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽)
𝒁
𝑽𝑳
𝑰𝒄𝒂 = (−𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽)
𝒁
AC Analysis
a Iab
Line Currents
Ia
𝑽𝑳 𝟑
𝑰𝒂 = (−𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽)
𝒁
𝑽𝑳 𝟑
𝑰𝒃 = (−𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽) Ic Ica
𝒁 c Z Ibc
𝑽𝑳 𝟑
𝑰𝒄 = (−𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽) Ib
𝒁 b
Line Currents in delta-connected loads are 3 times the corresponding

line currents for star-connected loads
AC Analysis
Power a Iab
𝑷= 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝑰𝒂𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 Ia
+ 𝑽𝒃𝒄 𝑰𝒃𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
+ 𝑽𝒄𝒂 𝑰𝒄𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
Ica
𝑷 = 𝟑 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) Ic
c Z Ibc
Ib
𝑷 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽) b
The power consumed in delta-
𝑸 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) connected loads are 3 times the
corresponding power for star-
𝑺 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 connected loads
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Instantaneous power
Instantaneous single phase power
𝟐
Instantaneous balanced three phase power
𝒑 𝒕
𝑰𝒑𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒑𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟐 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽)
𝟐
+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟐 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 )
𝟐
+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟐 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽 − 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 )
𝟐
AC Analysis
Notice that 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 − 𝟐𝟒𝟎 =
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶)𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟏𝟐𝟎)

+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶)𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝟒𝟎 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝟒𝟎 =
𝟑
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 −𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 −𝟎. 𝟓
𝟐
− 𝟑
+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 = 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐
𝟐
AC Analysis
Therefore
Instantaneous balanced three phase power
𝟐
+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟐 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 )
𝟐
+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝟐 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝜽 − 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 )
𝟐
𝒑 𝒕 =𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟑 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝑷𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝟐
The instantaneous balanced three phase power is constant.

AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Power Factor Correction
𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 = (𝑷/𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆)[tan 𝜽 − tan 𝝋] a
Ia
𝟐
𝑽𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 = Z
𝑿𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑽𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐 In
𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 = n
𝟑 𝑿𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑽𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐
𝑿𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 =
𝟑 𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 Ic
c
𝟏
𝝎 𝑪/𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
b Ib
𝟑 𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑪/𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 =
𝝎 𝑽𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐
AC Analysis
6. Three Phase Analysis ----- Power Factor Correction
𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 = (𝑷/𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆)[tan 𝜽 − tan 𝝋] a
Iab
𝟐 Ia
𝑽𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 =
𝑽𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐 Ica
𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 = c Ic
Z Ibc
𝑽𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐
𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
b Ib
𝟏
𝝎 𝑪/𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑸𝑪 /𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑪/𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 =
𝝎 𝑽𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐
𝑪𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒓 = 𝟑 𝑪𝑫𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒂
AC Analysis
7. Transformers
Use the following link to see a 9-minute video that illustrates the
working principle of a transformer
https://youtu.be/Cx4_7lIjoBA
Ideal Transformer
AC Analysis
7. Transformers
Ideal Transformer
𝒏𝟐
𝑵=
𝒏𝟏
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑵 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝟏
𝑰𝟐 =
𝑵
𝑺𝟐 = (𝑰𝟐 )∗ 𝑽𝟐 = (𝑰𝟏 )∗ 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑺𝟏
The powers of the primary and the secondary circuits in an

ideal transformer are equal.
AC Analysis
7. Real Transformers
Ideal Transformer
𝑬𝟐 = 𝑵 𝑬𝟏 (𝑰𝟐)\
𝑰𝟐 =
𝑵
Exact Equivalent Circuit of the Transformer

AC Analysis
7. Real Transformers
 R1= Resistance of the primary winding
 R2= Resistance of the secondary winding
 X1= Leakage Reactance of the primary

winding
 X2= Leakage Reactance of the secondary

winding
 RC= Resistance representing the core
(iron) losses
 Xμ= reactance representing the main flux
path
AC Analysis
7. Real Transformers at no load
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑬𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐
(𝑰𝟐 )\ = 𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑰𝟎 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟏 ) Small voltage drop
𝑽𝟏 ≅ 𝑬𝟏 𝑽𝟐 ≅ 𝑵 𝑽𝟏
AC Analysis
7. Real Transformers at load
Equivalent circuit
referred to primary
Z
𝑬𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹𝟐 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟐 )
(𝑰𝟐 )\
𝑵 𝑬𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 + (𝑹𝟐 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟐 ) (𝑿𝟐 )\
𝑵
𝒏𝟏 \ 𝒏𝟏 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝟐
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹𝟐 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟐 )
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐
(𝑽𝟐 )\ (𝑹𝟐 )\
AC Analysis
Equivalent circuit
referred to primary
The Load impedance

is transformed to Z\
(𝑽 ) \
𝟐
𝒁\ =
𝑰𝟐 \
𝒏
𝑽𝟐 𝒏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒁\ = 𝟐 𝒏𝟏
𝑵 𝑰𝟐 𝒁\ =𝒁
𝒏𝟐
AC Analysis
Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary
Total equivalent resistance referred to primary 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 \
Total equivalent reactance referred to primary 𝑿𝒆𝒒𝟏 = 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑿𝟐 \

AC Analysis
7. Real Transformers at load Z
Equivalent circuit
referred to secondary
(𝑰𝟐 )\ = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟎
𝒏𝟐 Z
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟎
𝒏𝟏
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑰𝝁 + 𝑰𝒄
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟎
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑰𝝁 + 𝑰𝒄
\
(𝑰𝟏 ) = 𝑰𝟏 \
(𝑰𝟎 ) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐
𝑰𝟎 \ = 𝑰𝝁 \ + 𝑰𝒄 \
AC Analysis
Equivalent circuit
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑰𝟏 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟏 )
𝒏𝟏 𝒏 Z
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑰𝟏 \ 𝟐 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟏 )
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏
𝒏𝟐 \ 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
𝑽 = 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑰𝟏 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟏 )
𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟏
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
(𝑽𝟏 )\ = 𝑽𝟏 (𝑹𝟏 )\ = 𝑹𝟏 (𝑿𝟏 )\ = 𝑿𝟏
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏
AC Analysis
Equivalent circuit
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑰𝝁 𝒋𝑿𝝁
𝒏𝟏 \ 𝒏𝟐
Z
𝑬𝟐 = 𝑰𝝁 𝒋𝑿𝝁
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏
𝟐
\ 𝒏𝟐
𝑬𝟐 = 𝑰𝝁 𝒋 𝑿𝝁
𝒏𝟏
𝒏𝟐 𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
(𝑿𝝁 )\ = 𝑿𝝁 Similarly (𝑹𝒄 )\ = 𝑹𝒄
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏
AC Analysis
Approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary
Total equivalent resistance referred to secondary 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 \
Total equivalent reactance referred to secondary 𝑿𝒆𝒒𝟐 = 𝑿𝟐 + 𝑿𝟏 \

AC Analysis
7. Real Transformers Example
A 2400/240V, 50 Hz transformer has a resistance and leakage
inductance of 0.72+j0.92 for the primary side and 0.007+j0.009 for
the secondary side. At rated voltage and frequency, the admittance
for the shunt branch of the excitation current is (0.324-j2.24) x10-2
mho when viewed from the low voltage side. Calculate the primary
voltage of the transformer at no load and when the transformer
supplies (i) a pure resistive load of 20Ω (ii) an inductive load of 20Ω
and 0.707 power factor (iii) a capacitive load of 20Ω and 0.707 power
factor
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝑿𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐 𝑿𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝟏 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
\
(𝑹𝒄 ) = \
(𝑿𝝁 ) = =
𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟒 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒 𝒏𝟐 𝟐𝟒𝟎
AC Analysis
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝑿𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐 𝑿𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝟏 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
(𝑹𝒄 )\ = (𝑿𝝁 )\ = =
𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟒 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒 𝒏𝟐 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟎
No Load case 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
Case (i) 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝟎
Z
Case (ii) 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 −𝟒𝟓
Case (iii) 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 +𝟒𝟓

AC Analysis
For each of the above cases we can

use the following equations to
calculate the required voltage.
𝑬𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐 (𝑹𝟐 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟐 ) Z
\ 𝑬𝟐 \ 𝑬𝟐
𝑰𝝁 = and 𝑰𝒄 =
𝒋 𝑿𝝁 \ 𝑹𝒄 \
𝑰𝟎 \ = 𝑰𝝁 \ + 𝑰𝒄 \ and 𝑰𝟏 \ = 𝑰𝟎 \ + 𝑰𝟐
𝒏𝟏
\ \
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑰𝟏 ( 𝑹𝟏 + 𝒋 𝑿𝟏 ) \ \ 𝑽𝟏 = (𝑽𝟏 )\
𝒏𝟐
AC Analysis
7. Real Transformers Efficiency
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝜼=
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 + 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝜼=
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 + 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 + 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝟐

AC Analysis
𝑰𝟐
𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑰𝟐𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑲=
𝑰𝟐𝒓
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑲 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = ( 𝑲 𝑰𝟐𝒓 )𝟐 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝟐
The output power and the copper losses are changing as the
secondary current is changing (they depend on the load of the
transformer).
Copper losses are considered as variable losses.

AC Analysis
𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = (𝑬𝒅𝒅𝒚 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 + 𝑯𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔) 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
Eddy current is a current passing through the iron due to the time
varying field.
Eddy current can be reduced by laminating the core.
Eddy current is function of
1. The maximum flux,
2. The lamination thickness,
3. The frequency of the flux (the frequency of the voltage)
4. The volume of the iron core.
Eddy current losses do not depend on the transformer secondary
current (load current). So they are considered as fixed losses.
AC Analysis
𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = (𝑬𝒅𝒅𝒚 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 + 𝑯𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔) 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝑯𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 results from magnetizing and demagnetizing the iron
by the alternating flux.
𝑯𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 is function of
1. The maximum flux,
2. The frequency of the flux (the frequency of the voltage)
3. The volume of the iron core.
𝑯𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 losses do not depend on the transformer secondary
current (load current). So they are considered as fixed losses.
𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝒑𝒊

AC Analysis
𝑲 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝜼=
𝑲 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + ( 𝑲 𝑰𝟐𝒓 )𝟐 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝟐 + 𝒑𝒊
Usually the transformer is operated at its rated secondary voltage.
𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐𝒓 = 𝑺𝒓 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒓
𝑲 𝑺𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝜼= ,
𝑲 𝑺𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 +𝑲𝟐 𝒑𝒄𝒖 𝒓 +𝒑𝒊
𝒑𝒄𝒖 𝒓 is the copper losses at rated current.

The transformer efficiency is function of the load current and
the load power factor.
AC Analysis
𝑲 𝑺𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝜼=
𝑲 𝑺𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝑲𝟐 𝒑𝒄𝒖 𝒓 + 𝒑𝒊
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝒑𝒊
𝜼 𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒕 𝑲𝒎 =
𝒑𝒄𝒖 𝒓
The transformer has maximum

efficiency when the copper
losses equal to the iron losses.
𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 increases as the load power factor increases.

AC Analysis
7. Real Transformers Tests
Two tests are usually performed to estimate the parameters of a

transformer.
The open circuit test is performed to estimate the iron losses, the
core losses resistance (Rc ) and the magnetizing reactance (Xµ ).
The short circuit test is performed to estimate the copper losses at

rated secondary current (Pcu r ), the equivalent resistance (Req ) and
the equivalent magnetic reactance (Xeq ).
AC Analysis
Open circuit test connection diagram Open circuit test equivalent circuit
The voltmeter reads the input voltage which is usually the rated
voltage (Vr).
The ammeter reads the no load current (I0).
The wattmeter reads the iron losses (pi).

AC Analysis
Open circuit test calculations
𝒑𝒊
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝋𝟎 =
𝑽𝒓 𝑰𝟎
𝑽𝒓
𝑰𝒄 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝋𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒄 =
𝑰𝒄
𝑽𝒓
𝑰𝝁 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝋𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑿𝝁 =
𝑰𝝁
AC Analysis
Short circuit test equivalent circuit
Short circuit test connection diagram
Xµ >> Rc >>>> Req and Xeq
Short circuit test equivalent circuit

AC Analysis
Short circuit test connection diagram Short circuit test equivalent circuit
The voltmeter reads the input voltage which is reduced to (Vsc).
The ammeter reads the (Isc) which is in the order of (Ir) .
The wattmeter reads the copper losses (pcu).

AC Analysis
Short circuit test calculations
𝒑𝒄𝒖
𝑹𝒆𝒒 =
𝑰𝒔𝒄 𝟐
𝑽𝒔𝒄
= 𝒁 = 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟐 + 𝑿𝒆𝒒 𝟐 𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝑿𝒆𝒒
𝑰𝒔𝒄
𝟐
𝑰𝒓
𝒑𝒄𝒖 𝒓 = 𝒑𝒄𝒖
𝑰𝒔𝒄
BEST WISHES
AND
GOOD LUCK

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Electrical Engineering Fundamentals

Prof. Ahmed M. Kamel

Activity Repetition Weight 3 On line quiz

 If 𝑽𝒂 > 𝑽𝒃 , 𝑽𝒂𝒃 can be represented by

 It is, also, defined as the rate of change of the electric charges at a

 One ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of electrical

 It is given by 𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕 ∗ 𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 (𝒕) in watts

𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕 ∗ 𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 (𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 in Joules

Active (Sources) Passive (Loads)

Next Slide Generators ∈𝑨

 Independent Voltage Sources (The voltage of the

 Independent Current Sources (The current of the

 Dependent Voltage Sources (The voltage of the

 Dependent Current Sources (The current of the

Usually the absorbed power is positive. Hence, the delivered

Power is delivered by batteries and current sources .

As capacitors and coils are energy storage elements, they can

Power is absorbed by resistors , capacitors and coils

3. When an element is absorbing power the voltage across the

4. The resistor is always absorbing power.

5. Throughout the course, “Short circuit” means connection

“ab” is short circuited

“ab” is open circuited

3. Resistors connected in series and voltage divider rule

4. Resistors connected in parallel and current divider rule

5. Series-Parallel connected resistors

 The sum of all voltages associated with sources must equal

 so the net voltage around a closed circuit is zero.

 In an electrical circuit, a node is the junction of more than

 A branch contains one or more series electrical elements.

Special case (two 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

Star-connected resistors are 3

Can you identify 3 stars in

To simplify the circuit delta-connected resistors can be transformed to

𝑹𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑨𝑪 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 = 𝑹𝟖

It is easy now to get the total resistance.

It is easy now to get the total resistance.

 Analysis of DC circuits means calculating the voltage across and

 This enables the designers to choose the appropriate elements and

 Four analysis methods are available:

1. Identify the circuit nodes. Let

3. Assume that the other n-1 nodes

These equations can be

Solve for the unknown vector V.

Why R2 is not included?

What is the problem with E3?

We can write the following equations for

 A loop is any closed path in an electric

 The word simple means a mesh does Mesh Mesh

−𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟒 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟔 ) = 𝟎 Mesh 3

And can be solved to get the

The existence of the current source in

I2 No need for the equation of mesh 2.

−𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟓 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓 ) = −𝑬𝟑

The super mesh consists of mesh 1 and

Usually we solve the superposition problem using :

 The basic laws of electrical circuits

However, we can use either

 The node voltages analysis or

 The mesh currents analysis.

E2 does not contribute in the

As far as a load is concerned, any network composed of ideal

Thevenin’s equivalent resistance Rth is defined as the equivalent