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A Review on Protection of Concrete for Sewage

Installations and an Accelerated Test on Protection
Systems
a a b b
Chau Ka Shing , C M Lawrence Wu , James W J Chen , Chan Siu Yuen & Ricky Y C
b
Tsui
a
Department of Physics and Materials Science , City University of Hong Kong
b
Arup , the HKSAR , China
Published online: 09 Apr 2013.

To cite this article: Chau Ka Shing , C M Lawrence Wu , James W J Chen , Chan Siu Yuen & Ricky Y C Tsui (2012) A Review
on Protection of Concrete for Sewage Installations and an Accelerated Test on Protection Systems, HKIE Transactions,
19:3, 8-16

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 TRANSACTIONS PAPER The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers Transactions, Vol 19, No 3, pp8-16
Paper T0844-201104; Received 18 May 2011; Accepted 30 December 2011

A Review on Protection of Concrete for

Sewage Installations and an Accelerated Test
on Protection Systems
Biogenic sulfuric acid (BSA) attack against concrete structures has been reported for many years. CHAU Ka Shing
This particular attack has been causing severe damages to structures with closed environments Department of Physics and Materials
­Science, City University of Hong Kong
such as covered sedimentation tanks in sewage treatment plants. It is believed that BSA attack is
the major cause of sewage concrete structure degradation. In order to inhibit the attack caused C M Lawrence WU
by BSA, numerous protective methods had been attempted. Measures such as epoxy coating, Department of Physics and Materials
acidic inhibitors, admixtures were explored. Some accelerated tests were established to evaluate ­Science, City University of Hong Kong
such attacks. In this paper, some commonly used testing techniques and methods are reviewed.
James W J CHEN
The test results from an accelerated laboratory test established for this study on various concrete
Arup, the HKSAR, China
protection systems are presented and an in-situ test plan on coated concrete samples at a sewage
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treatment plant in Hong Kong is also outlined. CHAN Siu Yuen

Arup, the HKSAR, China
Keywords: Biogenic Sulfuric Acid, Concrete Protection System, Coating, Admixture,
Lining, Sewage Ricky Y C TSUI
Arup, the HKSAR, China

Introduction space in sewer. Numerous bacteria can be found at the surface of sewage
headspace, such as the family of thiobacilli (sulfur oxidising bacteria).
It has been observed that concrete structures in sewage environment These bacteria will convert sulfur in H2S into sulfuric acid, which is the
can be subjected to severe biogenic sulfuric acid (BSA) attack. BSA main product that accounts for the corrosion of concrete (Hvitved-Ja et
attack is a form of concrete corrosion that has been studied since 1945 al., 2002; Borenstein, 1994).
(Parker, 1945). Since then, it has been regarded as a worldwide issue
The sulfuric acid will first react with calcium hydroxide in concrete and
(Islander et al., 1991; Sand et al., 1987). A lot of efforts have been spent
gypsum will be formed. It is known that an increase in volume will occur
on investigating the corrosion process (Mori et al., 1992; Nielsen et al.,
during the formation of gypsum. The gypsum formed will then react
1998). It was discovered that, in the corrosion process, certain kinds of
with calcium aluminate hydrate to form ettringite (De Belie et al., 2004),
bacteria (mostly thiobacilli or related bacteria) could turn sulfur-containing
and will result in further volume expansion in concrete. Consequently,
chemicals into sulfuric acid in sewage environment. The resulting sulfuric
there will be an increase in internal pressure and deterioration in the
acid will react with certain chemicals in the concrete matrix and form
concrete matrix will be caused (Hvitved-Ja et al., 2002; Borenstein, 1994).
other side products. Associated with the formation of these products,
a volume larger than the original concrete compound may occur, thus It is noted that some of the above deterioration has been observed in
resulting in concrete damage. Hong Kong’s sewage facilities. For example, at positions above sewage
level at which the above-mentioned H2S gas had been trapped in the
As the deterioration of concrete in sewage environment is undesirable,
sewer free space, local concrete corrosion was observed.
protective measures are needed. One of the proper measures is the
use of concrete protective system against reactive substances such as
BSA. As the nature of reactive substances may depend on local sewage
Possible Solutions Attempted
conditions, and that a number of suppliers have claimed the suitability
Although it is known that some bacteria are accounted for sulfate-reducing
of the protective systems to Hong Kong, it is important to find out which
and acid production in sewage systems, it is extremely difficult to inhibit
protective systems can provide adequate corrosion resistance to concrete
the growth of such bacteria. Therefore, most researches focused on
under the sewage environment in Hong Kong. With this in mind, a
how to prevent the damages caused by sulfuric acid attack. Numerous
research project has been carried out to study the effectiveness of such
protective measures have been tested (Monteny et al., 2000). The most
commercially available protection systems. This paper first provides a
commonly used systems are discussed as follows.
review of available concrete protection systems against BSA, followed
by the initial findings from laboratory trials. Lining Systems

Formation of BSA
The sewage environment provides a very unique condition for bacteria
growth and chemical reactions. Different kinds of bacteria will convert
certain chemicals into some aggressive ones such as sulfuric acid due
to the sufficient supply of nutrients.
The formation of sulfuric acid can be considered as a 3-step sulfur
cycle. In a closed and anaerobic environment, such as sewage pipes
with slow sewage flow, nutrients would be supplied to bacteria in good
time (Monteny et al., 2000). With this, the sulfate-reducing bacteria
would reduce sulfate-containing chemicals in waste water and then into
hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Some of the H2S gas may escape into the free
In general, lining systems have excellent performance within their service
life. One of the most commonly used lining materials is polymer. They
provide physical barriers to concrete walls. The polymer lining will attach
onto the surface tightly and prevent the chemicals from penetrating into
the concrete matrix.
However, the lining systems have a few drawbacks. The voids and uneven
surface of concrete walls make it very difficult for the lining to attach
tightly onto the walls. Once a small crack is induced, it will become an
entrance for sewage to be in direct contact with concrete, thus providing
the possibility of generating the acidic environment due to the presence
of bacteria. Sometimes, even if the polymer lining still appears to be
in good condition, the concrete matrix underneath may have already

8
THE HKIE TRANSACTIONS • Volume 19 Number 3
 suffered from severe damage. Finally, the polymer lining will peel off of cement or inert aggregates with lower CaO content (De Belie et al.,
and may be washed away by the sewage current. The peeled off lining 2004; Guadalupe et al., 2010). It was found that the increase of alkalinity
may lead to pipeline blockage. might reduce the corrosion caused by sulfuric acid in the short term.

Surface Coating Systems Splash Zones & Flow Rate

As shown in Table 1, there are a few coating systems available in Hong
Kong.
In general, polyurethane, epoxy-based (Vipulananda et al., 2005), cement-
based coating, etc, are the most frequently used and tested materials
(Kaempfer, 1995; Kaempfer et al., 1998; Monteny et al., 2001; Vincke
et al., 2002). Different types of coating will provide different types
of protection. Polymer-based coatings attaching onto the surface of
concrete walls basically form physical barriers and prevent chemicals
from penetrating inside.
Admixtures
While understanding that corrosion of concrete in sewage environment
is basically due to BSA attack, some researchers have been trying to
improve the properties of concrete itself to provide resistance against
BSA attack. For instance, the additions of blast furnace slag, micro silica,
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Splash zones are basically the areas just above the tide line or water level
of running water. They are regularly splashed, but not submerged by
water. The existence of splash zone is one of the most important factors
in biogenic corrosion. Samples immersed in stationary waste water suffer
less serious damage from BSA attack. However, samples immersed in
running sewage with sewage splashing suffer severe damage from BSA
attack (Guadalupe et al., 2010).
Areas without any flow (eg storage tank) do not suffer much from BSA
attack as there is no splash zone at all. Areas with low waste water flow
rate will provide splash zones. Coupled with the splash zone effect, the
slow flow will also give the nutrient sufficient time to be supplied to the
bacteria for converting H2S to sulfuric acid (Monteny et al., 2000). On the
other hand, the main damage of areas with high flow rate, if any, will
be from deterioration due to the sewage current. Therefore, the ideal
locations for BSA attack are closed areas with slow waste water flow

alumina, etc, are believed to inhibit BSA corrosion attack (Monteny et al.,
2001; Vincke et al., 1999; Muynck et al., 2009). Some of the admixtures
simply change the alkalinity of concrete. The manufacturers of some
admixtures claim that their products have the ability to prevent the sulfate-
reducing bacteria from growing. However, some of the admixtures added
will also change the mechanical properties of the concrete matrix, and
may limit the choice of raw materials. Table 2 shows some admixtures
available in Hong Kong.
Factors Affecting Corrosion Rate
Alkalinity of Concrete
It is known that the variation in alkalinity of concrete would affect the
corrosion rate. In order to investigate the relationship between alkalinity
and corrosion rate, tests were carried out using different types of
admixtures or cement and water/cement ratio of concrete. Since alkalinity
is based on cement/aggregate contents and the soluble CaO released
from them, it is possible to vary alkalinity by choosing different types
(Monteny et al., 2001). At areas above the splash zone, there is a group
of microorganisms called Neutrophilic Sulfur Oxidising Microorganisms
(NSOM) existing above the sewage flow. Such microorganisms will
produce elemental sulfur and polythionic acids that will further lower
the pH value of the concrete surface with the help of reduced sulfur
compounds emitted from the sewage (Guadalupe et al., 2010).
Closed area
The headspaces of closed areas always suffer from the most serious
damage from BSA attack. This is because the H2S gas is trapped in these
areas and the bacteria on the surface of the headspaces will convert the
gas into sulfuric acid. The acid generated will have direct contact with
the exposed area (Hvitved-Ja et al., 2002; Borensteinal, 1994).
Accelerated Laboratory Tests
The effect of BSA attack may take at least 1-2 years to reflect. It may
therefore be desirable to obtain experimental results using accelerated

Product Coating A Coating B Coating C Coating D Coating E

Acidic Resistance Weak & Strong Acids Aggressive Chemical pH 0 to pH 8 pH 3.5 to pH 14 98% Sulfuric Acid
Resisting
Characteristics Cement-based Polymer-based Mineral-based Polymer Polymer-based Epoxy-based
Silicate
Application Areas Acid Proof and Surface Substrate Exposed to Concrete Components in Concrete Components in Sewage Treatment
Treatments Corrosion Wastewater Industry Wastewater Industry Plants
Remarks Resistant to Chloride, – Emphasis on Strong – –
Pressurised Water Acid Resistance, Good
Adhesion on Concrete

Table 1 – Examples of Commercially Available Surface Coating Products

Product Name Admixture A Admixture B Admixture C

Characteristics Calcium Nitrate (Corrosion Inhibitor) Silicone Quaternary Ammonium Salt Aliphatic Propylene Glycol Ethers

Corrosion Resisting Yes Yes (H2S) –

Application Areas Steel-reinforced, Post Tensioned and
Prestressed Concrete Portland Cements
Remarks Inhibits the Chlorides Corrosion, May be
Used to Maintain Workability in Low w/c
Ratio Concrete
Concrete Pipe, Manholes, etc, in
Municipal Sewer Environments
For the Prevention of Microbiologically
Induced Corrosion (MIC) in Sanitary
Sewers
Steel-reinforced, Post Tensioned and
Prestressed Concrete Portland Cements
–

Table 2 – Some Admixture Products Available in the Market

9
THE HKIE TRANSACTIONS • Volume 19 Number 3
 simulation tests. One way to perform accelerated testing is to maintain
a very low pH value of acid solution (Monteny et al., 2000). Since the
pH value of BSA may not be highly acidic at all time, it is reasonable
that immersing concrete samples in very low pH sulfuric acid can speed
up the chemical effects. The second way is to increase the temperature
(Hüttl et al., 2001). BSA attack is basically a series of chemical reactions.
The increase in solution temperature can definitely accelerate the attacks.
The final way is cyclic acid attack (De Belie et al., 2002).
Different cyclic attacks, for instance, cycles of spraying, wetting and
dipping had been carried out. One of the tests involved spraying of
sulfuric acid directly onto the concrete samples, with and without
protective layers coated. Cycles of spraying simulate the splashing of BSA
in actual environment. The spraying was done in different cycles and
the samples were heated for drying for hours (which can be considered
as part of another cycling). Such a test could provide different cycling
conditions and allow the samples to dry completely (Hüttl et al., 2009).
Another test involved flywheels with a number of concrete samples
attached onto them. The flywheel was set to rotate at a constant speed.
With one third of the flywheel immersed in the solution, the rotating
flywheels served as wetting and drying cycles for the concrete samples
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on them. Sulfuric acid solutions, sewer and artificial sewer (chemical
solutions with bacteria) were used in such tests (Muynck et al., 2009;
Belie et al., 2002).
There were also other experiments such as using concrete pipes as pilot
tests (Vipulananda et al., 2005). In order to speed up the process, the
researchers pumped sewage and hydrogen sulfide gas directly into the
concrete pipes. They did not aim to look for a solution to inhibit the
effect of BSA attack. Instead, the experiments gave some brief ideas
on how the simulation tests for BSA attack could be accelerated and
the mechanism of sulfuric acid attack could be observed (Vollertsen et
al., 2008).
Drawbacks of Laboratory Tests
Although laboratory tests have the advantages such as consuming less
space and the ability of acceleration, they suffer from several shortcomings.
In order to simulate the acidic environment in sewage treatment plants,
sulfuric acid is used directly in most cases to provide a convenient, low
pH environment for the concrete samples. In some situations, even when
the performance of those protective measures were satisfactory when
tested in the laboratory, the same protective system performed badly
and failed much quicker than expected in actual sewage conditions.
Application Methods and
Coating Material
Layers Applied
I Polyurea Spraying; Multi-layers
II Polyurea Spraying; Multi-layers
III Epoxy-based By Hand; Two Layers
IV Epoxy-based By Hand; Two Layers
V Epoxy-based By Hand; Two Layers
VI Epoxy-based By Hand; Three Layers
VII Epoxy-based By Hand; Two Layers
VIII Polyester Resin Based By Hand; Two Layers
IX Cement-based By Hand; One Layer
X Cement & Mineral Based Spraying; Multi-layers
Table 3 – Coating Used in Lab Tests
10
THE HKIE TRANSACTIONS • Volume 19 Number 3
One of the possible reasons accounting for the undesirable results is that
merely adding the sulfuric acid in the laboratory tests did not reflect
the actual environment closely. As mentioned earlier, the sulfuric acid
attacking the concrete is generated by bacteria, a product generated
during the complete sulfur cycle. The accelerated laboratory tests
usually cannot include the presence of bacteria, which is the source of
acid generation. That is, the use of sulfuric acid alone cannot reflect the
biological behaviours in real situation. Even if real sewer is used instead
of normal acidic solution, it is still difficult to predict the concentration of
sulfuric acid generated. Another problem is that the pH value of sewage
can be as low as 0.5. Since concrete itself is alkaline, if the pH value
of the acid solution is not well controlled, the increase of pH value will
also slow down the chemical attack.
Introduction of the Present Research Project
A research project was initiated and funded by Arup. As mentioned above,
it aims to study the damage mechanism that may be caused by BSA on
concrete which has been applied with various commercially available
protection systems. Several protective coatings that have been designed
for sewage applications were supplied by local suppliers for this study.
Table 3 shows the commercially available surface coating products tested
in this work. The experiment is set up to test concrete specimens applied
with coatings. It is important to note that the suppliers apply the coatings
themselves, and should observe their own application procedures and
other details such as specified thickness. That is, they should observe
the integrity and quality of the coatings. After the suppliers applied the
coating materials on concrete specimens, various laboratory tests and
in-situ tests can be carried out. The tests were designed to be carried
out in two main stages. In the first stage, an accelerated test was carried
out in the laboratory on coated mortar cubes in sulfuric acid solution.
To achieve the accelerating effect, the specimens were placed in a tray
with acid solution of about 15 mm in depth. The tray was moved in a
horizontal cyclic motion, so that the acid solution could splash gently
against the block specimens. Visual and cross-section examinations were
conducted to reveal the extent of acid attack.
In the second stage of tests, coated concrete specimens were
submerged in sewage tapped from a running sewage channel at the
Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment Plant. The specimens from these
in-situ tests were taken out periodically so that tests such as pull-
off strength, abrasion could be carried out for coating performance
evaluation.
Appearances Application Areas
Dark Yellow Concrete Tanks, Reservoirs, Tunnels, etc
Dark Green Sewage Treatment Tanks; Raw Water and
Sewer Lines, etc
Light Grey Concrete, Steel Structures in Aggressive
Chemical Conditions, etc
Dark Grey Concrete, Steel from Contact with
Aggressive Chemicals, etc
Dark Green Concrete and Mild Steel Protection, etc
Black Sewerage Industry; Aggressive Immersion
Conditions, etc
Dark Grey Concrete and Steel Structures from Aggressive
Chemical Environments, etc
Light Grey Underground Protection and Foundations, etc
Grey, Dull Sewage Treatment Plants; Sewage Lining, etc
Grey, Dull Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Components
in Wastewater Industry, etc
 Accelerated Acid Test, Results and Discussion
In order to compare the performance of acidic resistance of various
coatings, the following attributes were examined for each coating system:
1. Resistance to direct damage to the coating due to acid attack;
2. Free from pin-holes;
3. Resistance to acid penetration through the coating; and
4. Free from delamination between substrate and coating at all areas.
The technical details of ten coatings, which are identified as Coatings
I to X, are provided in Table 3. As mentioned above, the suppliers
applied these coatings to the mortar cube specimens. So they were
applied with the respective specified details such as coating thickness.
Their performances were compared with mortar cubes without any Figure 3 – Bottom Part of Mortar Cubes Damaged after 14 Days
protective coating. Figs 1 and 2 show the schematic diagram and the
setup, respectively, in the laboratory test. In this test, the specimens five days to maintain the acidity. For coatings with good potential for
were placed in trays of acid solution and to be moved cyclically and successful application, artificial cracks will be induced on the coated
horizontally to provide the accelerating effect. The acid solution trays specimens. Visual and detailed examinations were carried out on coated
were under regular cyclic motions, ie horizontal end-to-end travel of and coated-with-crack specimens.
100 mm at 20 cycles per minute. Under such working condition, the
Mortar cubes without any protective coating were initially tested. They
weight and size of the sample cubes used in this test needed to be
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reduced. Therefore, mortar cubes (sand/cement 3:1, with at least 28 days
of aging) of 50 mm, instead of the common size of 100 mm, were used.
For each type of coating, a control sample, ie one that had not been
subjected to the accelerated acid test, was kept for later comparison.
The same applies for the bare mortar sample without any coating. For
each coating type, four sample cubes were tested for 28 days. Sulfuric
acid with low pH (~0.5) value was used, and was replenished every
were subjected to the acid test, and were found to be severely damaged
with average weight loss of 1/4 of their original weight after 14 days
of acid test, as shown in Figure 3, in which the appearance of a control
sample is also shown. The dimensions at the bottom of the cube were
reduced to about 40 mm × 40 mm.
Coatings I and II are polyurea-based. Samples with these coatings applied
were also subjected to the same acid test. Their appearances are as shown
in Figs 4(a) and 4(b) respectively. Both coatings did not have signs of
failure after 28 days of acid test. However, they experienced slight colour
change when compared with their control sample. The cross-section of
one of the samples show that the thicknesses of Coatings I and II are
3 mm and 2 mm, respectively, as shown in Figs 5(a) and 5(b).
Coatings III to VII are epoxy-based, whereas Coating VIII is polyester-
based. The appearances of tested and controlled samples with these
coatings are shown in Figs 6(a) to 6(f) accordingly.

Figure 1 – Schematic Diagram of Lab Test

Figure 2 – (a) Sample Cubes Arrangement in Acid Bath; (b) Setup of Figure 4 – Comparisons of Appearances between Tested and Control
Laboratory Test Samples of (a) Coating I and (b) Coating II

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THE HKIE TRANSACTIONS • Volume 19 Number 3
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Figure 5 – Cross-section of (a) Coating I; (b) Coating II

Figure 6 – Comparisons of Appearances between Tested and Control Samples of (a) Coating III; (b) Coating IV; (c) Coating V; (d) Coating VI;
(e) Coating VII; (f) Coating VIII

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THE HKIE TRANSACTIONS • Volume 19 Number 3
 No colour change was observed in Coating III. However, they were found still attached to the substrate in most areas despite the acid attack.
to be attacked by acid solution through the pin-holes of the surfaces However, it was softened.
of the coating and swelling around the pin-holes occurred, as shown
Slight colour change was observed in Coating V. Samples failed at the
in Figs 6(a) to 7(a). It is interesting to note that although the samples
edges, as shown in Fig 6(c). The substrate underneath was attacked by
were attacked by acid solution, the coating was still attaching to the
acid solution and expanded. The expansion in volume caused the edges
substrate, even in attacked areas, as shown in Fig 7(a). It appears that
of the coatings to crack. Delamination was found underneath the acid
this coating had very good adhesion to the substrate.
attacked areas, as shown in Fig 7(c). However, no delamination was
Significant colour change was observed in Coating IV. The top layer of found in areas which were not directly in contact with acid solution.
the coating in contact with acids was substantially creased and some
Coating VI suffered from significant colour change at the areas immersed
of it was delaminated from the lower layer of the coating, as shown in
in acid solution, as shown in Fig 6(d). Cracks were found at the edges of
Figs 6(b) and 7(b). Nevertheless, as shown in Fig 7(b), the coating was
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Figure 7 – Cross-section of (a) Coating III; (b) Coating IV; (c) Coating V; (d) Coating VI; (e) Coating VII; (f) Coating VIII

13
THE HKIE TRANSACTIONS • Volume 19 Number 3
 the areas immersed in acid solution. It was evident that acid attack of
substrates occurred through the pin-holes and cracks. The coating was
damaged in acid immersed areas, as shown in Fig 7(d).
Slight colour change was observed in Coating VII, as shown in Fig 6(e).
The samples were seriously damaged at the area in contact with the
acid solution. The coating was damaged at the edges and at original
pin-hole positions. The coatings were delaminated from the substrates,
resulting in significant damages of the mortar substrate, as shown in
Figs 6(e) and 7(e).
Coating VIII is a polyester resin-based material. The samples were attacked
by acid solution through the pin-holes of the coating. As shown in
Fig 6(f), the coating was swollen at the pin-hole positions. The coatings
were also delaminated from the substrate. The thickness of the coating
around acid immersed areas was significantly reduced, as shown in
Fig 7(f). The delamination of coatings occurred not only at the areas that
were in contact with acid, but also near the top without contact with acid.
Coating IX and X are cement-based materials. Their applied thickness
and performances were very varied.
About 1 mm thick of Coating IX was applied on the 50 mm sample
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acid solution. Despite the fact that the thickness of the coating is much
greater than that in other coatings, cracks were found on the surfaces of
the samples, as shown in Fig 8(c). Fig 8(d) is a cross-section across such
a crack. Although at this sectioning plane the crack had not reached
the substrate mortar, it might have reached the substrate at a position
into or out of this sectioning plane. This is evidenced by the existence
of some beige-coloured reacted mortar shown in Fig 8(d).
From the above test results, only the polyurea-based coatings, ie Coating
I and Coating II, possess all the attributes for satisfactory performance
against acidic resistance. They did not show any acid penetration,
delamination nor pin-holes.
The epoxy-based and polyester resin-based coatings (Coatings III - VIII)
generally failed due to the existence of pin-holes created during the
coating process. Acid penetration through the pin-holes directly caused
further failure such as swelling and cracks at edges. However, the
performance of each epoxy-based coating varies greatly. Some coating,
eg Coating III, could provide fair adhesion to the substrates and did not
show significant damage in terms of the coating. However, some coatings,
eg Coating IV, were found to be softened or even unable to provide
sufficient protection to the substrates. In general, if the situation of pin-

cubes. Fig 8(a) compares the appearance of the cube after testing with holes can be corrected and improved, individual epoxy-based coating
that of a control sample. Damage to the coating was observed after three is still worth trying. As for the polyester resin-based material, ie Coating
days of acid test. In particular, cracking and loss of coating occurred at VIII, it did not adhere well even at locations without any acid attack.
the bottom edges of the specimens, as shown in Fig 8(a). The cracks
The cement-based coatings performed quite differently. Coating IX had
that were initiated at the edges had propagated vertically upward and
large amounts of the coating materials peeled off from the substrates a
delaminated the coating. Furthermore, samples with this coating released
few days after the acid test. Coating X had cracks on samples surfaces
a strong odour upon direct contact with the acid solution.
after testing. However, the damage of substrate was minor.
No colour change was observed in Coating X. As shown in Figs 8(b) and
Therefore, among Coatings I to X, only the polyurea-based coatings,
8(c), white-coloured crystals were found on the surface of the sample
ie Coating I and Coating II, can be chosen to resist acid attack only.
cubes after the test, possibly due to the cycles of drying and wetting of

Figure 8 – (a) Tested and Control Samples of Coating IX; (b) Tested and Control Samples of Coating X; (c) Cracks in Coating X, and (d) Cross-section
of Coating X

14
THE HKIE TRANSACTIONS • Volume 19 Number 3
 However, further in-situ test is required to provide information of their
resistance against actual sewage environment.
It is noted that the testing device used in this study was successful in
providing an accelerated testing environment to distinguish coatings
with various degree of protection.
Future In-situ Test
As discussed above, it is necessary to test candidate concrete protection
system with an active sewage system in Hong Kong for local application.
In this project, a custom-made tank will be placed in the North West
Kowloon Preliminary Treatment Works (authorised by the Drainage
Services Department (DSD) of the HKSAR Government). The tank will
be used to contain running sewage at the treatment plant in order to
simulate the actual operating condition. The test samples will be placed
in the tank for designated periods of time. It is noted that local sewage
treatment plants have started using covers over the treatment tanks
to protect the environment a few years ago. It was reported that this
new practice, as compared with no covers before, had caused severe
corrosion of unprotected concrete. The enclosed environment to simulate
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the actual working conditions will be achieved in this in-situ test by
sealing the test tank.
The concrete samples used will be different from those of the laboratory
tests. They will be in grade 45 with dimensions of 300 mm × 500 mm
× 50 mm. Different selected coatings will be applied on these plates.
The sample plates will be immersed in running sewage in a sealed tank.
The samples will be retrieved and investigated at six months intervals, for
an overall duration of 24 months. The samples retrieved from the in-situ
tests will be cored and tested by the following methods: microstructure
examination, abrasion test, bond strength test, compression test, etc, so
that objective comparison between candidate coatings can be carried out.
Conclusion
In this paper, the testing techniques and methods for evaluating the
resistance of concrete protection systems against BSA attack are discussed.
These protection systems are mainly coatings applied onto the surface
of concrete. A test programme comprising accelerated laboratory testing
using sulfuric acid solution of about pH 0.5 and in-situ testing at a
sewage treatment plant has been devised. The accelerated test results
on laboratory testing using sulfuric acid solution on concrete samples
protected with coating have been provided. It is clear that the present
laboratory test, which used a device to move a tray filled with acid
solution for soaking the samples horizontally, had provided accelerated
attack on the samples and had been able to distinguish the degree of
protection provided by the coating. This test has been shown to be useful
for initial screening of candidate coatings for the in-situ test.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was fully supported by a research and
development grant from Arup. The authors would also like to acknowledge
the Drainage Services Department of the HKSAR Government in providing
the location for applying the coatings on concrete samples, and allowing
the test tank to be housed in one of their treatment plants. We would
also like to thank Gammon Construction Limited in Hong Kong for
manufacturing the concrete test samples.
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15
 About the Authors
CHAU Ka Shing  BEng
Email: kaschau3@cityu.edu.hk
Mr Chau obtained his BEng degree from the Department
of Physics and Materials Science, City University of
Hong Kong in 2009. He is currently a research assistant
in the Department and is working on the integrity of
concrete protection systems against concrete corrosion
in sewage applications.
C M Lawrence WU  BSc(Eng) PgDMS PhD FHKIE
Email: lawrence.wu@cityu.edu.hk
Ir Prof Wu obtained his BSc(Eng) and PhD degrees
from the University of Bristol, the UK. He has been
with the Department of Physics and Materials Science,
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 22:16 17 November 2014
City University of Hong Kong since 1987. He has been
working on materials related problems in industrial
applications, including fire resistant concrete, and
recently on coatings for concrete protection. He also
works on engineering failure investigations for major
companies and government departments in Hong Kong.
James W J CHEN  BS MS PhD
Email: james.chen@arup.com
Dr Chen obtained his BS degree from Xiamen University
in 1984, MS degree from New Jersey Institute of
Technology in 1989 and PhD degree from Rutgers
University in 1993. Dr Chen has over 20 years of
experience in design and construction of water and
wastewater management facilities. He is currently a
senior engineer of Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd.
16
THE HKIE TRANSACTIONS • Volume 19 Number 3
CHAN Siu Yuen  BSc(Eng) MSc(Eng) CEng MICE
MHKIE
Email: siu-yuen.chan@arup.com
Ir Prof Chan obtained his BSc(Eng) degree (1st class
honours) and MSc(Eng) degree from the University of
Hong Kong in 1978 and 1985 respectively. With over
30 years of professional experience in infrastructure
projects, Ir Prof Chan is Associate Director of Ove Arup
& Partners Hong Kong Ltd and is currently the Engineer
overseeing several mega-scale construction contracts
of the Harbour Area Treatment Scheme Stage 2A. He
was a part-time lecturer of the Hong Kong Polytechnic
University from 1994 to 2005, and has been a part-time lecturer of the University
of Hong Kong since 1998.  His research interests include concrete durability, bridge
design and practical application of projectile theory.
Ricky Y C TSUI  BSc PhD
Email: ricky.tsui@arup.com
Dr Tsui holds a BSc degree in engineering from
the University of Hong Kong and a PhD degree in
materials science from the University of Cambridge.
His career spans 20 years in high technology research,
product and process development, management
and marketing. He worked in a semi-government
organisation for many years as a senior consultant and
had numerous successful cases to provide innovative
process re-engineering solutions to the industry. He
won several awards on machinery and process design.
As currently the Arup R&D leader in East Asia Region,
an international engineering consulting firm, he has been actively facilitating
business driven research, mostly in collaboration with universities, to develop
applied technologies for the built environment.