Python Basics For Beginners Programming Material

Python
&
Programming Material
Course: Python Programming Basics
(Duration: around 45 Hours)
For absolute beginners in Programming
Contents
1. What is Python and why is it important today
2. Introduction to Programming Using Raptor Tool
3. Introduction to Python Programming
4. Control Structures
5. String Handling
6. Arrays
7. Lists, Tuples, Dictionaries & Sets
8. Functions
9. Modules & “from” keyword
10. Command Line arguments
11. Object Oriented Programming Basics
12. Inheritance & Polymorphism
13. Exception Handling
14. File Handling
15. Turtle Graphics Programming
16. Regular Expressions in Python
17. Date & Time
18. Miscellaneous topics
Problem Solving Assignments
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 1
1
Contents
Chapter-1 (What is Python and why is it important today)
1. What is Python
2. Which companies are already using it
3. Why everyone is talking about it now
4. Different types of applications that can be created using Python
5. Features of Python
Chapter-2 (Introduction to Programming using Raptor Tool)

1. Introduction to Programming
2. What is Raptor
3. Download and Install Raptor Tool
4. Example1: Sum of two numbers
5. Example2: To check whether the given number is even number or odd number (conditions)
Chapter-3 (Introduction to Python Programming)

1. Why the name Python?
2. How to install Python
3. Program: To display welcome message on the screen
4. Program: Demo on Numbers and Arithmetic
5. Program: Demo on Exponential operator
6. Program: Comments and variables, sum of two numbers
7. Program: Taking input from the user
8. Program: Typecasting demo
9. Program: To use built-in mathematical function and to show all the built-in functions in python
10. To show help on any built-in function
11. Help mode
12. Demo on importing a module and using it, also covers giving alias names to built-in functions in
modules
13. Demo on how to save and run python files
14. How to run a Python program without opening the python shell every time we want to run the
program
15. Different ways of executing a Python Program
16. Built-in Datatypes in Python
17. Program: Demo on complex datatype
18. User-defined datatypes
19. Keywords/reserved words in Python
20. Operators in Python
21. Operator Precedence
22. Operator Associativity
23. Program: Demo on exponential operator - to prove its associativity
24. Some Assignments
Chapter-4 (Control Structures)

1. Introduction to Control Structures
2. Program: Demo on “if”
3. Program: Demo1 on “if” and “else”
4. Program: Demo2 on “if” and “else”
5. Program: Demo on “elif” and string comparision
6. Program: Demo on logical operators (“and” and “or”)
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 2
2
7. Program: Demo on boolean operators
8. Program: Demo on “is” operator
9. Program: Demo2 on “is” operator
10. Program: “for” loop demo
11. Program: “while” loop demo
12. Program: To print in the same line
13. Program: To display odd numbers from 1 to 10 using range()
14. Program: To display numbers from 10 to 1 in descending order
15. Program: Multiplication table
16. Program: Reversing an integer
17. Program: Finding whether a given number is an Armstrong number or not
18. Program: Nested Loops
19. Program: Multiple Multiplication tables using nested loops
20. Program: Finding factorial of a given number
21. Program: Finding whether a given number is a strong number or not
22. Program: Display Fibonacii Series
23. Program: Infinite Loop
24. Introduction to Jump Statements
25. Program: break statement
26. Program: continue statement
27. Program: Finding whether a given number is a Perfect number or not
28. Program: Finding whether a given number is a Prime number or not
29. Program: LCM of two numbers
30. Program: GCF of two numbers
31. Program: Pyramid Ex1
35. Program: Demo on pass statement
36. Program: “else” clause on loops
37. Program: assert statement Demo
Chapter-5 (String Handling)

1. Program: Strings demo1
2. Program: String Concatenation
3. Program: String Concatenation Ex2
4. Program: Printing formatted string using %
5. Program: Printing multiple values together using place holders and format()
6. Program: String indexing
7. Program: String library functions – demo
8. Program: Evaluating an expression entered from keyboard
9. Program: To nullify the effect of escape characters - demo
10. Program: Demo on accessing each element of a string in forward and reverse orders using while
loop
11. Program: Demo on String slicing
12. Program: Demo on Repeating the strings
13. Program: Demo on checking membership
14. Program: Demo1 on Comparing strings
15. Program: Demo2 on Comparing strings
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 3
3
16. Program: Demo on strip(), lstrip(), rstrip()
17. Program: Finding position of a sub string – Demo
18. Program: To display all positions of a substring – Demo
19. Program: Counting substrings in a string
20. Strings are Immutable
21. Program: Strings are Immutable – Demo1
22. Program: Strings are immutable – Demo2, also covers id()
23. Program: Demo on replace()
24. Program: Demo1 on splitting a string
25. Program: Demo2 on splitting a string
26. Program: Demo on joining the strings
27. Program: Demo on changing case of a string
28. Program: Demo on startswith() and endswith()
29. Program: Demo on testing the nature of characters in a String
30. Program: Demo on sorting of strings
Chapter-6 (Arrays)
1. What is an Array
2. Advantages of Arrays
3. Syntax of Creating an Array and Typecodes
4. Program: Importing “array” module in different ways and creating an integer array
5. Program: Creating floating type array
6. Program: Creating a character array
7. Program: Creating one array from another array
8. Program: Retrieve the elements of an array using array index
9. Slicing an array
10. Program: Demo on slicing an array
11. Program: Demo on using various methods of arrays class
12. Program: Reading a student’s marks in 5 subjects into an int array and find the average marks
13. Program: Generating Results sheet from students’ marks
14. Program: Bubble sorting of integer array
15. Program: Types of arrays
16. Some assignments
Chapter-7 (Lists, Tuples, Dictionaries & Sets)

1. Lists Introduction
2. Python Programming using Visual Studio Code Editor
3. Program: Lists demo1
4. Program: Lists demo2
5. Program: Lists demo3 - slicing
6. Program: Lists demo4 – slicing ex2
7. Program: Lists demo5– inserting, sorting, reversing, removing
8. Program: Lists demo6 – dealing with mapping collection
9. Program: Lists demo7 – nesting of lists
10. Program: List of Lists and “for” loop
11. Program: To convert the generated values using range() into a list
12. Program: Concatenation of two lists
13. Program: Repetition of lists
14. Program: Membership in Lists
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 4
4
15. Program: Aliasing of lists
16. Program: Cloning of lists
17. Program: Finding biggest and smallest elements in a list
18. Program: Count number of occurrences of an element in the list
19. Program: Demo1 on List comprehensions
22. Lists Vs Tuples
23. Program: Demo on Tuples
24. Program: Tuples – Demo2 – Tuple unpacking
25. Program: Demo on some basic operations of a Tuple
26. Program: To find the first occurrence of an element in a tuple, also covers converting list to tuple
27. Program: Demo on nested tuples
28. Program: To sort a tuple with nested tuples
29. Program: Inserting elements in a tuple
30. Program: Modifying elements in a tuple
31. Program: Deleting elements from a tuple
32. Program: Dictionary – ex1
33. Program: Dictionary – ex2 – List as a value
34. Program: Dictionary – ex3 – A Dictionary nested inside another Dictionary
35. Program: Dictionary – ex4 – finding length, adding & removing
36. Program: Create a dictionary with cricket players names and scores in a match, retrieve runs by
entering the player’s name
37. Program: Using for loop to retrieve elements of a dictionary
38. Program: Sorting the elements of a dictionary with Lambdas
39. Program: Converting Lists into Dictionary
40. Program: Demo on converting a string to dictionary
41. Program: Demo on ordered dictionary
42. Program: Sets Demo
43. Program: Demo on frozenset
44. Program: Finding common elements in two lists using sets – Ex1
45. Program: Finding common elements in two lists using sets – Ex2
Chapter-8 (Functions)
1. Introduction to creating user defined functions
2. Program: Demo on creating user defined functions
3. Program: Demo on creating a docstring in a function and referring to it while calling the function
4. Program: Returning multiple values from a function Demo1
5. Program: Returning multiple values from a function Demo2
6. Functions are also objects in Python
7. Program: Assigning a function to a variable
8. Program: Nesting of functions
9. Program: Passing function as parameter to another function
10. Program: Demo on returning a function from another function
11. Function call mechanisms in Python
12. Program: Passing an integer to a function and modifying it
13. Program: Passing a list to a function and modifying it – Demo1
14. Program: Passing a list to a function and modifying it – Demo2
15. Types of actual arguments
16. Program: Demo on positional arguments
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 5
5
17. Program: Demo on keyword arguments
18. Program: Demo1 on default arguments
19. Program: Demo2 on default arguments
20. Program: Demo1 on variable length arguments
24. Program: Demo on keyword variable length argument
25. Program: Demo on Local Vs Global variables
26. Program: Demo on Global keyword
27. Program: Demo on recursive functions Ex1
28. Program: Demo on recursive functions Ex2
29. Lambda Expressions in Python
30. Program: Lambda expressions Ex1
31. Program: Using Lambdas with filter() – Ex1
32. Program: Using Lambdas with filter() – Ex2
33. Program: Using Lambdas with map() – Ex1
34. Program: Using Lambdas with map() – Ex2
35. Program: Using Lambdas with reduce() – Ex1
36. Program: Using Lambdas with reduce() – Ex2
37. Program: reduce() with operator module functions
38. Program: Demo on accumulate()
39. Function Decorators
40. Program: Function Decorators – Ex1
41. Program: Function Decorators – Ex2
42. Special variable __name__
43. Program: Demo on special variable __name__
Chapter-9 (Modules & from keyword)

1. What is a module?
2. Creating and using Modules in Python
3. Modules Vs Packages
4. from keyword demo1
5. from keyword demo2
Chapter-10 (Command Line arguments)

1. Program: Passing two command line arguments and using them
2. Program: Passing any number of command line arguments and using them
Chapter-11 (OOP Basics using Python)

1. Introduction to OOP
2. Program: Demo on creating a class, some member functions, creating an instance and invoking
the member functions
3. Program: Constructor Ex1
4. Program: Constructor Ex2 – with default arguments
5. Program: Demo on private data members
6. Program: To print an object directly
7. Program: Instance variables/fields and static variables/fields demo
8. Types of methods in Python
9. Program: Class Methods Demo
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 6
6
10. Program: Static Methods Demo
11. Program: Inner classes demo
Chapter-12 (Inheritance and Polymorphism)

1. Program: Demo on Inheritance
2. Invoking the base class constructor
3. Types of Inheritance in Python
4. Program: Demo on Multiple Inheritance
5. Program: Demo on Multi-level Inheritance
6. Program: Demo on Hierarchical Inheritance
7. Program: Demo on Hybrid Inheritance
8. Polymorphism
9. Program: Polymorphism in Operators
10. Program: Polymorphism in built-in functions
11. Program: Polymorphism in user-defined methods
12. Program: Polymorphism with Inheritance
13. Program: Demo on NotImplementedError() – without using it
14. Program: Demo on NotImplementedError() – with using it (abstract methods in Java/C#.NET)
15. Operator Overloading in Python
16. Program: Demo1 on Operator Overloading – addition operator (+) on Python built-in types
17. Magic Methods in Python
18. Program: Demo2 on Operator Overloading - addition operator (+) on user-defined objects
19. Program: Demo3 on Operator Overloading – overloading (>) operator
20. Abstract methods and their need
21. Program: Demo1 on Abstract method and abstract class
22. Program: Demo2 on Abstract method and abstract class
Chapter-13 (Exception Handling)

1. Program: Exception Handling in Python - using try-except blocks
2. Program: Demo on try-except blocks
3. Program: To handle different types of exceptions in different ways
4. Program: Demo on finally block
5. Program: Demo on User-defined exceptions
Chapter-14 (File Handling)

1. Program: File Handling – reading lines from a text file
2. Program: File Handling – To know whether a file exists or not
3. Program: File Handing – writing
4. Program: File Handling - Writing a list of lines to a file at once
5. The File Opening Modes
6. Program: File Handling - to append data to an existing file and then displaying the entire file
7. Program: File Handling – usage of “with” keyword
8. Program: File Handling – To count number of lines, total words and number of words in each line
in a text file
9. Program: File Handling – Working with Binary Files – read and write images/audio files
10. Serialization and Deserialization
11. Program: File Handling – Serialization of an object in Python
12. Program: File Handling – Deserialization of an object in Python
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 7
7
13. Program: File Handling – Writing Records in Binary Mode
14. Program: File Handling – Reading Records in Binary Mode
15. Program: File Handling - Zipping files
16. Program: File Handling - UnZipping a file to extract its contents
17. Program: File Handling - To know the current working directory
18. Program: File Handling - To display all contents of the current directory and its sub-directories as
well
19. Program: File Handling - To create a sub directory
20. Program: File Handling - To remove a sub directory
Chapter-15 (Turtle Graphics Programming)

1. Introduction
2. Turtle Motion methods/functions
3. Pen Control methods
4. Turtle state methods
5. Event methods
6. Special Turtle methods
7. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen
8. Program: Creating a Canvas / Drawing window
9. Program: To move forward and backward
10. Program: To move right and left
11. Program: To draw a Square
12. Program: To draw a Rectangle
13. Program: Drawing a Circle
14. Program: To draw a semicircle
15. Program: Circle with steps (Hexagon)
16. Program: Drawing a Dot
17. Program: Changing the screen size and screen background color
18. Program: Adding image on the screen and setting screen title
19. Program: Changing pen size
20. Program: Fill color
21. Program: Drawing Polygons
22. Program: To draw a star
Chapter-16 (Regular Expressions in Python)

1. Introduction
2. Program: Regular Expression Ex1 - using compile(), search() & group()
3. Program: Regular Expression Ex2 - search()
4. Program: Regular Expression Ex3 – findall()
5. Program: Regular Expression Ex4 – match()
6. Program: Regular Expression Ex6 – split()
7. Program: Regular Expression Ex 7– sub()
8. Sequence Characters in Regular Expression
9. Program: Sequence Characters in Regular Expression – Ex1
15. Quantifiers in Regular Expression
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 8
8
16. Program: Quantifiers in Regular Expression – Ex1
20. Special Characters in Regular Expression
21. Program: Special Characters in Regular Expression – Ex1
26. Program: Using Regular Expressions on Files – Ex1
27. Program: Using Regular Expressions on Files – Ex2
28. Program: Using Regular Expressions to get data from a HTML table
Chapter-17 (Date & Time)

1. Program: The beginning of a time
2. Program: Finding current Date and Time
3. Program: Demo on now()
4. Program: Combining Date and Time
5. Formatting Date & Time – codes
6. Program: Demo on Formatting Date – ex1
7. Program: Demo on Formatting Date – ex2
8. Program: Formatting Time
9. Program: To accept a date from the keyboard and display the day of the week
10. Program: Finding difference between two dates
11. Program: Finding difference between two times
12. Program: To display the next 30 days
13. Program: Comparing two dates
14. Program: Sorting dates
15. Program: Delaying program’s execution
16. Program: Knowing program’s efficiency
17. Program: Using “calendar” module – Ex1
Chapter-18 (Miscellaneous topics)

1. Program: Demo on enumerate() to get both the indices and elements from a list
2. Program: Demo on generating random numbers
3. Program: Demo on Converting the first letter of a string to uppercase
4. Program: Demo on picking a random item from a list or tuple?
5. How is Memory Management done in Python
6. Namespaces in Python
7. Demo on Enclosing Scope
8. nonlocal keyword
9. Demo on Python Closures
10. Generators in Python
11. Program: Demo on generators
12. What is the difference between “return “ and “yield”
13. Program: Demo1 on Multiple Inheritance in Python
14. Program: Demo2 on Multiple Inheritance in Python – no ambiguity unlike in C++
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 9
9
DATAPRO COMPUTERS 10
10
Chapter-1: What is Python and why is it important today
Python is a general purpose mul paradigm ery

high le el programming language created by uido an
Rossum
11
ome Popular
created using
Python
12
13
11
14
12
ery
ery is o ering it at
Undergraduate le el itself
ery is asking for it
15
oom in
oom in
15
16
17
18
19
pplica ons console & UI using kinter t
ccessing like racle My L MongoD irebase
pplica ons using Django lask frameworks
using Pandas
eaborn
kicit learn
ensor ow Keras
Programming pyspark
MRI Images atellite Images nibabel
face recogni on 21
22
20
2
21
25
22
Chapter-2: Introduction to Programming using Raptor Tool
Introduction to Programming
Why should one write a Program/Code?
Ans: To create a software
23
Different Programming languages
C, C++, Java, C#.Net, Python etc.
Examples of Programs in different Programming languages
24
11
12
25
1
What is Raptor Tool
RAPTOR is a flowchart-based programming environment, designed specifically to help students visualize

their algorithms
Download and Install Raptor
Go to: https://raptor.martincarlisle.com/
26
27
Launch the Application
28
Example1: Sum of two numbers
Step1.
Step2. Save the file
29
tep Drag and drop “Input” symbol to accept a number
tep Now right click inside the input symbol (that has been dragged) and click “ dit”
Enter the prompt message and variable name
Note: The prompt message must be enclosed within double quotation marks
30
nd click “Done”
It changes to:
Step5. To accept another number:
31
It changes to:
32
Step6. Now we need assignment (sum of two numbers)
or that drag and drop the “assignment” symbol
lick “Done”
It changes to:
33
Step7. Now we have to display the output:
Drag and drop the “output” symbol
Right click inside it → Edit
Here we have to combine/join/concatenate the message and the ariable using the “+” sign
34
It changes to:
Step8. To execute the flow chart
35
Click again:
36
Click again:
Notice the stored value:
37
Click again:
Notice the 2nd value:
38
Click again:
Notice the result in the output variable
Click again:
39
Notice the output message on the console:
Click again:
Step9. Instead, if we click on the following icon, then click is required only once:
40
Step10. To increase figure size:
Example2: To check whether the given number is even number or odd number (conditions)
Step1. Create a new file

41
Drag and drop the “input” symbol and dit it
Step2.
Drag and drop the “selection” symbol
tep Right click inside the “Diamond” shape of the “selection” symbol and edit it
42
It appears as:
tep Now place the “output” symbol at both the ends
43
Step5. Now write respective output messages
44
Step6. Now run the program
If input is 24:
45
Step7. If input is 25:
46
47
Chapter-3: Introduction to Python Programming
Why the name Python?
No. It wasn't named after a dangerous snake. Rossum was fan of a comedy series from late seventies.
The name "Python" was adopted from the same series "Monty Python's Flying Circus".
Installing Python on your Destkop
Step1. Go to python.org:
tep2 lick “Downloads” button
It would be around 28MB
tep Double lick on the setup file and click “Run”
48
Initialization may take some time - around 5 minutes
49
Step4. Once the installation is over, we can find corresponding items in the start menu:
lick “IDL ”
We should see the python shell (IPython shell: Interactive Python Shell):
50
Program: To display a welcome message on the console
Note: When we press enter key after print() statement automatically the code gets executed.
Note: When the python interpreter finds there is something to be printed it prints immediately.
Note: This shell is also known as REPL (Read, Execute, Print & Loop)
Note: Notice that parentheses are required in python 3.5.2 whereas it is not required for example in
2.6.1
Note: we can even enclose the strings within single quotation marks.
Note: Python program runs directly from the source code.
Program: Demo on Numbers and Arithmetic (using Python shell as calculator)
Note: // is for integer division
Program: Demo on exponential operator
51
Program: Comments and variables, sum of two numbers
Note: fter printing the result also the alue persists Now if we gi e “a” or “b” or “c” it prints its
corresponding result.
Note: while defining a variable, assigning a value is must:
Program. Taking input from the user
52
Note: Underscores are allowed in a variable name.
Program: Typecasting demo
Program: To use built-in mathematical functions and to show all the built-in functions in python
53
To show help on any built-in function
Ex:
Help mode
54
Note: Type “q ” to get out of help mode.
Program: Demo on importing a module and using it, also covers giving alias names to built-in
functions in modules
Notice that we get list of available built-in functions in a module
55
Program: Demo on how to save and run python files
Note: Till now we are running the python code on the shell, we are not saving the code for later use.
Also recollect that we are unable to go to the previous line to edit the code
Step1. Click File menu → New File
Edit it and save it
Step2. To Run:
lick “Run” menu
Output:
56
How to run a Python program without opening the python shell every time we want to run the
program
Step1. 1st edit the previous program, just add the following at the end:
input("Press enter key to quit...")
…so that the user can iew the result
Step2. Go to the location where we have saved the file:
Double click the file icon
Different ways of executing a Python Program
There are three ways of executing a Python program:
• Using Python’s ommand Line window

• Using Python’s IDL graphics window
• Directly from System/Command prompt
57
Note: The 1st two are called interactive modes where we can type the program one line at a time and
the PVM executes it immediately. The 3rd one is called non-interactive mode where we ask the PVM to
execute our program after typing the entire program
: ’
Step1. To open
Step2. Now type the instructions
Note: type exit() to terminate the PVM and close the window
Method2: ’ E
Step1. To open
Step2. Now type the instructions
58
Note: Here we increase / decrease font size and change font style.
Note: Instead of executing line by line, we can 1st create a .py file by saying File → New File
Once the code is written completely, then Run → Run Module
Method3: Directly from System prompt
Note: This is similar to as we do it for a Java Program
Step1. Open some text editor like notepad and type the program
Step2. Save it
Step3. pen the perating ystem’s command prompt (In Windows – DOS prompt) and go to that
directory where the .py file is saved, then issue the command to run the program
59
Built-in Datatypes in Python
These are of five types
• None type
• Numeric types (int, float, complex)
• Boolean type (True, False)
• Sequences (str, list, tuple)
• Sets (for unique elements)
• Mappings/Dictionary (for key:value pairs)
None ype: represents an object that does not contain any alue In Ja a it is equi alent to “null”
One of the uses of “None” is that it is used inside a function body as a default alue of the arguments
Program: Demo on complex datatype
Note: complex number is a no that is written in the form of “a + bj”

Here “a” represents “real part” alue “b” represents “imaginary part” alue
User-defined datatypes
In Python, arrays, classes and modules are user-defined datatypes. We shall see how to create them in
the upcoming topics
Keywords/reserved words in Python
60
Operators in Python
You have seen operators in C, C++ and Java language, similarly Python also has got some operators.
One classification is based on number of operands an operator can have

Unary operators: if an operator acts on a single operand
Binary operators: if an operator acts on two operands
Ternary operators: if an operator acts on three operands
Another classification is based on their nature:
Arithmetic operators:
+, -, *, /, %, // (integer division), ** (exponential / power)
Relational operators:
<, >, <=, >=
Equality operators:
==, !=
Identity operators:
These operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are two identify
operators: is, is not
Logical operators:
Note: Remember that True indicates any non-zero value, whereas False indicates 0.
61
There are three logical operators in python: and, or, not
Operator Example Meaning

And x and y If “x” is alse it returns “x” otherwise it returns “y”
Or x or y If “x” is alse it returns “y” otherwise it returns “x”
Not not x If “x” is False, it returns True, otherwise returns False
Boolean operators:
boolean operators act upon “bool” type of literals and they pro ide bool type output here are
three boolean operators in python: and, or not
Assignment operators:
=, +=, -= etc
Unary operators:
Unary minus (-)
Bitwise operators:
~ itwise one’s compliment
<< left shift
>> right shift
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise XOR
Membership operators:
Note: It is useful to find whether an element exists in a collection or not. There are two
membership operators: in, not in
Operators Precedence/Priority/Hierarchy
Operator Description
() Parenthesis
** Exponentiation (raise to the power)
~, +, - itwise one’s omplement unary plus and minus
*, /, %, // Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division
+, - Addition and subtraction
>>, << Right and left bitwise shift
& Bitwise 'AND'
^, | Bitwise exclusive `OR' and regular `OR'
<=, <, >, >= Relational operators
==, != Equality operators
=, %=, /=, //=, -=, +=, *=, **= Assignment operators
Is, is not Identity operators
In, not in Membership operators
not, or, and Logical operators
Operator Associativity
62
Associativity is the order in which an expression is evaluated that has multiple operator of the same
precedence. Almost all the operators have left-to-right associativity.
But Exponent operator ** has right-to-left associativity in Python.
Program: Demo on exponential operator - to prove its associativity
Output:
63
Chapter-4: Control Structures
Introduction to Control Structures
Control Structures are used to control the flow of execution of the program.
These are of two types:

• Decision Control Structures
• Loop Control Structures
Decision Control Structures
Whenever we need to execute some code based on some conditions, then we use Decision Control
Structures.
Ex1: In the context of ATM center, withdraw amount only if the requested amount is <= balance amount
Ex2: In the context of filling an online form, if phone number is not entered then display the message:
“phone number is missing”
These are of three types:

• Uni-Directional Decision Control Structures
• Bi-Directional Decision Control Structures
• Multi-Directional Decision Control Structures
You will understand each one of them when you see the programs.
Loop Control Structures
Whene er we need to repeatedly execute a set of statements for “n” number of times then we use
Loop Control Structures.
Ex1: To display mini statement (say to display latest 10 transactions), the run the loop for 10 times.
Ex2: to display power bill payment history of 1 year, we run the loop for 12 times.
These are of two types:

• for loop
• while loop
Let’s begin with programs on Decision Control Structures.
: “ ”
Note: indentation is mandatory in the next line of “if”
Note: Parentheses are optional for the condition.
64
Output:
: “ ” “ ”
Note: indentation is mandatory in the next line of “if” and “else”
Note: indentation indicates block here if we don’t put indentation it assumes that the statement(s) are
not inside “if” or “else”
Output:
: “ ” “ ”
Output:
Program: Demo on elif and string comparision
65
Program: Demo on logical operators
(a)
Output:
(b)
Output:
(c)
66
Output:
Program: Demo on boolean operators
: ( “ ” operator)
Note: “is” is used to compare memory locations of two objects but not their contents
67
Note: to the object we ha e named “a” later to the same object we ha e named “b” So, the
same object 67 now has two names.
Program: Demo2 “ ”
Note: Even though the elements are same, for lists separate memory is created, so both “x” “ ”
have different ids which is unlike integers
Output:
Output:
Note: We shall see the usage of remaining operators as we progress…
Program: “for” loop demo
he “for” loops iterate over a given sequence of elements.
Ex1:
Note: range() generates numerical values between the min(including) and max(excluding) values
Output:
68
Ex2:
Output:
Program: “ ” loop demo
he “while” loops repeat as long as a certain boolean condition is met
Note: we can’t say a++ unlike in “ ” language
Output:
Note: print() automatically places the cursor in the next line
69
Program: To display odd numbers from 1 to 10 using range()
Output:
Program: To display numbers from 10 to 1 in descending order
Output:
Program: Multiplication table
Output:
70
Program: Reversing an integer
Output:
Program: Finding whether a given number is an Armstrong number or not
Output:
71
Program: Nested Loops
Output:
Program: Multiple Multiplication tables using nested loops
Output:
72
Program: Finding factorial of a given number
Output:
Program: Finding whether a given number is a strong number or not
Output:
73
Program: Display Fibonacci Series
Output:
Program: Infinite Loop
Note: Press Ctrl + C to terminate the execution
Introduction to Jump Statements
The Jump statements are used to alter the normal flow of a loop, like to terminate a loop
prematurely/when a certain condition is met, or to skip the next statements in a loop for a particular
iteration(s).
In Python, these are of two types:

• break
• continue
74
Program: break statement
Note: Whene er a “break” statement is encountered in a loop the control jumps out of the loop
Note: To find max among a set of numbers
Program: continue statement
Note: to print all numbers between 1 to 100 except the multiple of 9
Note: Whene er a “continue” statement is encountered in a loop the compiler interpreter skips the
execution of the remaining statements in the loop and continues with the next iteration.
Output:
75
Program: Finding whether a given number is a Perfect number or not
Output:
Program: Finding whether a given number is a Prime number or not
Output:
76
Program: LCM of two numbers
Output:
Program: GCF of two numbers
Output:
77
Program: Pyramid Ex1
To enter a number and generate the following pyramid shape:
Requirement:
Code:
Requirement:
Code:
78
To display stars in Right angled triangular form
Requirement:
Code:
Requirement:
Code:
79
Program: Demo on pass statement
Note: “ ” . It is used with “if” statement or inside a loop to

represent no operation. j ( ) “ ” .
Output:
Note: only semicolon is not allowed in place of “pass” line
:“ ”
Note: You can use the else statement in the for and while loops in Python. The else statement is
optional and executes if the loop iteration completes normally. If the loop is terminated with a break
statement, the else statement will not be executed.
Case1:
Output:
80
Now, you might be wondering what is the purpose! Just put the statement of “else” without using “else
Case2:
Output:
Notice that there is no difference in the output
Case3:
Now consider the example in which the code inside the else statement will not be executed
Note: The “else” clause of a loop does not get executed if the loop is terminated due to the execution of
a “break” statement inside the loop.
Output:
81
Case4:
Output:
Notice that now the output is different compared to that of Case3.
Program: assert statement Demo
An assert is a statement in Python which tests for a condition. If the condition is true, the program
continues normally and if the condition is false, the program is terminated and a user-defined error
message
Note: The assert statement is useful to check if a particular condition is fulfilled or not
To assert that the user enters a no. greater than zero:
Note: The Python interpreter checks if num> 0 is True or not. If it is True, then the next statements shall
be executed else it will display “ ssertion rror” along with the message “Wrong input entered”
Output:
82
Chapter-5: String Handling
Program: Strings demo1
Output:
Program: String Concatenation
Program: Strings concatenation Ex2
Note: tring and numeric types can’t be joined using “+”
Output:
Program: Printing formatted string using %
83
Note: without format specifier
Program: Printing multiple values together using place holders and format()
Another way:
Note: These names can be used any number of times in the placeholders
Note: There should not be any spaces within the braces.
Note: A better example to know its advantage:
Program: String indexing (String slicing)
Program: String library functions – demo
84
Note: Default Delimiter is space, try s.split(',') as well.
Note: The split() returns a list of strings.
Program: Evaluating an expression entered from keyboard
Output:
Program: To nullify the effect of escape characters - demo
Program: Demo on accessing each element of a string in forward and reverse orders using while loop
85
Output:
Program: Demo on String slicing
Note: s[-4:] means last four characters
Program: Demo on repeating the strings
86
Program: Demo on checking membership
Note: Here we use “in” and “not in” operators hey are useful in checking whether a string exits in
another larger string or not
Output:
Program: Demo1 on Comparing strings
Output:
Program: Demo2 on comparing strings
87
Output:
Program: Demo on strip(), lstrip(), rstrip()
Note: These functions are used to remove unnecessary whitespaces in the beginning and/or ending of a
string
Output:
Program: Finding position of a sub string – Demo
Output:
Note: if we use index() instead of find() index() returns “Value rror” exception when the sub string is
not found.
Program: To display all positions of a substring – Demo
Note: To accomplish this task, there is no library function, we have to write our own logic
88
Eg:
Akhil is studying at ANITS. Akhil has joined at datapro for Python course. Datapro is liked by Akhil. I have
seen Akhil at R K Beach.
Output:
Note: find() performs a case-sensitive search.
Program: Counting substrings in a string
Strings are Immutable
An immutable object is an object which cannot be changed. A mutable object is the one which can be
modified.
In Python:
numbers, strings and tuples are immutable
Lists, sets, dictionaries are mutable
Main reasons why strings are made immutable (in Python and Java too)
89
Efficiency: When an object is made mutable, it shall have fixed size in RAM. At string creation time itself
memory is allocated and it won’t change It increases the performance of the program
The dependents are not affected: Any attempts made to modify the contents of a string object will
create a new object in RAM, and the identity number of the new string object will be different.
Program: Strings are Immutable – Demo1
Program: Strings are immutable – Demo2, also covers id()
Program: Demo on replace()
90
Program: Demo1 on splitting a string
Note: split() is used to split a string into pieces and return the pieces as a list type.
Program: Demo2 on splitting a string
Program: Demo on joining the strings
Program: Demo on changing case of a string
Program: Demo on startswith() and endswith()
91
Program: Demo on testing the nature of characters in a String
Program: Demo on sorting of strings
Note: Notice that here the original list got sorted
For Reverse sorting:
s3 = sorted(s1, reverse=True)
(OR)
s1.sort(reverse=True)
Program: Demo on f-strings
92
: ’ x “” ’ .
93
Chapter-6: Arrays
What is an Array
An array is an object that stores a group of elements/values of same datatype. The main advantage of
an array is to store elements in a single variable and process them easily.
In Python there is a standard module – “array” that helps us to create and use arrays
Advantages of Arrays
• Arrays are similar to lists (we shall see them later), the main difference is that arrays can store
similar type of elements only whereas lists can store different types of elements.
• While dealing with a huge number of elements, arrays use less memory than lists and they offer
faster execution than lists.
• Unlike in C, C++, In Python arrays can increase or decrease their size dynamically. We need not
declare the size of the array in advance. As and when the elements are added it will increase its
size and when the elements are removed, it will automatically decrease its size in memory.
• here are a lot of methods (in “array” module) to process the elements in an array
Creating an array and Typecodes
Syntax:
arrayname = array(typecode, [the elements])
Typecode:
Typecode Description Size in bytes

‘b’ signed byte integer 1
‘ ’ unsigned byte integer 1
‘i’ signed integer 2
‘I’ (capital i) unsigned integer 2
‘l’ (small el) signed long integer 4
‘L’ unsigned long integer 4
‘f’ floating point 4
‘d’ double precision floating point 8
‘u’ unicode character 2
: “ ”
(a) Without any import
94
(b) import method1
Output:
(c) import method2
Note: Here the advantage is we could use shortname
(d) import method3
Note: Here the advantage is no need to prefix with the module name
(e) import method4
95
Note: Here the advantage is all classes/functions of array module can be used directly without any
prefixing
Note: o list the members of a particular module g: “math” module:
import math
dir(math)
for “array” module
import array
dir(array)
Program: Creating floating type array
Output:
To print 2 digit precision only:
96
Output:
Program: Creating character type array
Output:
Program: Creating one array from another array
Output:
97
Program: Retrieve the elements of an array using array index
Note: Here range(5) is equivalent to range(0, 5) which gives 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

0 is the default min value.
Output:
Slicing an array
A slice represents a piece of the whole. When we perform slicing operations on an array, we can retrieve
subgroup of elements. Indexing is useful in retrieving element by element from the array, whereas
slicing is useful in retrieving a range of elements.
Syntax:
arrayname[start:end:step]
Note: end value is excluding
Program: Demo on slicing an array
98
Output:
Also try:
Note: get the last 8 elements, then in the original array, upto index 4 (excluding)
Program: Demo on using various methods of array class
99
Output:
:R ’ j average marks
Method1:
Output:
100
Method2:
Note: Recollect that array processing is faster. If all the elements are of same type, then better put
them in an array.
Note: split( ) returns a list of strings
Output:
: R ’
101
Output:
Program: Demo on bubble sorting of integer array
102
Output:
Program: Types of arrays
These are of two types: Single dimensional arrays, multi-dimensional arrays
In standard Python, we can create and work with Single dimensional arrays only. Python does not
support multi-dimensional arrays directly. We can deal with them using third party packages like
numpy. We shall see it in Python Data Analysis topic
103
Chapter-7: Lists, Tuples, Dictionaries & Sets (Python built-in Data Structures)
Lists Introduction
A List is similar to an array that consists of a group of elements. The major difference is a list can store
different types of elements whereas an array can store same type of elements only. Hence lists are
more versatile than arrays, in fact list are the most used datatype in Python.
Python Programming using Visual Studio Code Editor
Step1.
Step2. Create a new folder where you want to save all your Python Programs
Eg:
104
Step3. Open Visual Studio Code Editor
Step4. Now create a Python file (first.py) in the current folder
105
Note: If the Python extensions are already installed, they will be loaded, otherwise install them when
suggested.
Step5. Install the Python Extensions
Step6. Edit the Program as follows:
106
Step7. To run the program
Output:
Note: Notice that the Visual Studio Code Editor internally uses the Python Installation Location to use
the python.exe file to run our Python file first.py
Program: Lists Demo1
107
Note: If we give a high index than the no. of elements, we get: IndexError: list index out of range
Output:
108
Program: Lists Demo2
Note: Remember that we get only the copy of the list (ages) but not its address.
Note: append() updates/adds new elements to the list
Note: use tab for auto-completion of code.
Output:
Program. Lists Demo3 - Slicing in python
Note: to get part of a list
109
It is like substring() in Java Strings
Output:
Program: Lists Demo4 – slicing Ex2
Output:
Program: Lists Demo5 – inserting, sorting, removing and reversing
110
Output:
Note: To remove elements via slicing:
del holidaySpots[0:10]
with step value: del holidaySpots[0:10:2]
Note: To remove all elements:
holidaySpots.clear()
Program: Lists demo6 – dealing with mapping collection
Mapping Collection
Ex: Seller Registration Form at OLX App
Keys values
sellername
village/area
mandal/town
District
State
Phonenumber
111
Output:
Note: len(maps) → gives no. of elements(key-value pairs) in the mapping collection

Items() → gives both key-value pairs
Note: If we say print(maps): all they key-values pairs would be printed

Note: if key is not found, it gives error
Note: clear() is valid to remove all elements in a list as well.
Program: Lists demo7 - Nested Lists
: “ ”
Output:
Note: to print() new output on same line:
112
Output:
Program: To convert the generated values using range() into a list
Program: Concatenation of two lists
Output:
Program: Repetition of lists
Output:
Program: Membership in Lists
Note: We can check whether an element is a member of a list or not using “in” and “not in” operators
113
Output:
Program: Aliasing of lists
Note: i ing a new name to an existing list is called “aliasing” he new name is called “alias” name
Output:
Program: Cloning of lists
Note: If the programmer wants two independent lists, then he/she should go for cloning/copying
instead of aliasing.
114
Output:
Program: Finding biggest and smallest elements in a list
Note: max() and min() can’t be applied for nested lists e en though they are of same type
Output:
Program: Count number of occurrences of an element in the list
Output:
Note:
Assume that it is a list of movie heroes voted by 100 students. We want to find out how many
times each hero name is repeated.
We can use a set type to store all the unique elements say: 10 hero names.
Then we can use count() inside a loop
Program: Demo1 on List comprehensions
115
Note: List comprehensions represent creation of new lists from an iterable object that satisfies a given
condition.
Without list comprehension:
Output:
With list comprehension
Note: List comprehensions contain very compact code usually a single statement.
Output:
Note: Get squares of integers from 1 to 20 and take only the even numbers from the result.
Output:
116
Note: convert each word into uppercase and store the resultant words into another list
Output:
Lists vs Tuples
Tuples are fixed size in nature whereas lists are dynamic.

In other words, a tuple is immutable whereas a list is mutable.
• You can't add elements to a tuple. Tuples have no append or extend method.
• You can't remove elements from a tuple. Tuples have no remove or pop method.
• tuples use parentheses, whereas lists use square brackets.
Program: Demo on Tuples
Note: Notice that we use parenthesis for tuples whereas we use square brackets for lists.
Output:
Program: Tuples – Ex2 – Tuple unpacking
117
Note: In the above two examples, all the tuples must contain same no. of elements.
Program: Demo on some basic operations of a Tuple
Output:
118
Program: To find the first occurrence of an element in a tuple, also covers converting list to tuple
Output:
Note: If not found, it gives ValueError exception.
Program: Demo on nested tuples
Note: It can represent details of a collection of employees (table in a database)
Output:
Program: To sort a tuple with nested tuples
119
Output:
Program: Inserting elements into a tuple
:R ’ . We have to follow 3 steps:
Step1. 1st of all copy the elements of “x” from 0th position to pos-1 position into “y”
Step2. Concatenate the new element to the new tuple “y”
Step3. Concatenate the remaining elements from pos-1 till the end of “x” to the new tuple “y” the
whole tuple can be stored again with the old name “x”
120
Note: A tuple can contain even a single element. Eg: t1 = (40,). Note that comma is required. Otherwise
it would be treated as in integer.
Output:
Note: If we convert a string to tuple, then it is split into individual characters, but not as a single string:
Solution: put it inside square brackets
Program: Modifying elements in a tuple
121
Output:
Program: Deleting elements from a tuple
Output:
Program: Dictionary Ex1
Note: Dictionaries are used to maintain data in the form of Key-Value pairs
Examples:
Key Value
101 Dennis Ritchie, C, 1972
102 James Gosling, Java, 1991
MyCart Python Programming Book, Lenovo Ideapad laptop, Running Shoe
9999999999 Missed call 5 times
Username mark
Videotime 300 seconds
Likes 100
Comments 20
122
Program: Dictionary Ex2 – List as a value
Program: Dictionary – ex3 – A Dictionary nested inside another Dictionary
Program: Dictionary – ex4 – finding length, adding & removing
Note: To modify/update a key, just assign a new value by mentioning its key.
Note: the last one is equivalent to appending a new key-value pair to the existing dictionary.
: ’ ;
’
123
Note: if we say players[name] and if the key is not found, then, we get error
Output:
Note: If keys are duplicated alue gets updated like in “Ja a”
Program: Using for loop to retrieve elements of a dictionary in different ways
124
Output:
Program: Sorting the elements of a dictionary with Lambdas
Output:
Program: Converting Lists into Dictionary
Note: When we have two lists, it is possible to convert them into a dictionary.
Output:
125
Note: If we have less no. of values than the no. of keys, then the keys which do not have corresponding
values would be ignored. i.e., if we add one more key in the above example without its pair in the 2 nd list
then the length of the dictionary would be still 4.
Program: Demo on converting a string to dictionary
Output:
Program: Demo on ordered dictionary
Note: Recollect that the elements of a dictionary are not stored in the given order. Sometimes it may be
a problem. Eg: We want to store employees details depending on their seniority or salary scale. Senior
most employees’ data should be at the beginning of the database.
An ordered dictionary is the one which will keep the order of the elements in the given order.
Note: Refer to Lists Demo-6. Notice that the key-value pairs and not stored in the given order.
126
Output:
Note: To concatenate two dictionaries
Program: Sets Demo
Note: A Set is a collection of unique elements
Converting a list into a Set
Program: Demo on fronzenset
Note: Similar to set, there is something called as frozenset. The main difference is that the elements of
a set datatype can be modified, whereas the elements of a fronzenset cannot be modified
127
Note: To add a single element, use the add() but not append()
Program: Finding common elements in two lists using sets – Ex1
Note: Sometimes it is useful to know which elements are repeated in two lists. Eg: there is a scholarship
exam for which a group of students enrolled in a college. There is another scholarship exam for which
another group of students got enrolled. Now we want to know the names of students who have
enrolled for both the scholarship exams so that we can restrict them to take only one exam.
Output:
Note: to concatenate two sets:

set3 = set1.union(set2)
Program: Finding common elements in two lists using sets – Ex2
128
Output:
129
Chapter-8: Functions
Introduction to creating user defined functions
What is a Function
A function is a set of instructions which performs a particular task within a program.
Types of Functions
1. Library functions
2. User-defined functions
Why should we create user-defined functions?
For code reusability
Program: Demo on creating user-defined functions
Program: Demo on creating a docstring in a function and referring to it while calling the function
Step1. Write the following script:
tep2 Now run it using “Run” Menu
130
In the Python prompt, invoke the function.
Step3. In the console:
Note: Notice that it shows the documentation of the function (docstring)
(or) we can even say help(mySquare)
Program: Returning multiple values from a function Demo1
Note: In “ ” “Ja a” etc., any function can return only one value directly. But in Python a function can
return more than one value at a time.
Note: The values are returned as a “tuple”
Output:
Note: If we receive multiple values into a single variable, then that variable would be a tuple. We can
use index to get each of the results or we can iterate the values using a for loop.
Program: Returning multiple values from a function Demo2
131
Output:
Functions are also objects in Python
It means:
• We can assign a function to a variable
• It is possible to define one function inside another function
• We can pass a function as an argument to another function
• It is possible that a function can return another function
We shall see examples on all of these in the upcoming topics
Program: Assigning a function to a variable
Ex1:
Output:
Ex2:
132
Program: Nesting of functions
Note: It is also known as inner functions
Output:
Program: Passing function as parameter to another function
Note: test without using parenthesis while passing the “question” function
print(wish(question)))
Output:
Program: Demo on returning a function from another function
133
Output:
Function call mechanisms in Python
In Java, C#.Net etc we have:

Call by value / Pass by value
Call by reference / Pass by reference
In call by value: a copy of the actual argument is passed to the called function and any modifications to
the formal arguments will not reflect the actual argument.
In call by reference: Here we send the reference/memory address of the actual argument to the called
function, the actual argument is modified by the called function through memory address
(dereferencing) and hence the modified value will reflect/change the actual argument.
Neither of these two concepts is applicable in Python. In Python:

• Integers, floats, strings and tuples are immutable – they behave alike
• Lists, sets and dictionaries are mutable – they behave alike
The following programs demonstrates the style of function call mechanisms in Python
Program: Passing an integer to a function and modifying it
Output:
134
Program: Passing a list to a function and modifying it – Demo1
Output:
Program: Passing a list to a function and modifying it – Demo2
Note: Here we shall demonstrate that a new object inside the function does not modify outside/original
object
Output:
Types of actual arguments
When we call a function we may pass data alues to that function hese alues are called as “actual
arguments” In Python these can be classified into 5 types:
• Positional arguments
• Keyword arguments
• Default arguments
• Variable length arguments
• keyword variable length argument
Program: Demo on positional arguments
Note: These are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional order. Here, the no. of
parameters and their positions in the function definition should match exactly with the no. and position
of the arguments in the function call.
135
Output:
Program: Demo on keyword arguments
Note: These are similar to named parameters in C#.Net
Note: These are very heavily used in Python Data Analytics and Visualizations/Charts
Note: Here we need not pass the arguments in the same order if we mention the correct parameter
name to which it should be passed to
Output:
Program: Demo1 on default arguments
Note: his is nothing but “ ” ++ “ ” #.
Note: These too are very heavily used in Python Data Analytics and Visualizations
Output:
Program: Demo2 on default arguments
136
Output:
Program: Demo1 on variable length arguments
Note: hese are represented in Ja a using elipses(…) and it # Net using “params” keyword
Note: the ariable length parameter is written with a “*” symbol before it in the function definition as:
def add(otherParameters, *args):
Output:
Program: Demo2 on variable length arguments
Output:
137
Note: The variable length argument parameter must be the last parameter the function definition.
“*”
Program: Demo3 on Variable length arguments
Output:
Note: We could have said: print("My name:" + name)

But could not have said: print("My courses:" + courses);
TypeError: Can't convert 'tuple' object to str implicitly
“*”
Program: Demo4 on Variable length arguments
Note: Passing collections into a variable length arguments parameter
Note: The *args is a tuple type of parameter
Output:
138
To get the output as per expectation – i.e., each element on a separate line:
Output:
Program: Demo on keyword variable length argument
Note: A keyword variable length argument is an argument that can accept any no. of values provided in
the format of keys and values. We can declare it with “**” symbols before the parameter name as:
def fun(otherParameters, **kwargs):
Note: “x” is dict type
Output:
139
: “**” -value pairs can be passed
Program: Demo on local Vs Global variables
Output:
Note: Here, only the access is allowed, modification is not allowed. To modify it we have to redeclare
it inside the “ ”
Program: Demo on globals()
Note: If global variable and local variable have same name, then the local variable has higher priority
inside the function o o erwrite the priority we can use the “globals()” function
Output:
140
Program: Demo on recursive functions Ex1
Note: If a function calls itself, then it is known as recursive function call.
Output:
Program: Demo on recursive functions Ex2
Output:
Lambda Expressions in Python
lambda operator or lambda function is used for creating small, one-time and anonymous function
objects in Python.
lambda operator can have any number of arguments, but it can have only one expression. It cannot
contain any statements and it returns a function object which can be assigned to any variable.
141
Note: They are used very heavily in Data Analytics
Program: Lambda Expressions – Ex1
Without Lambda Expression:
Output:
With Lambda Expression:
Note: Notice that the lambda expression has removed “ ” keyword, “ ” keyword and name of
the function. However, we have to use a new keyword: “lambda”
Output:
Note: If we check type of sum, it is a function.
print(type(sum))
Output:
Program: Using Lambdas with filter() – Ex1
142
Output:
Program: Using Lambdas with filter() – Ex2
Note: Here we are going to filter list of dictionaries
Output:
Program: Using Lambdas with map() – Ex1
143
Syntax:
Without Lambda Expression:
Output:
With Lambda Expression:
Note: the whole point of anonymous functions is: what is there in the name, all that matter is its
functionality.
Output:
Program: Using Lambdas with map() – Ex2
144
Note: Here, each i^th element of list_a and list_b will be passed as arguments to the lambda function.
Output:
Program: Using Lambdas with reduce() – Ex1
Note: The reduce() reduces a sequence of elements into a single value by processing the elements
according to a function supplied.
Note: First time, the first two values are received into the x and y respectively. Then onwards the
“x” .
Output:
If the above import is not working try importing the “reduce()” from the “functools” module
from functools import reduce
Program: Using Lambdas with reduce() – Ex2
145
Output:
Program: reduce() with operator module functions
Note: reduce() can also be combined with operator functions to achieve the similar functionality as with
lambda functions and makes the code more readable.
Output:
Program: Demo on accumulate()
Note: reduce() stores the intermediate result and only returns the final value. Whereas, accumulate()
returns a list containing the intermediate results.
Note: into the accumulator "x" the following values are stored. 1st 1 is stored, then 1+2 -> 3 is stored,
then 3+3 -> 6 is stored so on...
Output:
Program: Function Decorators – Ex1
146
Note: A decorator is a function that takes a function as its only parameter and returns a function. This
is helpful to “ ” .
Note: Common use cases of decorators: Timing, logging etc
Note: In this program, we shall measure the performance of two functions
Without Decorator
Output:
Note: The problem with the above code is: 2
ssume that we ha e 100’s of such functions where common code is present (as we ha e in this
example, both the functions have common code of getting time(start time & end time), calculating
difference and printing)
• So, there is lot of duplication

• It makes code unreadable due to unnecessary code
With Decorator
(It acts as a wrapper for your original function)
147
Note: When we call a function, which has a decorator, 1st the decorator function gets invoked, which in
turn invokes the function being decorated
Note: func.__name__ : gives the name of the function currently being executed.
Output:
Note: Decorator solves two issues:
• Code duplication
• Cluttering (filling with unnecessary code) main logic of a function with additional functionality
(i.e., timing in our example)
Program: Function Decorators – Ex2
Without decorator
148
Output:
With decorator
Output:
Special variable __name__
When a program is executed in Python, there is a special variable internally created by the name
‘ name ’ his ariable stores information regarding whether the program is executed as an
individual program or as a module.
When the program is executed directly the Python interpreter stores the alue ‘ main ’ into this
variable. When the program is imported as a module into another program, then the Python interpreter
stores that module’s name into this variable.
Program: Demo1 on special variable __name__
149
Output:
Program: Demo2 on special variable __name__
Step1. Create a file myModule1.py
Step2. Create another file program2.py (make sure that both the files are in the same location)
Step3. Run the file program2.py
Output:
Note: he imported module’s global code gets executed 1st and the functions are executed when they
are invoked from the main program.
150
Chapter-9: Modules & from keyword
What is a module?
Ans: A module represents a group of related classes, functions and variables. When a module is
developed it can be reused in any program that needs that module.
In Python, we have several built-in modules like sys, io, datetime, time, socket, threading, xml, json,
email, array, calendar etc. We can create our own modules as well, and these modules can be used by
other team members of the project or in other projects as well. So, modules make software
development faster.
Program: Modules in Python (creating and using them)
Step1. 1st create a file rajudiwalimodule1.py and save it some location, say: E:\team\fruit
Step2. Edit it as:
Step3. Now using the above function from another file – useModule1.py, this file can be saved
anywhere, say: D:\Raju\MyPythonPrgs\MyModulePrgs
Step4. Run this program:
Reason for error: because the imported file is not present in the current working directory
Solution1: Place the imported file in the current working directory
Is there a better solution?
Yes, there is a better solution:
Step5. Place it in the “ ” of the Python installation location:
C:\Users\bvraju\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python37\Lib
151
To know this location:
Is this the best solution?
No!
Step6. The best solution is put it a subfolder of “Lib”
Module Vs Package
A Module is simply a file containing Python code – classes, functions etc.

Eg: datetime, time, socket, threading, xml, json, email, array, calendar
They are usually present in: C:\Users\bvraju\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python37\Lib
A Package is a collection of related modules. Packages are installed.

eg: seaborn, scikit-learn, cx_Oracle, tweepy
They are usually installed in: C:\Users\bvraju\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python37\Lib\site-
packages
: “from”
Note: The from keyword is used for importing a specific variable, class, or a function from a
module/package.
Note: Here “sys” is the name of the module and “ ersion” is a predefined ariable in it
:“ ”
Step1. Create a python file – rajuModule2.py and edit it as:
tep2 Now let’s use the abo e module:
152
Method1:
Note: Here we must prefix with module name
Output:
Method2:
Note: Here we should not prefix with module name
Output:
Notice that myFun2() is not accessible as we have imported specifically myFun1() only
153
Chapter-10: Command Line arguments
What are command line arguments
These are the arguments that we pass to the program/main function from the command line/command
prompt.
Program: Passing two command line arguments and using them
Step1. Create a python file - cla1.py
Step2. Now run the program by passing two arguments
Note: The values are passed as list of strings
Program: Passing any number of command line arguments and using them
Step1.
154
Note: “args” would be a list type
Step2.
155
Chapter-11: OOP Basics using Python
Introduction to OOP
Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. It supports different programming approaches.

We have seen Procedural programming. We have functional programming. Now we shall see OOP as
well.
• OOP is very heavily used in GUI Programming

• OOP is very heavily used in Game Programming
• OOP is very heavily used in Big projects like Banking, E-Commerce, Medical
Def of OOP:
Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which can
contain data and code. A feature of objects is that an object's own procedures can access and often
modify the data fields of itself.
Note: OOP (Object Oriented Programming) is used to model real world things as objects
Ex.s: A Car, An Employee, A Student, A College, A Product etc.
Here each object has its own data and functionality instead of global data and global functions unlike
“ ” .
Eg: If you want to create a Sell and Buy Application
Ex1: Seller is a separate Entity

→with its own data: name, address, phonenumber etc
→with its own functionalities like: sellerregistration(), login() etc
Ex2: Product is a separate Entity

→data: productname, category, price etc
→functionalities: productRegistration, editProduct(), deleteProduct() etc
Ex3: Payment Gateway is a separate Entity

→data: sellerAccount, paymentMethod, amount etc
→functionalities: addToCart(), buy(), paymentSuccess() paymentFailure() etc
Program: Demo on creating a class, some member functions, creating an instance and invoking the
member functions
Step1.
156
Note: he ariables “firstName” and “lastName” are known as instance variables as every instance of
the Student class contains a separate copy of the instance variables.
Note: There is “ ” for creating objects/instances unlike in C++/Java/C#.NET
• A class is a template for an object.

• An object is a collection of specific data and shared functions.
Step2. Run the program
Output:
Note: the “self” is equi alent to “this” pointer reference used in ++ Ja a # Net It contains the
memory address of the current object.
Note: We can replace “self” with something else as well eg: “datapro”
Program: Constructor Ex1
• A constructor is used to initialize an object.

• It gets invoked as soon as an object of its class get created.
• The __init__() acts as a constructor in Python.
157
The __init__() method name has two underscores before and after his indicates that this method’s
name is internally defined and we cannot call this method explicitly.
Output:
Program: Constructor Ex2 - Default argument constructor
Program: Demo on private data / Encapsulation
Ex1: Without private data
158
Output:
Ex2: With Private data
Output:
Note: two underscores indicate private data

Note: The parameters names can be anything
Note: one underscore indicates protected data (we shall see its details in Inheritance topic)
Ex3: With setters and getters
159
Output:
Program: To print an object directly
Output:
Note: __str__() is a standard Python class method which returns a human-readable string for an object.
Note: It is equivalent to overriding toString() method in Java/C#.Net
Program: Instance variables/fields and static variables/fields demo
Note: In Python, the variables which we write inside a class are of two types:
• Instance variables and
• class/shared variables
160
Note: Till now we have been dealing with instance variables, in this example we shall deal with class
variables.
Note: unlike instance variables, class variables are the ones which have only a single copy for all the
instances of the class. All the instances share the same class variable.
With instance variable
Output:
With static variable
161
Output:
Note: static variable is like ’ j
Types of Methods in Python
In Python, methods can be classified as:

• Instance methods: Till now we have been using instance methods only. These are bound to
instances/objects (instancename.methodname()). Since instance variables are available in the
instance, instance methods need to know the memory address of the instance. This is provided
ia “self” ariable (“this” in ++ and Ja a) implicitly passed as 1st argument to the instance
method.
Note: getter/accessor methods are classified into instance methods category. Similarly
setter/mutator methods are also classified into instance methods category.
• Class methods: These methods act at class level. These methods are used to access the data
which is common to all the instances of a class. These methods are usually invoked via
162
classname.methodname(). You will understand it in the upcoming examples.
• Static methods: We need them when the processing is at the class level but we need not involve
the class or instances. You will understand it in the upcoming examples.
Program: Class Methods Demo
Output:
Program: Static Methods Demo
Note: To create a static method that calculates the square value of a given number
Output:
Note: A static method cannot modify/access either an instance variable or a class variable.
Program: Inner classes demo
Note: a class created inside another class is known as an inner/nested class. Inner classes can be used
when we want to subgroup the data of a class.
163
Output:
164
Chapter-12: Inheritance and Polymorphism
What is Inheritance
Inheritance is a mechanism of deriving new classes from existing ones.
Ex1: Deriving a Frame class

Ex2: Deriving an Activity class
Ex3: Deriving a Dialog class

Ex4: Deriving a Vehicle class while creating a Car class or a Bus class
So, it is the Reusability feature of OOP.
Program: Demo on Inheritance
Output:
Note: Like in Java and C#.Net, in Python too all classes are implicitly derived from “ j ” lass.
Program: Demo on method overriding
165
Output:
Note: In Python, there is no method overloading unlike in C++, Java and C#.Net because in Python we
don’t mention the datatypes explicitly for the function parameters.
Invoking the base class constructor
Output:
Types of Inheritance in Python
• Single Inheritance
166
• Multiple Inheritance
• Multilevel Inheritance
• Hierarchical Inheritance
• Hybrid Inheritance
Single Inheritance
Multiple Inheritance
Multilevel Inheritance
167
Hierarchical Inheritance
Hybrid Inheritance
168
Program: Demo on Multiple Inheritance
Output:
Program: Demo on Multi-level Inheritance
169
Output:
Program: Demo on Hierarchical Inheritance
Output:
Program: Demo on Hybrid Inheritance
170
Output:
Runtime Polymorphism
Runtime/Dynamic polymorphism (also known as late binding) is a process in which a call to an

overridden method is resolved at runtime that’s why it is called runtime polymorphism
It uses method overriding where even though the method name and parameters passed is similar, the
behavior is different based on the type of object
We may say: “Same interface – different Implementation”
Ex1: Bike gear lever
Ex2: Pen drives
171
Ex3: Printers
172
So, concept remains the same, how we implement/code it in Python - is different.
Polymorphism
Polymorphism is taken from the Greek words Poly (many) and morphism (forms). It means one thing
behaving in different forms.
Program: Polymorphism in Operators
173
Program: Polymorphism in built-in functions
Program: Polymorphism in user-defined methods
Output:
Program: Demo on Polymorphism and Inheritance
174
Another way:
Note: Here, the for loop iterates through a tuple of objects.
Output:
Program: Demo on NotImplementedError() – without using it
175
Output:
Note: Notice that if we don’t o erride the draw() in any of the subclasses the base class implementation
gets invoked.
Program: Demo on NotImplementedError() – with using it (abstract methods in Java/C#.NET)
Note: now it becomes mandatory to implement the draw() method in its subclasses.
176
Operator Overloading in Python
++ #. ( “ ” ). The
concept is same in Python too, however the way we implement it is completely different in Python.
Operator overloading is the concept of applying operators on other than primitive types / numerical
types. In other words: If any operator performs additional actions other than what it is meant for, it is
called as operator overloading.
Operator overloading is one form of polymorphism where an operator can perform different tasks.
Program: Demo1 on Operator Overloading – addition operator (+) on Python built-in types
Output:
Magic Methods in Python
Note: When we apply any operator on user-defined object, we have to provide some special methods
which get invoked automatically – known as magic methods
The following is the list of important operators and their corresponding internal methods that can be
overridden to act on user-defined objects:
177
Program: Demo2 on Operator Overloading - addition operator (+) on user-defined objects
Without magic method:
Output:
178
Note: Notice that the Python interpreter could not know what to do
With magic method:
Output:
Note: Remember that b1 + b2 gives an integer but not another book
Program: Demo3 on Operator Overloading – overloading (>) operator
Output:
Program: Abstract methods and their need
Let’s consider the following ex:
179
Output:
Note: In the above example, the requirements of all the 3 objects are same, i.e., to calculate square.
But sometimes the requirements of the objects will be different. E.g.: In the previous example if the 1st
object(obj1) wants to calculate square, the 2nd object (obj2) wants to calculate square root and the 3rd
object(obj3) wants to calculate cube. In such case how do we write the calculate() in MyMaths class?
One solution is write three different methods like calculateSquare(), calculateSquareRoot() and
calculateCube() in MyMaths class, then all the 3 methods are available for all the three objects which
is not necessary. A better solution is abstract methods
Program: Demo1 on Abstract methods and abstract classes
Note: An abstract method is a method whose action is redefined in the subclasses as per the
requirement of different subclass objects
Note: If a class has at least one abstract method, the class becomes abstract class
180
Output:
Program: Demo2 on Abstract methods and abstract classes
Note: Interface is like an abstract class, except that an interface contains only abstract methods whereas
an abstract class contains both abstract methods and concrete methods.
Note: In languages like Java and C#.Net, interfaces are created using interface keyword but in Python
an interface is created as an abstract class only. The interface concept is not explicitly available in
Python. I have mentioned it just for the sake of Java, C#.Net Programmers.
181
Output:
182
183
Chapter-13: Exception Handling
Introduction
What is Exception Handling
Exception Handling means Handling runtime errors. When an exception occurs, program gets
terminated abnormally. To avoid abnormal program termination, we have to handle the exceptions.
Examples of Exceptions:
• Dividing an integer with zero

• Reading from a file which is not available
• Writing to Database Server which is not yet started
• Converting a String to integer
etc.
These are not the mistakes in the program (by the Programmer), but the program/programmer should
anticipate the possible problems and handle them.
What should we do when an exception occurs (what are the available options?)
• Graceful exit (tell the user want went wrong and then stop the program)
• Skip and continue (skip the related code and continue execution of the program)
• Rectify and continue (rectify the problem and continue execution)
Note: One more advantage of Exception Handling is we have separate blocks which contains the
exception prone code, and separate blocks for handling the code, so maintenance becomes easier
Program: Exception Handling in Python - using try-except blocks
Output:
Case1: if input is 4 and 2:
184
Case2: if input is 4 and 0:
Note:
Just except: means any type of exception can be handled
Program: To handle different types of exceptions in different ways
Program: Demo on finally block
Note: It is similar to “finally” block in Ja a
Note: Recollect that the statements inside the finally block are executed irrespective of whether an
exception is raised or not. This ensures that all the opened resources like files / databases / sockets
connections are properly closed.
Without raise of an exception:
185
Output:
Verify:
With raise of an exception:
186
Output:
Program: Demo on User-defined exceptions
Note: The concept is similar to that of Java and C#.Net, main difference is instea “ ”
“ ”
Output:
187
188
Chapter-14: File Handling
What is File Handling
1. Storing the output of a program to a file on the hard disk.

2. Taking input for the program from a file on the hard disk.
Program: File Handling – reading lines from a text file
Note: By default, the open() function opens the file in read mode.
readlines() returns a list of strings/elements/lines
Output:
189
Program: File Handling – To know whether a file exists or not
Output:
If file doesn’t exist:
If file exits:
Program: File Handling - writing to a file
190
Step1.
: “ ”
Output:
Step2. Now open the file - pythondemo.txt (from the location: e:\team\fruit)
Program: File Handling - Writing a list of elements to a file at once
Note: All the elements would be written on a single line itself.
The File Opening Modes
File Open Mode Description

w (write) To write data into a file. If file already exists, it would be overwritten.
r (read) To read data from a file. As soon as the file is opened, the file pointer is
positioned at the beginning of the file.
a (append) To add data to the end of the existing content. The file pointer is placed at
the end of the file If the file doesn’t exist a new file gets created
w+ (write and read) To write and read data - both operations are allowed. If file already exists it
would be overwritten.
191
r+ (read and write) To read and write - both operations are allowed. The file pointer is placed at
the beginning of the file.
a+ (append and read) To append and read data. Here the file pointer would be positioned at the
end of the file if the file already exists; otherwise, a new file gets created.
x (exclusive) To open the file in exclusive creation mode. The file creation fails if the file
already exists.
Program: File Handling - to append data to an existing file and then displaying the entire file
tep1 Let’s consider the following file – courses.txt:
Step2. Write the following program to append some content to the above file
Note: seek() takes two arguments:

1st arg: offset (how many bytes to move)
2nd arg: fromwhere
Note: the 2nd arg. can be:

0: means seek relati e to the files’ start position
1: means seek relative to the current position
2: means seek relative to the file's end position.
Step4. Check the file – courses.txt
192
: “ ”
Note: he abo e “with” statement will automatically close the file after the nested block of code.
Output:
Program: File Handling – To count number of lines, total words and number of words in each line in a
text file
Output:
If input is:
193
Output:
Program: File Handling – Working with Binary Files – read and write images/audio files
Serialization and DeSerialization in Python
Serialization is the process of converting a data structure or object state into a format that can be
stored (for example, in a file or memory buffer, or transmitted across a network connection link) and
get/retrieved later in the same or another computer environment.
This process of serializing an object is also called deflating or marshalling an object.
The opposite operation, extracting a data structure from a series of bytes, is deserialization (which is
also called inflating or unmarshalling).
So essentially storing an object to a file (or sending it to a network) is called Serialization and retrieving
it back is called Deserialization.
In Python this process is called as pickling an object and unpickling an object.
194
In Python, we use the pickle module to accomplish it.
Eg: pickle.dump(object, file)
Program: File Handling - Serializing an object in Python
Step1. Write the following program
Note: It’s better to put the “ tudent” class inside some user-defined module. So that it can be reused in
both Serialization and De-Serialization programs
Output:
Step3. Take a look at the file student.obj
Note: ’ .
Note: We can notice that only text data is readable. Also notice that it contains not only data but also
the field names and class name. This information is required during the De-Serialization process.
Program: File Handling De-Serializing an object in Python
195
Note: This class name and these field names must exactly match with that of the previous example.
Output:
Program: File Handling – Writing Records in Binary Mode
Note: create a user-defined module – StudentClassFile.py which contain the Student class as created in
the earlier programs. We are going to use this module in the following two programs.
Output:
196
Program: File Handling – Reading Records in Binary Mode
Output:
Program: File Handling - Zipping files
Step1.
197
Note: ZIP_DEFLATED: The numeric constant for the usual ZIP compression method. No other
compression methods are currently supported.
:“ ” directory
Output:
Note: Now delete the original folder – CSSFiles, as we are going to get it back via extraction/unzipping
Program: File Handling - UnZipping a file to extract its contents
Step1.
Step3. Verify:
198
Program: File Handling - To know the current working directory
Output:
Program: File Handling - To display all contents of the current directory and its sub-directories as well
Note: If we replace dirpath, dirnames, filenames with single variable, entire information is stored in it.
But if we replace dirpath, dirnames, filenames with two variables then error.
Output:
199
Program: File Handling - To create a sub directory
Output:
Verify:
Note: If any of the directories already exists, we get an error:
Program: File Handling - To remove a directory
200
Note: If the directory is not empty:
Note: To remove a non-empty directory:
Output:
201
Chapter-15: Turtle Graphics Programming
Introduction
“ ” is a pre-installed Python library that enables users to create pictures and shapes by providing them with
a virtual canvas. The onscreen pen that you use for drawing is called the turtle and this is what gives the library
its name.
The turtle Library is primarily designed to introduce children to the world of programming. With the help of
Turtle's library, new programmers can get an idea of how we can do programming with Python in a fun and
interactive way.
Turtle Motion methods/functions
Move and draw
Setting and Measurement
202
Pen Control methods
Drawing State
Color control
Filling
More drawing control
Turtle state methods
Visibility
Appearance
203
Event methods
Special Turtle methods
Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen
Window control
Animation control
Using screen events
204
Settings and special methods
Input methods
Methods specific to screen
205
Program: Creating a Canvas / Drawing window
Step1.
(OR)
Step2. Run the Program
Program: To move forward and backward
Step1.
206
(OR)
207
208
Program: To move right and left
Step1.
209
Program: To draw a Square
Step1.
210
Method2:
Step1.
211
Program: To draw a Rectangle
Step1.
212
Program: Drawing a Circle
Step1.
213
Program: To draw a semicircle
Step1.
Program: Circle with steps (Hexagon)
Step1.
214
Program: Drawing a Dot
Step1.
Step2.
Program: Changing the screen size and screen background color
Step1.
215
Note: Notice the horizontal and vertical scrollbars
Program: Adding image on the screen and setting screen title
Step1. Place an image (parrot1.gif) in the current working directory
Step2.
216
Program: Changing pen size
Step1.
217
Program: Fill color
Step1.
218
Program: To draw Polygons
Note: angle = 360 / sides
Step1.
219
Hexagon:
Only change is:
numberOfSides = 6 #Hexagon
Octagon:
Only change is:
numberOfSides = 8 #Octagon
220
Program: To draw a star
Step1.
Step2.
221
222
Chapter-16: Regular Expressions in Python
Introduction
A Regular Expression is a string that contains special symbols and characters to find and extract the
information needed by us from the given data/string. A Regular Expression helps us to:
Search & find some information
A Regular Expression is also called simply “ x”.
Python provides “ ” that stands for Regular Expression. This module contains methods like:
compile(), search(), match(), findall(), split() etc which are used in finding the information in the data.
Program: Regular Expression Ex1 - using compile(), search() & group()
Output:
Note: Notice that search() gives the 1st occurrence value only
#print("result: ", result) #returns a "Match" type

#print("type of result:", type(result))
Program: Regular Expression Ex2 - search()
Note: Without using the compile()

223
Output:
Program: Regular Expression Ex3 – findall()
Note: findall() returns all resultant strings as a list
Output:
Program: Regular Expression Ex4 – match()
Note: match() returns the resultant string only if it found at the beginning of the string
Output:
224
Program: Regular Expression Ex5 – split()
Note: split(), splits the given string into pieces/tokens according to the regular expression and returns
the tokens as a list.
Output:
Program: Regular Expression Ex6– sub()
Note: sub() is used to find a string and replace it with a new string
Output:
225
Sequence Characters in Regular Expression
Character Description
\d Represents any digit (0-9)
\D Represents any non-digit
\s Represents white space (\n, \t, \r, \f, space, tab
space)
\S Represents non-white space character
\w Represents any alphanumeric character
\W Represents non-alphanumeric
\b Represents a space or special symbol around
words
\A Matches only at start of the string
\Z Matches only at end of the string
Note: Let’s consider the R : [\w]*
“*”
[\w]* represents 0 or more alphanumeric characters
Program: Sequence Characters in Regular Expression – Ex1
Requirement: o retrie e all words starting with “a” in the given string
Output:
Note: Notice that we got all words not only starting with “a” but also words which ha e “a” in the
middle of any word
Solution:
226
Output:
Requirement: To retrieve all words enclosed within single quotes in the given string
Output:
Requirement: to retrieve all words starting with a digit
227
Output:
Requirement: To retrieve all words having 5 characters length
Output:
Requirement: To retrieve all words having at least 4 characters length
Output:
228
Requirement: o retrie e the last word of a string if it starts with “t”
Output:
Note: o retrie e the first word of a string if it starts with “o”
'\Ao[\w]*'
Quantifiers in Regular Expression
Note: In RE, some characters represent more than one character to be matched in the string. Such
characters are called quantifiers.
g: “+” represents 1 or more repetitions of the preceding character
+ 1 or more repetitions of the preceding RE
* 0 or more repetitions of the preceding RE
? 0 or 1 repetitions of the preceding RE
{m} xactly “m” occurrences
{m, n} rom “m” to “n”
“m” defaults to “0”
whereas “n” defaults to “infinity”
Program: Quantifiers in Regular Expression – Ex1
Requirement: to retrieve the phone number of a person
229
Output:
Exactly 10 digits only:
Requirement: To retrieve details except phone number
Output:
Note: result1 would be: ['Sachin Tendulkar, ', ', Mumbai']
Requirement: to find all words starting with “raj” or “rak”
230
Output:
Requirement: to retrieve date of births from a string
Output:
Special Characters in Regular Expression
\ Escape special character nature
. Matches any character except new line
^ Matches beginning of a string
$ Matches end of a string
[…] Denotes a set of possible characters
[^…] Opposite to the above
(…) Matches the RE inside the parentheses and the
result can be captured
R|S Matches either R “R” or R “ ”
Program: Special Characters in Regular Expression – Ex1
Requirement: to check whether a string starts with “He”
231
Output:
Note:
Requirement: o check whether a string ends with “jpg” or “jpeg”
Output:
Note: There is no operator for “and” the solution is:
Requirement: Whether the strings starts with “He” and ends with “er”
232
Note: he result would be “None” or a “Match”
Requirement: using “I N R ”
Output:
Requirement: o retrie e students’ marks and their names separately from a gi en string
Output:
233
Program: Using Regular Expressions on Files – Ex1
Note: We can use RE not only on individual strings, but also on files where huge data is available.
Requirement: read all email-ids from a text file
Let’s consider the following text file:
The Program:
Output:
234
Program: Using Regular Expressions on Files – Ex2
Let’s consider the following text file:
Requirement: to retrieve only employee ids and their corresponding salaries data
Output:
Program: Using Regular Expressions to get data from a HTML table
Let’s consider the following H ML file:
235
Requirement: To retrieve employees names and corresponding salaries from the HTML file
Output:
236
Chapter-17: Date & Time
Program: The beginning of a time
Note: he “epoch” is the point where the time starts. For Unix based system, the epoch is 00 hours of
January 1st 1970
Output:
Note: shortcut way:
Output:
237
Program: Finding current Date and Time
Output:
Note: Notice that we have not mentioned the epoch time
Program: Demo on now()
Output:
Program: Combining Date and Time
Note: we can create “datetime” class object by combining date class object and time class objects using
combine()
Output:
238
Formatting Date & Time – codes
Note: Examples are based on the date: 2013, 9, 30 and time: 7, 6, 5
Code Meaning Example
%a Weekday as locale’s abbreviated name. Mon
%A Weekday as locale’s full name. Monday
%w Weekday as a decimal number, where 0 is Sunday and 6 is Saturday. 1
%d Day of the month as a zero-padded decimal number. 30
%-d Day of the month as a decimal number. (Platform specific) 30
%b Month as locale’s abbreviated name. Sep
%B Month as locale’s full name. September
%m Month as a zero-padded decimal number. 09
%-m Month as a decimal number. (Platform specific) 9
%y Year without century as a zero-padded decimal number(year with last 2 13

digits).
%Y Year with century as a decimal number(4 digits year). 2013
%H Hour (24-hour clock) as a zero-padded decimal number. 07
%-H Hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number. (Platform specific) 7
%I Hour (12-hour clock) as a zero-padded decimal number. 07
%-I Hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number. (Platform specific) 7
%p Locale’s equivalent of either AM or PM. AM
%M Minute as a zero-padded decimal number. 06
%-M Minute as a decimal number. (Platform specific) 6
%S Second as a zero-padded decimal number. 05
%-S Second as a decimal number. (Platform specific) 5
%f Microsecond as a decimal number, zero-padded on the left. 000000
%z UTC offset in the form +HHMM or -HHMM (empty string if the the object
is naive).
%Z Time zone name (empty string if the object is naive).
%j Day of the year as a zero-padded decimal number. 273
%-j Day of the year as a decimal number. (Platform specific) 273
239
Code Meaning Example
%U Week number of the year (Sunday as the first day of the week) as a zero 39
padded decimal number. All days in a new year preceding the first
Sunday are considered to be in week 0.
%W Week number of the year (Monday as the first day of the week) as a 39
decimal number. All days in a new year preceding the first Monday are
considered to be in week 0.
%c Locale’s appropriate date and time representation. Mon Sep 30

07:06:05 2013
%x Locale’s appropriate date representation. 09/30/13
%X Locale’s appropriate time representation. 07:06:05
%% A literal '%' character. %
Program: Demo on Formatting Date – ex1
Output:
Program: Demo on Formatting Date – ex2
Output:
240
Program: Formatting Time
sOutput:
Program: To accept a date from the keyboard and display the day of the week
Output:
Program: Finding difference between two dates
241
Output:
Program: Finding difference between two times
Note: Here we shall use “datetime()”
Output:
Program: To display the next 30 days
242
Output:
Program: Comparing two dates
243
Output:
Program: Sorting dates
Note: we shall store a group of dates into a list and then apply list’s sort() method
Output:
Program: ’ x
244
Output:
ame as that of pre ious programs’ output only difference is each line would be displayed with 5
seconds delay
Note: To delay in milliseconds, give the value in fractions
Eg: sleep(0.1) for 1/10th of a sec

sleep(0.001) for 1/1000th of a sec
:K ’
Note: Many ID ’s like Net eans ID for Ja a programming ndroid tudio ID for ndroid pp
Development shows the amount of time it took for the completion of execution of the program, Let’s
see how the calculations are made
Note: Python pro ides two functions: perf counter() and process time() of “time” module to measure
the time difference between two points in a program.
perf_counter(): It includes the time elapsed during sleep of the processor.

_ (): ’ .
245
Output:
Note: replace perf_counter() with process_time(), then output:
: “ ” – Ex1
Requirement: find whether a given year is leap year
Output:
: “ ” – Ex2
Requirement: display calendar of given month of the year
246
Output:
: “ ” – Ex3
Requirement: To display a calendar for all the months of an entire year
Output:
247
248
Chapter-18: Miscellaneous topics
Program: Demo on enumerate() to get both the indices and elements from a list
Program: Demo on generating random numbers
Program: Demo on picking a random item from a list or tuple?
How is Memory Management done in Python
Ans:
1. In Python, everything is an object – even integers and strings – look at the proof
2. All data is stored on Heap memory (also known as Pri ate Heap pace) (unlike in “ ” Language)
3. All function calls and local variables are stored in Stack memory
Whenever there is no reference variable to any object in heap memory, it would be garbage collected or
marked for garbage collection.
Output:
249
→ o if we do assignment then multiple ariables point to the same memory location (unlike in “ ”
Language)
→So, notice that if values are same, then multiple variables point to the same memory location.
Output
Modification:
250
Output:
Note: Recall that integers are immutable.
Function call stack:
Garbage Collector
251
Namespaces in Python
Note: It is different from namespaces concept in C++ and C#.Net
It defines the scope of variables.
The Rule is LEGB (Priority wise least to highest):
• Local
• Enclosed (variables declared in outer functions can be accessed inside their inner functions)
(they are neither local variables nor global variables)
• Global
• Built-in (predefined variable names of Python like __name__, __file__)
To know which variables and function names are present in the current scope
252
Demo on using __file__ built-in variable name
Step1. Create a python file – namespace1.py
Output:
Note: The LEGB Rule applies when variables in two different scopes have same names.
Demo on Enclosing Scope
253
Output:
nonlocal keyword
tep1 Write the following program (without “nonlocal” keyword)
Note:
If we want to modify a non-local variable inside a nested function, then it must be declared with
nonlocal keyword
Step3. Edit it as follows
254
Step4. Re-Run the Program
Output:
Demo on Python Closures
Note: Recall that A function defined inside another function is known as a nested/inner function and
inner functions can access variables of the enclosing scope i.e. variables of their outer functions.
A closure is basically a nested function which has access to a variable of its enclosing function that has
finished its execution - these are very heavily used in decorators concept.
255
Step2. Run it
Output:
Step3. Edit the program
Step4. Re-run it
Output
Requirements for creating closures in Python
• There must be a nested function.

• The nested function must refer to a variable defined in its enclosing function.
• The enclosing function must return the nested/inner function.
Generators in Python
256
A generator is a function that returns an iterable object which can be used to iterate/loop over the
elements, one at a time.
(OR)
A Python generator is a function that produces a sequence of results. It works by maintaining its local
state (values in its variables), so that when the function is resumed exactly where it left off, when called
subsequent times.
Creating Generators in Python
Note: If a function contains at least one yield statement, it becomes a generator function.
Program: Demo on generators
ype of the ariable “gen” : generator
Output:
Note:
Even after returning a value to us, “” x the

function is called and then increases its value by one. So, the next time this function is invoked, it will
pick up right where it has left off.
“ “ “ ”
Both “return” and “yield” will return some value from a function.
The difference is:

A “return” statement terminates a function entirely where as a “yield” statement pauses the function
saving all its states and later continues from there - on successive invocations.
257
Note:
Q: Is Multiple Inheritance available in Python
Ans: Yes, it is possible
Program: Demo1 on Multiple Inheritance in Python
Program: Demo2 on Mutiple Inheritance in Python – no ambiguity unlike in C++
Output:
o in oke ase2’s fun():
Base2.fun(d)
258

Python Basics For Beginners Programming Material

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Python Basics For Beginners Programming Material

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Python

For absolute beginners in Programming

Problem Solving Assignments

Chapter-2 (Introduction to Programming using Raptor Tool)

Chapter-3 (Introduction to Python Programming)

Chapter-4 (Control Structures)

Chapter-5 (String Handling)

Chapter-7 (Lists, Tuples, Dictionaries & Sets)

Chapter-9 (Modules & from keyword)

Chapter-10 (Command Line arguments)

Chapter-11 (OOP Basics using Python)

Chapter-12 (Inheritance and Polymorphism)

Chapter-13 (Exception Handling)

Chapter-14 (File Handling)

Chapter-15 (Turtle Graphics Programming)

Chapter-16 (Regular Expressions in Python)

Chapter-17 (Date & Time)

Chapter-18 (Miscellaneous topics)

Python is a general purpose mul paradigm ery

Why should one write a Program/Code?

Ans: To create a software

C, C++, Java, C#.Net, Python etc.

Examples of Programs in different Programming languages

What is Raptor Tool

RAPTOR is a flowchart-based programming environment, designed specifically to help students visualize

Download and Install Raptor

Step2. Save the file

Enter the prompt message and variable name

Step5. To accept another number:

or that drag and drop the “assignment” symbol

Drag and drop the “output” symbol

Right click inside it → Edit

Step8. To execute the flow chart

Notice the stored value:

Notice the 2nd value:

Notice the result in the output variable

Step1. Create a new file

Drag and drop the “selection” symbol

tep Now place the “output” symbol at both the ends

Why the name Python?

Installing Python on your Destkop

tep2 lick “Downloads” button

It would be around 28MB

tep Double lick on the setup file and click “Run”

Note: Python program runs directly from the source code.

Program: Demo on Numbers and Arithmetic (using Python shell as calculator)

Note: // is for integer division

Program: Demo on exponential operator

Note: while defining a variable, assigning a value is must:

Program. Taking input from the user

Program: Typecasting demo

Notice that we get list of available built-in functions in a module

Step1. Click File menu → New File

Edit it and save it

lick “Run” menu

input("Press enter key to quit...")

…so that the user can iew the result

Step2. Go to the location where we have saved the file:

Double click the file icon

Different ways of executing a Python Program

There are three ways of executing a Python program:

• Using Python’s ommand Line window

Step2. Now type the instructions