PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1

A. Definition
Communication can be defined as a process by which information, meanings and
feelings are shared by persons through a common system of verbal and nonverbal symbols,
signs or behavior.
As a process, communication is characterized as:
1. dynamic – it is constantly changing because it relies on human perception that
can change overtime; therefore, it is irreversible and unrepeatable;
2. continuous – it is an ongoing exchange of meaning-sharing behaviors
between/among individuals who operate within a frame of experience; it does not
have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events;
3. adaptive – it adjusts to the changes that occur in its physical and psychological
environment;
4. systemic – it involves components that are interrelated and interacting in a cyclic
order;
5. transactional – every communication is a unique combination of people,
messages and events; it consists of unending sharing (transmission and reception) of
messages between/among people on some occasion.

.B. Importance of Communication

1. Communication serves as vehicle in building relationships. An individual does
not live alone. He or she needs to interact with other people to build relationship
with them for various reasons.
2. Communication works in improving working environment. Organizational
communication, whether downward, upward or lateral, serves as potent instrument
in creating a working environment that is inviting, friendly and stress-free in order to
achieve business efficiency and profitability.
3. Communication assists in fostering strong team. Team members therefore need
to meaningfully interact and exchange information, experiences and resources in
order to make their team spirit strong towards achieving their goals.
4. Communication helps find appropriate solutions to problems. The key to the
solution of many problems is communication. Individuals who are confronted with
problems often ask for ideas and advice from others especially from those they
consider knowledgeable and well-experienced.
5. Communication builds greater respect. People with excellent communication
skills usually get high positions in the business, media, entertainment, religious,
academic and political organizations. Truly, excellent communication skills can make
a big difference to a person’s reputation and can be his or her ticket to success.

C. Forms of Communication
1. Intrapersonal Communication is talking to oneself (self-talk) through internal
vocalization or reflective thinking due to some internal or external stimulus. In other
words, this type of communication takes place within the person.
2. Interpersonal Communication is a form of communication wherein individuals
are engaged actively in the overt and covert transmission and reception of messages.
 a) Dyadic Communication is a two-person communication such as telephone
conversation, job interview and doctor-patient conversation.
b) Small-Group Communication ideally consists of three to six persons such
as committee, buzz session and brainstorming activity.
3. Public Communication is conveying information to a large evidence. It is more
sender-focused than intrapersonal and interpersonal forms of communication.
a) Speaker-Audience Communication is talking to a large number of people
who are gathered for some occasion.
b) Mass Communication is the “process whereby media organizations
produce and transmit messages to large public

D. Models of Communication
1. Transmission Model considers communication as a one-directional exchange in
which the message is purposely conveyed by a speaker to a listener.
2. Interaction Model describes communication as a process in which
communicators change roles as sender and receiver and produce meaning by
exchanging messages within their own environment and experiences.
3. Transaction model explains communication as a way of creating realities based
on our social, relational and cultural backgrounds. This model shows that
communication is not a mere exchange of experiences. It rather shows that we are
intend to build relationships, create intercultural understanding, form our self-
identity, and interact with others to engender societies.

E. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
1. VERBAL COMMUNICATION – a form of transmitting messages using word symbols
representing ideas and objects. It can be defined as the exchange of ideas that
occurs through words. It comes in two forms:
a) Oral Communication – includes face-to-face interaction,
b) Written Communication – uses symbols that are hand- written or
printed with an electronic device
Factors that affect verbal communication:
Tone of voice
Use of descriptive words
Emphasis on certain phrases
Volume of voice

2. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION – a form of communication which refers to the

sending of messages to another person using methods or means other than the
spoken language. Basically, it is communication without the use of words.
I. Types of Non-verbal communication
a) Paralanguage (Vocalics) refers to vocal qualities that go along
with verbal message such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality,
and verbal fillers.
b) Action Language (Kinesics) refers to gross bodily movements such
as walking and eating. It consists of
(1) Gesture – is any act of the speaker that reinforces or
demonstrates ideas.
 Classification of Gestures
a) Descriptive gestures – which help to clarify
concepts such as size, shape, speed and others.
b) Suggestive gestures – stimulate the imagination of
the listeners such as shrug of the shoulder or a
toss of the head
c) Emphatic gestures – which are used to stress or
reinforce an idea.
d) Locative gestures – point out persons, places or
things within the sight of the listeners or within
the imagination. Generally, the index finger is
used to point out small objects in a precise
manner; while the palm gesture is utilized for
large objects or areas.

(2) Facial Expressions – One important pointer which a

speaker must always remember is to make his facial
expressions consistent with his intent and message.

(3) Eye Contact – A speaker must look at individual

members of the audience straight in the eye. Listeners must
feel that the speakeris talking to each one of them
personally.
Eye contact is an important way of gauging
audience reactions to your speech.

(4) Posture – the way a speaker stands while delivering his

speech
c) Sign Language – consists of body movements that are used as
substitute for letters, words, numbers, phrases and even sentences.
d) Object Language (Objectics) refers to the intentional or
unintentional display of material things such as the clothes you wear,
hair style, the decoration of a room, jewelry
e) Tactile Language (Haptics) is communication by touch such as a
kiss or a tap on the back. It is the most elementary mode of
communication and the first an infant experiences.
f) Proxemics – stand for the way people communicate by their use of
space in relation to other people.
Components of Proxemics
1. Physical Arrangement – refers to the layout of the venue
where you will speak. It includes the seating arrangements or
the presence or the absence of a lectern.
2. Distance. It is the degree of separation between the
speaker and the audience. It relates how far the speaker is
from the audience.
 g) Time(Chronemics) A person’s observation of time reveals a lot of
his personality. Punctuality and tardiness talk louder than physical
characteristics.
h) Silence is the lack of audible sound, or the presence of sounds of
very low intensity. It can be best explained by the statement “What is
not said is as important as or even more important than what is said”.
Sometimes silence can communicate better than any words.

CAUSES OF MISUNDERSTANDINGS IN COMMUNICATION

1. Problems in developing the message
a) Indecision about the message content. When the
message has too much of information then the receiver can get confused,
b) Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver. The sender should
get all the necessary information and find out to whom the message is to be
sent.
c) Emotional conflicts. There are times when the message has to be
delivered that would cause emotional disturbance to the receiver. In such
case, without being defensive, the sender should state the message in a
manner that would avoid emotional conflict.
d) Difficulty in expressing ideas. One must possess sufficient knowledge of
language to express his ideas using appropriate words.
2. Problems in transmitting the message
a) When speaking, the sender may find that the acoustics in the place is
poor, or there may be no proper facilities for the audience to the hear the
speaker.
b) There are written messages that are difficult to understand because of
illegibility due to poor printing quality.
c) When more than one message is sent on the same subject there is a good
possibility of contradictions. In such a case, the receiver is uncertain and
interpretation may be confused.
d) When there are too many links in the communication line there could
be distortion of message.
3. Problems in receiving the message
a) Physical distruction. The receiver may have physical impairment
(difficulty of hearing, poor eye sight) that could cause hindrance in
understanding the message.
b) Lack of concentration. The receiver may not have enough capacity to
concentrate and may get his/her mind wander off the message-
4. Problems in understanding the message
a) different cultural background,
b) Different interpretation of words.
c) Difficult emotional reaction. When the message is not acceptable, then it
may give rise to negative feelings and the communication can
breakdown and not receive proper response.
F. ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Below are the elements of the communication process:
SENDER – a person, group, or organization who initiates the communication. The
sender may also be called the source, encoder, speaker, writer, or communicator.
MESSAGE – an element transmitted in communication consists of the idea, opinion,
information, feeling, or attitude of the sender.
CHANNEL – a pathway or medium through which the message travels to reach its
destination. It may be oral, written, visual. The channel may vary depending on the
characteristics of communication.
Oral – more effective when an immediate feedback is needed
Written – more effective when the message must be delivered to many
people
Visual/Electronic – used for distant communication
RECEIVER – a person who receives, analyzes, understands, and interprets the
message. The receiver can also be called the decoder, reader, or listener.
FEEDBACK – the receiver’s response that provides information to the sender. It is the
return process in which the receiver provides both verbal and non-verbal signals to
show whether the message is understood or not.
ADJUSTMENT – done if the message is distorted or is not clearly understood by the
receiver.
NOISE – a form of distortion, barrier, or obstacle that occurs in any of the phases of
oral communication process.

ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION
Essential issues to be aware of in any communication situations are:
1. Content refers to the information and experiences that are provided to the
receiver of the communication process
2. Process refers to the way the message is presented or delivered
3. Context refers to the situation or environment in which your message is
delivered.

G. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
These principles will help you to make your communication more informative and
will aid you to gain positive effects:
1. Principle of Clarity – the information or message should be coded or worded
clearly.
2. Principle of Attention – the receiver’s attention should be drawn to the message
to make the communication effective.
3. Principle of Feedback – there should be feedback information from the receiver to
know whether s/he understood the message in the same sense in which the sender
has meant it.
4.Principle of Informality – informal communication may prove effective in
situations when formal communication may not achieve its desired results
5.Principle of Consistency – consistency avoids conflict in an organization;
inconsistency leads to confusion
 6.Principle of Timeliness – communication should be done in real time so that it
helps, and it is relevant in implementing plans; delayed communication may not
serve any purpose
7.Principle of Adequacy – information should be complete; is essential to take
proper decisions and make action plans; inadequate information may delay action
and create confusion.
8. Principle of Courtesy It builds goodwill. It involves being polite in terms of
approach and manner of addressing an individual
9. Principle of Consideration - Contemplating audience’s view-points, background,
mind-set, education level for an effective communication.
10. Principle of Correctness States that there are no grammatical errors in
communication.
11. Concreteness Messages should be supported by facts. Abstract words must be
avoided.
12. Creativity in communication means having the ability to craft interesting
messages in terms of sentence structure and word choice.
13. Conciseness Avoid using lengthy expressions and words that may confuse the
recipient.
14. Cultural sensitivity
15. Captivating Strive to make messages interesting to command more attention
and better responses.

H. COMMUNICATION ETHICS
Ethics is defined as a code of moral standards of conduct for what is “good” and
“right” as opposed to what is “bad” and “wrong”.
Communication is ethical when it is utilized to enhance the way people interact with
one another to improve society’s moral life.

Ethical Standards of Communication

1. Truthfulness and honesty mean refraining from lying, cheating, stealing and
deception.
2. Integrity means maintaining a consistency of belief and action.
3. Fairness means achieving the right balance of interest without regard to one’s
own feelings and without showing favor to any side in a conflict.
4. Respect means showing regard or consideration for others and their ideas, even if
we don’t agree with them
5. Responsibility means being accountable for one’s actions and what one says.
 Chapter 2
COMMUNICATION & GLOBALIZATION

COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE - the ability to function in a truly communicative setting. It

is the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use
and adapt knowledge in various contexts. It is also the synthesis of an underlying system of
knowledge and skill needed for communication

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE deals with:

• knowledge.
• the ability to use
• the ability to adapt to various contexts

COMPETENCE - refers to the conscious and unconscious knowledge of an individual about

language and about other aspects of language use

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

1. GRAMMATICAL COMPETENCE - the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity
2. SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE - an understanding of the social context in which
communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of
the participants, and the communicative purpose of their interaction
3. DISCOURSE COMPETENCE - the ability to interpret individual message elements in
terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship
to the entire discourse
4. STRATEGIC COMPETENCE - the coping strategies that communicators employ to
initiate, terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication

FOUR DIMENSIONS OF GLOBAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

1. FOSTERING GLOBAL MINDSET - is a psychological process that represents patterns

of an individual or group thinking. It is a fixed mental attitude that leads people to
see things and events from a specific lens through perception and reasoning.
2. UNFOLDING THE SELF - the ability to look for shared communication symbols and
project the self into another person’s mind by thinking the same thoughts, feelings,
and emotions as the person.
Unfolding the self comprises the following components:
a. Ceaseless purifying
b. Continuous learning
c. Cultivate sentivity
d. Develop creativity
e. Foster empathy
3. MAPPING THE CULTURE - ability to contrast cultural differences that may
motivate us to prefer alternative styles of cultural expressions and engender in us a
desire to retool so that we can better function with the demands of global
environment and cope with the changing environment rapidly.
 4. ALIGNING THE INTERACTION - requires individuals to foster the ability of cultural
adroitness by which they can function effectively and appropriately without violating
their counterpart’s norms and rules to reach a global civic society.
Adroitness as an individual’s capacity is one of the basic needs of human
beings to interact and adjust effectively with other human fellows and the
environment.
Intercultural adroitness is composed of two components:
1. Effectiveness refers to the individual’s ability to select among a set of
communication behaviors to accomplish specific goals in the process of
global communication
2. Appropriateness refers to the ability of a person to meet the contextual
requirements in the global communication

Contexts of appropriateness in global communication

a) Verbal and non-verbal contexts
b) Relationship context
c) Environmental context

Demands of Intercultural Adroitness from the two perspectives:

a) from the people
1. Language ability 3. Behavioral flexibility
2. Interaction management 4. Identity maintenance
b) From the environment
1. Ability to manage changes or complexity of globalization

GLOBALIZATION - It is an unavoidable feature of modernity that promotes the development

and prevalence of digital technologies that make communication faster and information
more easily accessible
These are the key features of globalization:
1. The emergence of transnational communication conglomerates
2. The social impact of new technologies
3. The asymmetric flow of information and communication products
4. The variations and inequalities in terms of access to the global networks of
communication

MAJOR TRENDS IN GLOBALIZATION

1) technology development has made globalization inevitable and irrevercible
2) economic transformation has led to a new landscape of economic world

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON COMMUNICATION SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

Factors that can help you to select the most useful communication skills
development programs for yourself or your employees.
a) Virtual Interactions
b) Cultural Awareness in Speech
c) Cultural Awareness in Body Language
d) Time Differences
THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN THE GLOBALIZATION PROCESS
Essentially, the role of the media in the development of globalization involved at
least two stages:
1. the advent of television and the electronic media, while
2. the birth of the telematic networks and the Internet, whose rise ushered in the
age of the digital media.

Terminologies in the Globalizing Society

Chat room – an internet feature that allows people to communicate in real time with
strangers
Computer literacy – emerging form of literacy in the globalizing society. It is also termed as
internet literacy
Cyberspace – a general term for World Wide Web, the internet, electronic mailing lists,
discussion groups and forums, chat room, interactive multiplayer games and even email
Digital citizenship – the 21st century concept of citizenships oriented towards the creation
of conscious, critical forms of integration in the globalizing society..
Digital competence – it involves the confidence and critical use of Information Society
Technology (IST) for work, leisure, and communication. It is underpinned by basic skills in
ICT to retrieve, assess, store, produce, present and exchange information, and to
communicate and participate in collaborative networks through the Internet.
Digital immigrants – the adults who learn to adapt to their environment at the same time
they always retain, to some degree, their language
Digital natives – the voting people who are regarded as the native speaker of the digital
language of computers. It is also termed as net generation or new millennium learners.
Digital skills – it refers to the ability to evaluate a variety of technological solutions, more
than just knowing how to use a specific technology well.
Emoji – it pertains to the creation of a new alphabet (the alpha BIT): letters + numbers +
(emoticons) diacritical marks + emoji (picture words)
Emoticon – these are words without letters conveying emotional responses, such as smileys
Ethnoscape – it describes the global culture which extends to the landscape of persons who
form the shifting world where we live, that is, tourists, immigrants, refugees, or any moving
groups and individuals of fundamental feature of the world and appear to affect the politics
of (and between) nations to a hitherto unprecendented degree.
Hyperpersonal communication – it refers to computer-mediated communication that is
more socially desirable than face-to-face communicatiman.
Ideoscape – it is the movement of ideologies. It is usually composed ideas, terms, and
images including “freedom, welfare, rights, sovereignty, representation, and democracy.”
Mediascape – it pertains to the electronic and print media in “global cultural flows.”
Mediamorphosis – the transformation of communication media that is usually brought by
the complex interplay of perceived needs, competitive and political pressures, and social
and technological innovations
OMG – one of the first texting expressions (Oh my God!), another is BFF as in Best Friend
Forever. First sign that the Internet would change language
Selfie – an ego manical madness that gripped the world where a greater focus is given on
the individual
Streaming multimedia – it refers to a live audio and video available through a website
Technoscape – it refers to the movement of technology(mechanical and informational) and
the ability to move such technology at rapid speeds
Telematic network – it refers broadly to the convergence of telecommunications and
information processing. It includes the Internet, mobile communications and services, cloud
computing, intelligent transport systems, over-the-top content and machine-to-machine
applications.
Virtual community – it is a community that exists in the world of electronic communication
rather than in the physical world.
Virtual reality – the use of a computer to simulate an experience in a way that is obscure
from reality.
 CHAPTER 3
LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN
MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS

A. Difference between local communication and global communication

Local communication is being able to communicate with the members of your local
area.
Global communication is a function of system integration or interaction between
individuals away from each other in time or space or both.

B. THE ADVANTAGES OF LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

Advantages and disadvantages of Local Communication

1. Advantages of Local Communication
a. serves as an instrument
b. can easily understand one another
2. Disadvantages
Sensitivity
Cultural sensitivity is the state of being aware of the existence
of the cultural differences or similarities between each other without
considering any culture as a measure of something good or bad, positive or
negative.

The benefits of a global society include:

a) Makes the World a Smaller Place
b) Increases Business Opportunities
c) Improves Cultural Education

According to Gamble and Gamble, communication style among cultures differs; it may be
high-context or low-context communication.
High-context communication is a tradition-linked communication system which
adheres strongly to being indirect.
Low-context communication is a system that works on straightforward
communication.

PRINCIPLE OF COOPERATIVE CONVERSATION

Paul Grice, an English language philosopher formulated the principle of cooperation

that underlies conversation, as follows:

1. MAXIM OF RELATION - every interlocutor should be relevant in a conversation,

requiring them to respond based on cultural and contextual requirements.
2. MAXIM OF QUANTITY - every interlocutor should observe a “fair-share-talk of
time.”
3. MAXIM OF QUALITY - the truth value of a message should be held primary in a
conversation.
 4. MAXIM OF MANNER - the manner of saying a word is more regarded than its
content.

C. COMMUNICATING IN A MULTI-CULTURAL SETTING

What is multicultural setting?

Multicultural setting refers to the practice of giving equal attention to different
cultures in a particular setting.

What is multicultural communication?

The multicultural communication focuses on the dynamics of communication across
cultures.

1. Definition of Intercultural communication

Intercultural communication refers to the communication between people
from two different cultures. (Chen & Starosta, 1998)
2. Variations Of Intercultural Communication
a) Interracial communication is the interaction among people of different
nationalities.
b) Inter-ethnic communication is the interaction among people who have
different ethnic groups
c) International communication is the interaction between persons
representing different political structures.
d) Intra-cultural communication is the interaction that includes all forms of
communication among members of the same racial, ethnic, and
subculture groups.

3. Culture Influences Communication

Culture Defined
Culture can be considered as the system of knowledge, beliefs,
values, customs, attitudes, and utilitarian objects that are acquired, shared
and used by a specific portion of a population.

4. Manifestation of Culture
The differences in cultures of people are manifested in various ways as
follows:
• Symbols – words, gestures, clothes, acts or objects that carry a particular
meaning
• Heroes – are past or present, real or fictitious persons who are respected
and admired in a culture
• Rituals – are collection of activities such as religious and social ceremonies
• Values – consist of culture’s preference between right and wrong, good
and bad, likes and dislikes. They are interconnected with what is moral or
ethical standards of a culture.
5. Strategies of Interaction within a Culture
• Accommodation – denotes acquired modifications in the behavior which
help individuals to adjust to their new environment
• Acculturation – a process through which a person or group from one
culture comes to adopt the practices and values of another culture while still
retaining their own distinct culture
• Assimilation – the process whereby individuals or groups of different
ethnic heritage adopt the cultural norms of a dominant or host culture over
their original culture.
• Integration – the process occurs when individuals are able to adopt the
cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their
culture of origin.
• Separation – occurs when individuals reject the dominant or host-culture
in favor of preserving their culture of origin,
• Marginalization – occurs when individuals reject both their culture of origin
and the dominant host-culture where cultural exclusion is promoted.

6. Culture Influences Communication

The following concepts are a good guide in intercultural communication:
• Ethnocentrism is the tendency of a group of people to consider their
culture as superior to all other cultures.
• Cultural relativism is the acceptance that all cultures are equal in value
with one another despite their differences.
• Melting Pot philosophy pertains to the idea that different cultures will
blend together and create one ultimate culture.
• Pluralism refers to the acknowledgement of cultural relativism and
promotion of respect for uniqueness and forbearance of diversity of cultures.

7. Improving Intercultural Communication

• Pay attention to your words and actions.
• Control your assumptions.
• Engage in transpection. Transpection is the process of empathizing across
cultures.
• Gain knowledge
• Gain experience.

8. Intercultural Communication Tips

• Be Patient
• Establish Rules
• Ask Questions
• Respect
• The Written Word
• Time
• Humour
• Always Check
• Be Positive
• Self-Reflect
9. Nonverbal Forms in Intercultural Communication
Each provides an area where people doing business in other parts of the
world should understand the nonverbal communication differences between
cultures and how to prepare for them.
• Eye Contact
• Touch
• Gestures
• Physical Distance
• Facial Expressions
• Appearance
• Posture
• Paralanguage

10. Effective behavioral and cognitive competencies:

a. Self-awareness – involves being aware of different aspects of the self
including traits, behaviors, and feelings.
b. Appropriateness is the extent to which an utterance is perceived as
` suitable for a particular purpose and a particular audience in a particular
social context.
c. Self-confidence is an attitude about your skills and abilities.
d. Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result or the ability
to produce desired output.
e. Motivation for success. Motivation builds determination to achieve
something, and when you succeed, you feel happy with your results.
f. Changing perspective. Shifting your perspective can allow you to focus on
the good, elevate your mood and bring you to new creative solutions.
g. Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another.
h. Open-mindedness is the willingness to search actively for evidence
against one's favored beliefs, plans, or goals, and to weigh such evidence
fairly when it is available.
i. Communication ability
j. Tolerance is willingness to accept behavior and beliefs that are different
from your own, although you might not agree with or approve of them
k. Sensitivity is the awareness of the needs and emotions of others
l. Flexibility is willingness to change or compromise.

11. Cultural Barriers To Communication

a) Language
Language is considered as the most crucial barrier in cross- cultural
communication. The language barrier occurs not only because of differences in
language but also in the forms of a variety of dialects.

b) Stereotypes and Prejudices

 Stereotyping is the process of creating a picture of a whole culture,
overgeneralizing all people belonging to the same culture as
having similar characteristics and categorizing people accordingly.
c) Behavior and Beliefs
Culture also sets specific norms which dictate behavior. It explains what is
right and wrong. Every action is influenced by culture like ambitions, careers,
interests, values, etc. Beliefs are also another cause for cultural barrier.
d) Emotional display
Appropriate amount of emotion that must be displayed is also
different in different cultures. Roles are defined by culture. Good
communication only occurs between people with different cultures if
both accept their differences with open mind.

AMBIGUOUS EXPRESSIONS

Idioms and figurative clichés - This form of language uses words and
expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation. beat
the clock — to do something before the deadline do the dirty work—to do the
disagreeable, illegal, dishonest things
labor of love — a work that brings you great pleasure go with the
flow — to do what people do and accept things as they are bend the
law or bend the rules — to cheat a little bit without breaking the law
Slang - It is a shortcut or highly colloquial word that suggests
excessive informality and lack of appreciation in the workplace
setting gonna — going to wanna — want to
Cover your ass. — Protect yourself from possible
criticism. What you see is what you get. — There is
nothing hidden. Okay — all right

Acronym - It is formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a
word.
LAM — leave a message
IMO — in my opinion
AKA — also known as
 AWOL — absent without leave
ASAP — as soon as possible

Abbreviation - It is a short form of a lengthy expression.

Acct – account
recd – received
w/o – without
fwd – forward ad
– advertisement

Jargon - It is a type of language that is used in an occupation. Often, words

are meaningless outside a certain context. bang for the buck — a business
jargon for getting the most for your money helicopter view — an overview of a
job or a project desk job — a job that is typically confined to duties from a desk
end-user perspective — what the customer thinks about a product or service
cubicle farm — a section of the office that contains worker’s cubicles
 ` Chapter 4

VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE

There are many differences that can be noted between written and spoken language.
1. Spoken language is generally less formal than written language.
2. Spoken language tends to be less precise than written language.
3. Written language is often more articulate and sophisticated than spoken
language.
4. Spoken language can be more communicative than written language due to extra
cues such as body language and tone.

VARIETY

In sociolinguistics a variety, also called a lect, is a specific form of a language or language

cluster.
Dialects
Dialect, which refers to differences in syntax, morphology, and vocabulary as well as
pronunciation.
A variety spoken in a particular region is called a regional dialect;
some regional varieties are called:
topolects,
(The language or speech of a particular place, such as a country, region, village, or  valley,)
ethnolects dialect varieties associated with particular ethnic groups
sociolects), socioeconomic classes or other social or cultural groups.

Dialectology is the study of dialects and their geographic or social distribution.

Accent is used to refer only to differences in pronunciation, especially those that are
associated with geographic or social differences.

Definitions of different kinds of Language Varieties:

 Pidgin: A pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different
languages need to communicate but don't share a common language.

Creole: When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the
mother tongue of a community, it is called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct
language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but
has its own unique grammatical rules.

Regional dialect: A regional dialect is not a distinct language but a variety of a language
spoken in a particular area of a country.

Minority dialect: Sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group have their own
variety which they use as a marker of identity, usually alongside a standard variety. This is
called a minority dialect.
Indigenized variety: Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second languages in ex-
colonies with multilingual populations.

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

English is the most widely-spoken language in the world, having the distinct status of being
the official language of multiple countries. While the English language is uniform with major
variations in spelling present between American English and British English, the dialect or accent is
usually the factor that enables one to distinguish the various types of English.

AMERICAN ENGLISH
American English sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the
set of varieties of the English language native to the United States and widely adopted in Canada.

BRITISH ENGLISH
British English is the English language as spoken and written in the United
Kingdom or, more broadly, throughout the British Isles. Slight regional variations
exist in formal, written English in the United Kingdom.

AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH
Australian English is a major variety of the English language, used throughout
Australia. Although English has no official status in the constitution, Australian English is
the country’s national and de facto official language as it is the first language of the majority of
the population.

NEW ZEALAND ENGLISH Short form NZE. 

The English language as used in New Zealand, a country of the Southern Pacific and
a member of the COMMONWEALTH. English has been used in New Zealand for over 200
years.

BLACK VERNACULAR ENGLISH (BVE), OR colloquially Ebonics (a controversial term), is

the variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of English natively spoken by most working-
 and middle-class African Americans and some Black Canadians, particularly in urban
communities. 

SINGAPORE ENGLISH is the English language spoken in Singapore, of which there are two
main forms, Standard Singapore English and Singapore Colloquial English (better known
as Singlish).
The language consists of three sociolects; Acrolect, Mesolect, and Basilect. Both
Acrolect nd Mesolect are regarded as Standard Singapore English, while Basilect is considered
as Singlish.
Acrolect; there is no significant and consistent difference from the features of Standard
British English
Mesolect; it has some features distinct from SBE 
1. Question tenses in an indirect form; e.g. "May I ask where is the toilet?"
2. Indefinite article deletion (copula absence); e.g. "May I apply for car
licence?" (Instead of saying "a" car licence)
3. Lack of marking in verb forms (Regularisation); e.g. "He always go to the
shopping centre."
Basilect (Singlish);
 Generalised "is it" question tag; e.g. "You are coming today, Is it?"
Consistent copula deletion; e.g. "My handwriting no good, lah."
Use of particles like ah; lah, e.g. "Wait ah; Hurry lah, I need to go now!"

PHILIPPINE ENGLISH
Philippine English is any variety of English (similar and related to American
English) native to the Philippines, including those used by the media and the vast
majority of educated Filipinos. English is taught in schools as one of the two official
languages of the country, the other being Filipino (Tagalog).

LANGUAGE REGISTER

Language register is the level and style of your writing. It should be appropriate for the
situation you are in.

Let's look closely at the three most common language registers used in the English language.

FORMAL LANGUAGE REGISTER

Formal writing is probably the most difficult type of writing. It is impersonal, meaning it is
not written for a specific person and is written without emotion.
Some kinds of writing are always written in formal English.
Formal writing includes:
Business Letters
Letters of complaint
Some essays
Reports
Official speeches
Announcements
Professional emails

There are many rules for writing in formal writing. We will discuss some of the most common rules
here..

Rules of the formal language register:

1. Do not use contractions

2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred
3. Write in third person point of view
4. Avoid using too much passive voice
5. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés
6. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms
7. Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also
8. Always write in complete sentences.
9. Write longer, more complex sentences.

INFORMAL LANGUAGE REGISTER

Informal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and family. We use informal
writing when we are writing to someone we know very well.
Some kinds of writing can be written in an informal style.
NEUTRAL LANGUAGE REGISTER
We use the neutral language register with non-emotional topics and information.
Neutral writing is not necessarily formal or informal. It is not usually positive or negative. A
neutral register is used to deliver facts.
Some writings are written in a neutral register. This means they are not specifically formal or
informal.

JARGON
Jargon refers to the specialized language of a professional or occupational group. Such
language is often meaningless to outsiders.

BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE
Here are some general principles to follow when referring to different groups or categories:

1. Gender and Sexual Orientation

To be inclusive of all people in general references, one should favor gender-
neutral words and phrases over gender-biased words
Gender-biased examples: Each student should submit his term paper by Monday.
Restatement: Each student should submit a term paper by Monday.
Plural construction: Students should submit their term papers by Monday.
Use of “you” : You should submit your term paper by Monday.

2. Race and Ethnicity

Racism is a form of discrimination against a person or persons of different
race. In general, it is best to avoid identifying people by race or ethnic group.
a) Words that reinforce stereotypes and that imply all people of a
particular race or ethnic group care the same should be avoided.
b) One should be attuned to the current terminology by which racial and
ethnic groups refer t themselves.
c) It is also important to be sensitive to religion when referring to various
ethnic groups.

3. Age
Ageism is a form of discrimination against other people because of their age,
or assuming that older people are less physically, intellectually or emotionally able than other age
groups.

4. Disabilities
When referring to people with disability, the focus should be on the person, not
the condition.

USING SPECIFIC AND CONCRETE DICTION

Writing teachers often tell their students to "show--don't tell." To make your writing
effective, "show" something to readers that they can imaginatively experience; don't just "tell"
readers an abstract idea.
For example, the two sentences below, both conveying the same basic idea.
Abstract "Telling"
Even a large male gorilla, unaccustomed to tourists, is frightened by people.
   Concrete "Showing"
"A four-hundred-pound male [gorilla], unaccustomed to tourists, will bolt into
the forest, trailing a stream of diarrhea, at the mere sight of a person."
1) Abstract and Concrete Diction
Abstract Diction
Abstract diction refers to words that do not appeal imaginatively to the reader's senses.
Concrete Diction
Concrete diction refers to words that stimulate some kind of sensory response in the reader:
2) General and Specific Diction
General Diction
What do you imaginatively "see" when you read the following sentence: "The dog
jumped on top of the car"?
Specific Diction
Now, what do you imaginatively "see" what you read this sentence: "The
Saint Bernard jumped on top of the red corvette"?
3) Be Specific!
Specific diction will help ensure that the meaning you intend is exactly the meaning that
readers receive.
4) Use the Right Words, not the Almost-Right Words!
Some composition and writing experts argue that writers should write with verbs and nouns,
avoiding the use of adverbs and adjectives (those words that "modify," or change, verbs and nouns).
If you use the right verbs and nouns, there should be no need to modify them into something else.
USING SPECIFIC AND CONCRETE DICTION
Writing teachers often tell their students to "show--don't tell." To make your writing effective,
"show" something to readers that they can imaginatively experience; don't just "tell" readers an
abstract idea.
For example, the two sentences below, both conveying the same basic idea.
Abstract "Telling"
Even a large male gorilla, unaccustomed to tourists, is frightened by people.
   Concrete "Showing"
"A four-hundred-pound male [gorilla], unaccustomed to tourists, will bolt into
the forest, trailing a stream of diarrhea, at the mere sight of a person."

1) Abstract and Concrete Diction

Abstract Diction
Abstract diction refers to words that do not appeal imaginatively to the reader's senses.
Concrete Diction
Concrete diction refers to words that stimulate some kind of sensory response in
the reader:
2) General and Specific Diction
General Diction
What do you imaginatively "see" when you read the following sentence: "The dog
jumped on top of the car"?
Specific Diction
Now, what do you imaginatively "see" what you read this sentence: "The Saint Bernard
jumped on top of the red corvette"?
3) Be Specific!
Specific diction will help ensure that the meaning you intend is exactly the meaning that readers
receive.
4) Use the Right Words, not the Almost-Right Words!
Some composition and writing experts argue that writers should write with verbs and nouns,
avoiding the use of adverbs and adjectives (those words that "modify," or change, verbs and nouns). If
you use the right verbs and nouns, there should be no need to modify them into something else.