IT11-Quantitative Methods

An Introduction to
Quantitative Research

Start of Lesson 1
 What is Quantitative
Research?
✓Formal, objective, rigorous, systematic
process for generating information
✓Describes new situations, events, or
concepts
✓Examines relationships among variables
✓Determines the effectiveness of
treatments
 Quantitative Data Vs. Qualitative Data
Research data can be placed into two broad categories: quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative data are used when a researcher is

trying to quantify a problem or address the "what" or
"how many" aspects of a research question. It is data
that can either be counted or compared on a numeric
scale.

Qualitative data describes qualities or

characteristics. It is collected using questionnaires,
interviews, or observation, and frequently appears in
narrative form.
 Differences between Quantitative and
Qualitative Data
There are some stark differences between quantitative data and qualitative
data. They are:

Quantitative Data Qualitative Data

Associated with numbers
Implemented when data is numerical
Collected data can be statistically analyzed
Examples: Height, Weight, Time, Price,
Temperature, etc.
Associated with details
Implemented when data can be segregated
into well-defined groups
Collected data can just be observed and not
evaluated
Examples: Scents, Appearance, Beauty, Colors,
Flavors, etc.
Research topics may be approached using either
quantitative or qualitative methods. Choosing one
method or the other depends on what you believe
would provide the best evidence for your research
objectives. Researchers sometimes choose to
incorporate both qualitative and quantitative data in
their research since these methods provide different
perspectives on the topic.
Quantitative Data Examples
Listed below are some examples of quantitative data that can help
understand exactly what this pertains:
• I updated my phone 6 times in a quarter.
• My teenager grew by 3 inches last year.
• 83 people downloaded the latest mobile application.
• My aunt lost 18 pounds last year.
• 150 respondents were of the opinion that the new product feature will not be successful.
• There will be 30% increase in revenue with the inclusion of a new product.
• 500 people attended the seminar.
• 54% people prefer shopping online instead of going to the mall.
• She has 10 holidays in this year.
• Product X costs $1000.
Example: You want to know the locations of the most
popular study spaces on UP campus, and why they
are so popular. To identify the most popular spaces,
you might count the number of students studying in
different locations at regular time intervals over a
period of days or weeks. This quantitative data would
answer the question of how many people study at
different locations on campus. To understand why
certain locations are more popular than others, you
might use a survey to ask students why they prefer
these locations. This is qualitative data.
Advantages of Quantitative Data
Some of advantages of quantitative data, are:

• Conduct in-depth research: Since quantitative data can be statistically

analyzed, it is highly likely that the research will be detailed.
• Minimum bias: There are instances in research, where personal bias is
involved which leads to incorrect results. Due to the numerical nature of
quantitative data, the personal bias is reduced to a great extent.
• Accurate results: As the results obtained are objective in nature, they
are extremely accurate.
Disadvantages of Quantitative Data
Some of disadvantages of quantitative data, are:

• Restricted information: Because quantitative data is not descriptive, it

becomes difficult for researchers to make decisions based solely on the
collected information.
• Depends on question types: Bias in results is dependent on the
question types included to collect quantitative data. The researcher’s
knowledge of questions and the objective of research are exceedingly
important while collecting quantitative data.
 The Difference Between Data and Statistics
While the terms ‘data’ and ‘statistics’ are often used interchangeably, in
scholarly research there is an important distinction between them.
Data are individual pieces of factual information recorded and used for the
purpose of analysis. It is the raw information from which statistics are created.
Statistics are the results of data analysis - its interpretation and presentation.
In other words, some computation has taken place that provides some
understanding of what the data means. Statistics are often, though they don’t
have to be, presented in the form of a table, chart, or graph.
Both statistics and data are frequently used in scholarly research. Statistics are
often reported by government agencies - for example, unemployment statistics or
educational literacy statistics. Often these types of statistics are referred to as
'statistical data'.
Types of Quantitative Research
Descriptive

Correlational

Quasi-experimental

Experimental
What is Descriptive Research?
What is Descriptive
Research?
Descriptive Research is defined as a
research method that describes the
characteristics of the population or
phenomenon studied. This methodology
focuses more on the “what” of the
research subject than the “why” of the
research subject.
For example, an apparel brand that wants to
understand the fashion purchasing trends
among New York buyers will conduct a
demographic survey of this region, gather
population data and then conduct descriptive
research on this demographic segment. The
study will then uncover details on “what is the
purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but not
cover any investigative information about “why”
the patterns exits. Because for the apparel
brand trying to break into this market,
understanding the nature of their market is the
study’s objective.
 Characteristics Of Descriptive Research
The term descriptive research then refers to research questions,
design of the study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We
call it an observational research method because none of the
research study variables are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

1. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the
variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational
methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the
variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
 Characteristics Of Descriptive Research
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

2. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally

a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the
same group are studied.

3. The basis for further research: Researchers further research

the data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using
different research techniques. The data can also help point
towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent
research.
Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple

ways and for various reasons. Before getting into
any survey, though, the survey goals and survey design are
crucial. Despite following these steps, there is no way to
know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use
descriptive research? To understand the end objective of
research goals, below are some ways organizations
currently use descriptive research today:
Applications of descriptive research with examples
✓ Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using
close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions
about the respondents. This could be the need to derive
patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It
could also be to understand from a respondent, their
attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For
example, understanding from millenials the hours per
week they spend on browsing the internet. All this
information helps the organization researching to make
informed business decisions.
Applications of descriptive research with examples
✓ Measure data trends: Researchers measure data
trends over time with a descriptive research design’s
statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company
researches different demographics like age groups
from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of
autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too
well to the new launch, it provides insight into what
clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the
clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
Applications of descriptive research with examples
✓Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a
descriptive research design to understand how different
groups respond to a specific product or service. For
example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general
questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study
also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender,
geographical location, etc. This consumer research helps
the organization understand what aspects of the brand
appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also
helps make product or marketing fixes or even create a
new product line to cater to high growth potential groups.
Applications of descriptive research with examples
✓Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use
descriptive research to help ascertain the research
object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns.
Due to the non-invasive research method and the use
of quantitative observation and some aspects of
qualitative observation, researchers observe each
variable and conduct an in-depth analysis. Researchers
also use it to validate any existing conditions that may
be prevalent in a population.
Applications of descriptive research with examples

✓Conduct research at different times: The analysis can

be conducted at different periods to ascertain any
similarities or differences. This also allows any number
of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on
prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw
trends.
Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

✓ Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research

using specific methods like observational method, case study
method, and survey method. Between these three, all
primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a
lot of information. This can be used for future research or even
developing a hypothesis of your research object.

✓ Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it

gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. The
information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

✓ Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the

research to be conducted in the respondent’s natural
environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is
collected.

✓ Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large

in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct
and is inexpensive.
Descriptive Research Methods
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive
research. They are:
✓ Observational method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this
research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative
observations.
A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is
primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of
or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are
derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies
observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age,
shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if
current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score
question.
Descriptive Research Methods
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive
research. They are:
Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but
instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher
observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a
comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and
effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be
either a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as
an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a
researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and
purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing
experience of the customer.
Descriptive Research Methods
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive
research. They are:
✓Case study method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or
groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further
scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should
not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make
accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the
researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a
reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could
be an atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to
weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.
Descriptive Research Methods
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive
research. They are:
✓Survey research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys
or questionnaires or polls. They are a popular market
research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study
to gather useful data should have the right survey questions.
It should be a balanced mix of open-ended
questions and close ended-questions. The survey method
can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to
option for descriptive research where the sample size is
enormous.
Examples Of Descriptive Research
Some examples of descriptive research are:

1. A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs

would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by
different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette,
they conduct this type of research study using various methods
like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying
while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers
insights about the preference of different markets. This can
also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various
preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of
research helps the organization tweak their business model
and amplify marketing in core markets.
Examples Of Descriptive Research
2. Another example of where this research can be used is if a school
district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using
technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and
observing their comfortableness using technology through
observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can
help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an
issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are
impacted in any way with this change.
Some other problems and research questions that can lead
to descriptive research are:
• Market researchers want to observe the habits of
consumers.
• A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
• A school district wants to understand if students will
access online lessons rather than textbooks.
• To understand if its wellness programs enhance the
overall health of the employees.
How Would You Describe
Correlational Research?
✓Looks at the relationship between two
or more variables
✓Determines the strength and type of
relationship
✓Explains what is seen
✓No cause and effect
How about Quasi-
experimental Research?
✓Examines cause-and-effect relationships
✓Less control by researcher than true
experimental designs
✓Samples are not randomly selected.
✓All variables in the study cannot be
controlled by the researcher.
What are the Main
Characteristics of Experimental
Research?
✓Controlled manipulation of at least
one independent variable
✓Uses experimental and control
groups
✓Random assignment of the sample
to the experimental and control
groups
What is the Aim
of Experimental
Research?
✓Looks at cause-and-
effect relationships
✓Highly controlled,
objective, systematic
studies
✓Involves the
measurement of
independent and
dependent variables
Check Your Understanding: Question
The nurse manager collects data about hours
worked, age, sex, and geographic area of the
nursing staff over a 10-year period. What type of
research would this be considered?

A. Descriptive
B. Correlational
C. Quasi-experimental
D. Experimental
 Check Your
Understanding: Answer
ANSWER: A
The quantitative research methods are classified into four
categories:
(1) descriptive, which defines the magnitude of a concept and its
characteristics;
(2) correlational, which determines associations between or
among variables;
(3) quasi-experimental, which tests an intervention and lacks
control in at least one of three areas; and
(4) experimental, which tests an intervention and includes both a
control group and random assignment. This research study is
designed to define the magnitude of an idea and its
characteristics.
Important Concepts in the Quantitative
Research Process
Basic Applied
Rigor
Research Research

Extraneous
Control Sampling
Variables
What is Applied Research?
✓Attempts to solve real problems in clinical practice
✓Studies the effects the intervention may have on patients
✓Applies findings in the real world on real patients
Why is Rigor Important?
✓Striving for excellence in research and
adherence to detail
✓Precise measurement tools, a
representative sample, and a tightly
controlled study design
✓Logical reasoning is essential.
✓Precision, accuracy, detail, and order
required
What Measures of Control
are Utilized?
•Rules that are followed to decrease the
possibility of error in part determine the
design of the study.
•Different levels of control depending on
study
◦ Quasi-experimental studies partially controlled
regarding selection of subjects
◦ Experimental studies highly controlled because
of precision of sample selection
Control in Quantitative Research
Type of
Researcher Research
Quantitative
Control Setting
Research
Descriptive Uncontrolled Natural or partially
controlled

Correlational Uncontrolled or partially Natural or partially controlled

controlled

Quasi-experimental Partially controlled Partially controlled

Experimental Highly controlled Laboratory
Settings in Quantitative Research
Research setting is the physical, social, or
experimental context within which research is
conducted
✓Natural or field settings
✓Partially controlled settings
✓Highly controlled or laboratory settings

End of Lesson 1
 Steps in
Quantitative
Research

Start of Lesson 2
Review: Research Problems and Purposes
✓Research problem is an area of concern needing research
for nursing practice.
• The problem identifies, describes, or predicts the research
situation.
✓Research purpose comes from the problem and identifies
the specific goal or aim of the study.
• The purpose includes variables, population, and setting for the
study.
Review: Literature Review
•Collecting pertinent literature to give in-depth knowledge
about the problem
•Understanding what knowledge exists to make changes in
practice
Study Framework
✓Framework is the abstract, theoretical basis for a
study that enables the researcher to link the findings to
nursing’s body of knowledge.
✓Theory is an integrated set of defined concepts and
relational statements that present a view of a
phenomenon and can be used to describe, explain,
predict, or control phenomena.
Review: Research Objectives, Questions,
and Hypotheses
✓All identify relationships between variables and
indicate population to be studied
✓Narrower in focus than the purpose and often
specify only one or two research variables
Check Your Understanding:
Question
A staff nurse is interested in the infection
rates for patients who have indwelling Foley
catheters. What is the next step in the
research process?

A. Defining the purpose

B. Conducting the literature review
C. Selecting study variables
D. Performing a pilot study
 Check Your Understanding: Answer
ANSWER: B
To generate a picture of what is known about a
particular situation and the knowledge gaps
that exist in it, researchers conduct a review of
relevant literature. Relevant literature refers to
those sources that are pertinent or highly
important in providing the in-depth knowledge
needed to study a selected problem. This
background enables the researcher to build on
the work of others and to avoid unnecessary
and redundant work.
Study Variables
•Variables are concepts that are measured,
manipulated, or controlled in a study.
◦Concrete variables: temperature, weight
◦Abstract variables: creativity, empathy
•Conceptual definition: gives meaning to a concept
•Operational definition: variable can be measured
using this description
What are
Extraneous
Variables?
•These occur in all research
studies (and in everyday life!).
•They may interfere with the
hypothesized relationships
between variables.
•The influence of extraneous
variables can be decreased
through sample selection and
the use of defined research
settings.
Assumptions
•Statements are taken for granted or are considered true.
•Assumptions are often unrecognized in thinking and
behavior.
•Sources of assumptions are universally accepted truths.
•They are often embedded in the philosophical base of
the study’s framework.
Limitations
✓Restrictions in a study that may decrease the credibility and
generalizability of the findings
✓Important to note whether or not limitations are addressed
in the research report you are reading! The author(s) should
report their identified limitations. This is often done in a
separate section or paragraph at the end of the report. As a
reader, you may also note additional limitations not
addressed by the author(s). This is an important are for
critique.
Limitations
•Theoretical limitations
◦Restrict the generalization of the findings
◦Reflected in the framework and definitions
•Methodological limitations
◦Restrict the population to which the findings can be
generalized
◦May result from an unrepresentative sample or weak
design
Research Design
•Blueprint for conducting the study
•Maximizes control over factors that could
interfere with the study’s desired outcome
•Directs the selection of the population, sampling,
methods of measure, plans for data collection,
and analysis
Problem-Solving Process
•Data collection
•Problem definition
•Plan
◦Setting goals
◦Identifying solutions
•Implementation
•Evaluation and revision
Introduction: Population and Sample
POPULATION SAMPLE
•All elements that meet •A subset of the
certain criteria for population that is
inclusion in study selected for study
•Example: all women •Example: women
students in higher students at Romblon
education State University
What are Sampling and
Sampling Methods?
•Process of selecting subjects who are
representative of the population
•Random sampling
◦ Each member has an equal chance of
being selected.
◦ Has the most control
•Convenience sampling
◦ Whoever is available
Introduction: Measurement
•Assigning numbers to objects
•Application of rules to development of a measurement
device or instrument
•Data are gathered at the nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio
level of measurement.
•Must examine reliability and validity of measurement tool
◦ Reliability: consistency of the tool
◦ Validity: does it measure what it is supposed to measure?
Introduction: Data
Collection
•Precise, systematic gathering of
information for the study
•Consent must be obtained from
the sample.
•Researchers use observation,
interviews, questionnaires, or
scales to gather information.
•Described under the “procedures”
section of a research article
Quantitative Data: Collection Methods
As quantitative data is in the form of numbers, mathematical and
statistical analysis of these numbers can lead to establishing some
conclusive results.
There are two main Quantitative Data Collection Methods:

Surveys One – on - One Interviews

SURVEY
Traditionally, surveys were
conducted using paper-based
methods and have gradually
evolved into online mediums.
Closed-ended questions form a
major part of these surveys as
they are more effective in
collecting quantitative data.
Surveys are integral in collecting
feedback from an audience
which is larger than the
conventional size.
 SURVEY
A critical factor about surveys is that the responses
collected should be such that they can be generalized
to the entire population without significant
discrepancies. On the basis of the time involved in
completing surveys, they are classified into the
following:
✓ Longitudinal Studies: A type of observational
research in which the market researcher conducts
surveys from a specific time period to another, i.e.,
over a considerable course of time, is
called longitudinal survey. This survey is often
implemented for trend analysis or studies where
the primary objective is to collect and analyze a
pattern in data.
 SURVEY
A critical factor about surveys is that the responses
collected should be such that they can be generalized
to the entire population without significant
discrepancies. On the basis of the time involved in
completing surveys, they are classified into the
following:
✓ Cross-sectional Studies: A type of observational
research in which the market research conducts
surveys at a particular time period across the
target sample is known as cross-sectional survey.
This survey type implements a questionnaire to
understand a specific subject from the sample at a
definite time period.
 Differences between Cross-Sectional Study
and Longitudinal Study
Cross-sectional and longitudinal study both are types of observational study, where the
participants are observed in their natural environment.
Cross-sectional study Longitudinal study
Cross-sectional studies are quick to conduct as Longitudinal studies may vary from a few years to even
compared to longitudinal studies. decades.
A cross-sectional study is conducted at a given point A longitudinal study requires a researcher to revisit
in time. participants of the study at proper intervals.
Cross-sectional study is conducted with different Longitudinal study is conducted with the same sample
samples. over the years.
Cross-sectional studies cannot pin down cause-and- Longitudinal study can justify cause-and-effect
effect relationship. relationship.
Multiple variables can be studied at a single point in
Only one variable is considered to conduct the study.
time.
Since the study goes on for years longitudinal study
Cross-sectional study is comparatively cheaper.
tends to get expensive.
To administer a survey to collect
quantitative data, the below principles
are to be followed.

•Fundamental Levels of Measurement –

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio
Scales: There are four measurement scales
which are fundamental to creating a multiple-
choice question in a survey in collecting
quantitative data. They are, nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio measurement scales
without the fundamentals of which, no
multiple choice questions can be created.
To administer a survey to collect
quantitative data, the below principles
are to be followed.

•Use of Different Question Types: To collect

quantitative data, close-ended questions have
to be used in a survey. They can be a mix of
multiple question types including multiple-
choice questions like semantic differential
scale questions, rating scale questions etc.
that can help collect data that can be
analyzed and made sense of.
To administer a survey to collect
quantitative data, the below principles
are to be followed.
•Survey Distribution and Survey Data
Collection: In the above, we have seen the
process of building a survey along with
the survey design to collect quantitative data.
Survey distribution to collect data is the other
important aspect of the survey process. There
are different ways of survey distribution. Some
of the most commonly used methods are:
Survey Distribution and Survey Data
Collection:

✓Email
✓Embed survey in a website
✓Social distribution
✓SMS survey
To administer a survey to collect
quantitative data, the below principles
are to be followed.
One-on-one Interviews: This quantitative data
collection method was also traditionally
conducted face-to-face but has shifted to
telephonic and online
platforms. Interviews offer a marketer the
opportunity to gather extensive data from the
participants. Quantitative interviews are
immensely structured and play a key role in
collecting information.
To administer a survey to collect
quantitative data, the below principles
are to be followed.
There are three major sections of these online
interviews:
Face-to-Face Interviews: An interviewer can prepare a
list of important interview questions in addition to the
already asked survey questions. This way,
interviewees provide exhaustive details about the
topic under discussion. An interviewer can manage to
bond with the interviewee on a personal level which
will help him/her to collect more details about the
topic due to which the responses also improve.
To administer a survey to collect
quantitative data, the below principles
are to be followed.
There are three major sections of these online
interviews:
Online/Telephonic Interviews: Telephone-based
interviews are no more a novelty but these
quantitative interviews have also moved to online
mediums such as Skype or Zoom. Irrespective of
the distance between the interviewer and the
interviewee and their corresponding time zones,
communication becomes one-click away with
online interviews. In case of telephone interviews,
the interview is merely a phone call away.
To administer a survey to collect
quantitative data, the below principles
are to be followed.
There are three major sections of these online
interviews:
Computer Assisted Personal Interview: This is a one-
on-one interview technique where the interviewer
enters all the collected data directly into a laptop or
any other similar device. The processing time is
reduced and also the interviewers don’t have to
carry physical questionnaires and merely enter the
answers in the laptop.
 Check Your
Understanding: Question
The nurse researcher is involved in selecting a sample
for a research study on staffing ratios. Which statement
best describes the difference between a population and
a sample?
A. A population is usually larger than a sample.
B. A sample is usually larger than a population.
C. Populations and samples are synonymous.
D. There is no relationship between sample size and
population size.
Check Your
Understanding: Answer
ANSWER: A
The population is all the elements—
individuals, objects, or substances—that
meet certain criteria for inclusion in a given
universe. The definition of the population
would depend on the sample criteria and
the similarity of subjects in the various
settings.

End of Lesson 2
Introduction: Data Analysis
Quantitative data analysis simply
means analyzing data that is numbers-
based – or data that can be easily
“converted” into numbers without losing
any meaning.

Start of Lesson 3
Data collection forms a
major part of the research
process. This data however
has to be analyzed to make
sense of.

Quantitative Data:
Analysis Methods
There are multiple methods of analyzing quantitative
data collected in surveys. They are:
✓ Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is the most widely used
quantitative data analysis methods. It is a preferred method since it
uses a basic tabular form to draw inferences between different data-
sets in the research study. It contains data that is mutually exclusive or
have some connection with each other.
✓ Trend analysis: Trend analysis is a statistical analysis method that
provides the ability to look at quantitative data that has been collected
over a long period of time. This data analysis method helps collect
feedback about data changes over time and if aims to understand the
change in variables considering one variable remains unchanged.
There are multiple methods of analyzing quantitative
data collected in surveys. They are:
• MaxDiff analysis: The MaxDiff analysis is a quantitative data analysis method
that is used to gauge customer preferences for a purchase and what parameters
rank higher than the others in this process. In a simplistic form, this method is
also called the “best-worst” method. This method is very similar to conjoint
analysis but is much easier to implement and can be interchangeably used.
• Conjoint analysis: Like in the above method, conjoint analysis is a similar
quantitative data analysis method that analyzes parameters behind a purchasing
decision. This method possesses the ability to collect and analyze advanced
metrics which provide an in-depth insight into purchasing decisions as well as the
parameters that rank the most important.
There are multiple methods of analyzing quantitative
data collected in surveys. They are:
• TURF analysis: TURF analysis or Total Unduplicated Reach and
Frequency Analysis, is a quantitative data analysis methodology that
assesses the total market reach of a product or service or a mix of both.
This method is used by organizations to understand the frequency and the
avenues at which their messaging reaches customers and prospective
customers which helps them tweak their go-to-market strategies.
• Gap analysis: Gap analysis uses a side-by-side matrix to depict
quantitative data that helps measure the difference between expected
performance and actual performance. This data analysis helps measure
gaps in performance and the things that are required to be done to bridge
this gap.
There are multiple methods of analyzing quantitative
data collected in surveys. They are:
• SWOT analysis: SWOT analysis, is a quantitative data analysis methods
that assigns numerical values to indicate strength, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats of an organization or product or service which in
turn provides a holistic picture about competition. This method helps to
create effective business strategies.
• Text analysis: Text analysis is an advanced statistical method where
intelligent tools make sense of and quantify or
fashion qualitative and open-ended data into easily understandable data.
This method is used when the raw survey data is unstructured but has to
be brought into a structure that makes sense.
Steps to
conduct
Quantitative
Data Analysis
For Quantitative Data,
raw information has to
presented in a
meaningful manner ❖ Relate measurement scales with
using data analysis variables: Associate measurement scales such
methods. Quantitative
data should be as Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio with the
analyzed in order to variables. This step is important to arrange the data
find evidential data
that would help in the in proper order. Data can be entered into an excel
research process. sheet to organize it in a specific format.
 ❖ Connect descriptive statistics with data: Link
Steps to descriptive statistics to encapsulate available data. It
conduct can be difficult to establish a pattern in the raw data.
Some widely used descriptive statistics are:
Quantitative
1. Mean- An average of values for a specific
Data Analysis variable
For Quantitative Data, 2. Median- A midpoint of the value scale for a
raw information has to variable
presented in a
meaningful manner 3. Mode- For a variable, the most common value
using data analysis 4. Frequency- Number of times a particular value
methods. Quantitative
data should be is observed in the scale
analyzed in order to 5. Minimum and Maximum Values- Lowest and
find evidential data highest values for a scale
that would help in the
research process. 6. Percentages- Format to express scores and set
of values for variables
Steps to
conduct
Quantitative
Data Analysis
For Quantitative Data,
raw information has to
presented in a
meaningful manner ❖ Decide a measurement scale: It is important to decide
using data analysis the measurement scale to conclude descriptive statistics
methods. Quantitative for the variable. For instance, a nominal variable score will
data should be
analyzed in order to never have a mean or median and so the descriptive
find evidential data statistics will correspondingly vary. Descriptive statistics
that would help in the suffice in situations where the results are not to be
research process.
generalized to the population.
Steps to
conduct
Quantitative
Data Analysis
For Quantitative Data,
raw information has to
presented in a
meaningful manner
using data analysis ❖Select appropriate tables to represent data and
methods. Quantitative analyze collected data: After deciding on a suitable
data should be measurement scale, researchers can use a tabular
analyzed in order to format to represent data. This data can be analyzed
find evidential data using various techniques such as Cross-tabulation
that would help in the
research process.
Introduction: Results
•Descriptions of findings after data were analyzed
•Usually organized by research objectives, questions, or
hypotheses
•The result should be discussed to a great extent which may be
supported with tables, graphs, figures, algorithms
•also include discussion whether the methodology you have
chosen or the programming language you have used is
appropriate.
• the researcher should be honest in all the results and evaluation
that will be presented.
Reported Research Outcomes
•In a research report, you should generally see the
following items:
◦Interprets data findings in meaningful manner
◦Involves forming conclusions and considering
implications for nursing
◦Suggests future studies
◦Generalizes the findings
Major Sections of a Research Report
•Abstract—summary of study in 100 to 250 words
•Introduction—problem, purpose, literature, framework,
and hypothesis
•Methods—design, sample, setting, tool
•Results—data analysis procedures
•Discussion—findings, conclusions, implications
•Reference list—all sources cited
What is the Best Way to Skim a Research
Report?
•Reading a research report is a time consuming effort! You do
not want to read in detail those reports that are not
meaningful (especially for your Capstone Project), so here is a
way to quickly skim here report to ascertain how closely it
relates to your question:
◦ Quickly review source for broad overview.
◦ Read title, author’s name, abstract, introduction, and discussion.
◦ Examine conclusions and implications.
◦ Give preliminary judgment of study.
What Questions are Important in an
Initial Research Critique?
•What type of study was conducted?
•What was the setting for the study?
•Were the steps for the research process clearly identified?
•Were any steps missing?
•Did the steps logically link together?
Other Important Questions when
Critically Appraising a Research Report
•Is there depth for accuracy, completeness, uniqueness of
information, and organization?
•Was the research process logically presented?
•Are there critical arguments in the discussion section?

End of Lesson 3
Quantitative Research Designs in More Detail
S TA RT O F L ES S O N 4
What is Research Design?
What is it’s significance in writing
a Research Paper?
Research Design
“Research design is a master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collection and
analyzing the needed information”
-William Zikmund

“Research design is a plan, structure and strategy of

investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to
research question and to control variance ”
-Kerlinger
 Identifying the appropriate method
of gathering information

Research
Design
Ideal to solve the problem
identified
 Non- • Describes
Experimental • Relates Variables

Experimental • Cause and Effect

Non-Experimental
EXAMPLE:
1. A teacher wants to determine the number of her
students, group according to their sex, who are still
non-readers.
2. A teacher wants to determine the general academic
performance of her students in mathematics.
Experimental
Research Design
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
• Randomization
• Manipulation
• Control
What does a Research Design look like?

Blueprint or detailed plan for Purpose, review of literature,

conducting a study and framework provide the
basis for the design
How is Research Supposed to Work?

Support or
Data Reject
Problem Method
Collection Hypotheses
How Research Really Work?
What is the Purpose of a Research Study?
•To describe variables
•To examine relationships
•To determine differences
•To test a treatment
•To provide a base of evidence for practice

•OR a combination of the above!

Linking the Purpose to the Design
•The design of the quantitative research study must match
with the purpose

•As an example, it would not be appropriate to have a

purpose of describing a set of variables with an
experimental design, which is really meant to test a
treatment or intervention
Descriptive Designs
Typical descriptive design

Comparative descriptive design

Case study design

Descriptive Designs
•Most commonly used design
•Examines characteristics of a single sample
•Identifies phenomenon, variables, and conceptual and
operational definitions and describes definitions
Comparative Descriptive Designs
•Examines differences in variables in two or more
groups that occur naturally in a setting.
•Results obtained from these analyses are frequently
not generalizable to a population.
Case Study Designs
•Exploration of single unit of study (e.g., family, group, or
community)
•Even though sample is small, number of variables studied is
large.
•Design can be source of descriptive information to support or
invalidate theories.
•It has potential to reveal important findings that can generate
new hypotheses for testing.
•There is no control.
Correlational Designs
•Descriptive correlational design
•Predictive correlational design
•Model testing design
Determining the Type of Correlational
Design

End of Lesson 4
What are the Benefits of an Experimental Design?

•More controlled design and conduct of study

•Increased internal validity: decreased threats to design validity
•Fewer rival hypotheses
What are the Essential Elements of an
Experimental Design?
1. Random assignment of subjects to groups
2. Researcher-controlled manipulation of independent
variable
3. Researcher control of experimental situation and setting,
including control/comparison group
4. Control of variance
• Clearly spelled out sampling criteria
• Precisely defined independent variable
• Carefully measured dependent variable
What are Study Groups?
•Groups in comparative descriptive studies
•Control group
•Comparison group
•Equivalent vs. nonequivalent groups
What are Interventions in Experimental
Research?
•Interventions should result in differences in posttest measures
between the treatment and control or comparison groups.
•Intervention could be physiological, psychosocial, educational,
or a combination.
•Nursing is developing a classification system for interventions.
Concepts Relevant to Design
Causality Probability Bias

Control Manipulation
Causality
•There is a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.
•The simplest view is one independent variable causing a
change in one dependent variable.
•Independent variable (X) causes Y (a change in the dependent
variable).
Multicausality
•There is a cause-and-effect relationship between interrelating
variables.
•There are multiple independent variables causing a change in
the dependent variable.
Causality: A B

Pressure Ulcer

Multicausality:
Years smoking
High-fat diet Heart disease
Limited exercise
Probability
•The likelihood of accurately predicting an event
•Variations in variables occur.
•Is there relative causality?
•Therefore, what is the likelihood that a specific cause
will result in a specific effect?
Bias
•The slanting of findings away from the truth
•Bias distorts the findings.
•Research designs should be developed
to reduce the likelihood of bias or to control for it.
What are Potential Causes of Bias in
Research Designs?
•Researchers
•Components of the environment and/or setting
•Individual subjects and/or sample
•How groups were formed
•Measurement tools
•Data collection process
•Data and duration of study
•Statistical tests and analysis interpretation
What are the Elements of a Strong
Design?
•Controlling environment: selection of study setting
•Controlling equivalence of subjects and groups
•Controlling treatment (Tx)
•Controlling measurement
•Controlling extraneous variables
What Questions should you ask to
Critically Appraise a Study Design?
•Was the type of design identified?
•Was the study design linked to the purpose and/or
objectives, questions, or hypotheses?
•Were all variables manipulated or measured?
What Questions should you ask to
Critically Appraise a Study Design?
•If the study included a treatment, was it clearly
described and consistently implemented?
•Were extraneous variables identified and controlled?
•What were threats to design validity in the study?
What Questions should you ask to
Critically Appraise a Study Design?
•Was a pilot study performed?
•What was the reason for the pilot and the outcome?
◦ Study feasibility
◦ Refine design or treatment
◦ Examine validity and reliability of measurement methods
What Questions should you ask to
Critically Appraise a Study Design?
•How adequate was the manipulation?
•What elements should have been manipulated to improve the
validity of
the findings?
•Based on your assessment of the adequacy of the design, how
valid are the findings?
•Is there another reasonable (valid) explanation (rival hypothesis)
for the study findings other than that proposed by the
researcher?
What Questions should you ask to
Critically Appraise a Study Design?
•Identify elements controlled in the study.
•Identify possible sources of bias.
•Are there elements that could have been controlled to
improve the study design?
•What elements of the design were manipulated, and how
were they manipulated?
 Questions?
Comments?
THE END!

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