Appendicularia sicula

Figure 1. Picture of Specimen

 Cebu Philippines

Gulf of Myanmar

Figure 2. Geographic Distribution (Local or International)

General description:

Appendicularia sicula is a relatively small species of Zooplankton that belongs to subphylum

Tunicata and the class Appendicularia. In addition, the said specie also belongs to the family Fritillaridae.
Their size can reach up to 0.20 cm and the diameter ranges from 0.4-0.5 mm for the trunk, 1.5 mm for
the tail and 1.5-2.5 mm for the oikapleurid house. A. sicula ulives on warm and temperate waters and
their main food is composed of microalgae (Brena, 2003).

Appendicularia sicula is characterized by a trunk that is short and slightly pear-shaped. The
posterior is swollen with depressed anterior region. The mouth is round with tactile hairs; and there are
no extended lips. This greatly helps them as their food is mainly collected via the filtering hairs and is
driven to the mouth by water flow created by ciliary beating of the spiracles.

Furthermore, the rectum is vast, pear-shaped, and occupying a huge part of the digestive tract.
A short endostyle is located close to the mouth with broadened proximal part. There is no anus
visible.The Gonads are located just above the digestive tract which is also in the middle of the dorsal
part of the trunk. Since A. sicula are hermaphrodites, they both contain an ovary and a testis. The ovary
is spherical in shape and is enveloped by the testis except for the upper part. And lastly, the tail is
located narrowly near the body and gradually widening to moderately wide and bifurcated at the free
end. The muscles in the tail are very thin and the shape of the tail differs per species (Madin, 1991).

Distinguishing features:
 Figure 3. Distinguishing features of the species Appendicularia sicula

*put arrows

Distribution:

Appendicularia sicula is vastly distributed in warm and temperate waters particularly in the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is also occurring in the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea.
(Couwelaar Marine species, n,d)

Importance:

*refer to Spinelli pdf

Life Cycle:

*refer to Spinelli pdf

Reference

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
357097228_Appendicularia_Tunicata_in_an_Antarctic_Glacial_Fjord-
Chaotic_Fjordic_Structure_Community_or_Good_Indicators_of_Oceanic_Water_Masses

https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=103370#distributions

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
233793652_Marine_Zooplankton_Practical_Guide_Volumes_1_and_2_for_the_Northwestern_Arabian_
Gulf/figures?lo=1

http://species-identification.org/species.php?
species_group=zmns&menuentry=soorten&id=577&tab=beschrijving&fbclid=IwAR2xmXyhOszSuPMzzgr
tmuOl9k-UBKJ1OaxzxF5pHuHyrUup5V74IBKbr5w

https://www.sealifebase.ca/references/FBRefSummary.php?
ID=3465&fbclid=IwAR0xf8A5txwR1o2dhegBtixiu39hWSKwAlHV4_18sjCCRij67w8sGOq8IyY

https://www.sealifebase.ca/summary/Appendicularia-sicula.html?
fbclid=IwAR0Tf3OJYIy9P65kV1uLYFRVmPV_V3hkkyRyiGREVIdMNC4jxyLhI6_iw44

https://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20m?kind=Appendicularia+sicula&btxt=FishBase&burl=http://
www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php:;q:;id:;e:;53704&b=FB53704
Oikopleura dioica
Figure 1. Picture of Specimen
Canada

Korea, Japan
Cebu, Philippines

Figure 2. Geographic Distribution (Local or International)

General description:

Oikopleura dioica is the most widely used larvacean and laboratory model and has a very short
life cycle (4 days at 20 degrees Celsius) (Satoh, 2016). Small, nearly transparent zooplankton with a
trunk and tail. O. dioica is the only species of appendicularian to have separate sexes; others are
hermaphrodites.  They secrete mucus filtering structures called houses, which are used to trap
small particles.  O. dioica builds as many as six houses per day; they can be found in high
numbers.  They are filter feeders. Environment; marine, brackish.
A small appendicularian. The trunk is ovoid. The tail is narrow, being 2-4 mm; the length of the tail is about
four times the body length; the tail has a narrow tail muscle and two distinct, characteristic sub-chordal
cells at about 1/2 to 2/3 down the length of the tail (well distinguishable even in unstained material).
In this species the sexes are separated (which is not the case in all other known species of
Appendicularia). Ovary or testis posteriorly.
Mouth with a small lower lip. The endostyle is rather voluminous, posteriorly prolongated to just near
the anus. The buccal glands are small and spherica. The right stomach lobe forms a cloacal sac behind the
entrance to the intestine.
Distinguishing features:

The only Appendicularia with distinguished sexes

Figure 3. Distinguishing features of the species Appendicularia sicula

Distribution:
Warm-temperate waters in Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, Mediterranean and Red
Seas.
A semi-cosmopolitan, neritic species from warm and temperate waters. Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Also present in Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea. From all Appendicularia, O. dioica is the most eurytherm
and euryhaline species.

Importance:

O. dioica is a peaceful filter-feeding and free-swimming planktonic organism,

about 2-3 mm long. It lives inside a secreted mucous house that it uses as a food
trapping device by filtering the water current propelled by its stylish and grooving
tail movements (Fig. 2). O. dioica is the only known urochordate species that
have separated female and male individuals, which are indistinguishable until
maturity. O. dioica has a cosmopolitan world-wide distribution including seas of
Europe, Asia and America and it is so abundant in the zooplankton community
that plays a key role in marine trophic webs serving as food for fish larvae.
Moreover, because of the small size of the pores of their mucous houses, they
can also trap the smallest microalgae, thus creating a short circuit that
accelerates the transference of organic matter both through the marine trophic
web and towards vertical flux of carbon-rich organic material (i.e. marine snow)
that sinks to the bottom of the oceans.

Life Cycle:

References

http://sio-legacy.ucsd.edu/zooplanktonguide/species/oikopleura-dioica

https://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20m?btxt=FishBase&burl=www.fishbase.org/Summary/
SpeciesSummary.php?id=53704&act=make_map

https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?
p=taxdetails&id=103407&fbclid=IwAR2xmXyhOszSuPMzzgrtmuOl9k-
UBKJ1OaxzxF5pHuHyrUup5V74IBKbr5w

https://thenode.biologists.com/day-life-oikopleura-lab/lablife/
Microcystis aeruginosa
https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/microcystis-aeruginosa-microscopic-view
California
Germany

Japan

General description:

Blue-Green Algae: Microcystis aeruginosa

Microcystis aeruginosa is a phototropic bacterium.  It grows readily in nutrient-rich, slowly moving water.
Because its occurrence as a greenish deposit on the surface of ponds or lakes resembles an algal bloom, it is
commonly referred to as “blue-green algae”.  Such blue-green algal blooms have been reported for decades
throughout the world and are not uncommon in Maryland waters.  Aside from being a nuisance and a danger
to fish and wildlife, a bloom of Microcystis aeruginosa may be harmful to humans during recreational water
use, either through body contact, inadvertent ingestion, or inhalation of water droplets.  Nevertheless,
reported instances of health effects from recreational water use are few and no fatalities have been
reported.

Body contact during water recreation may lead to minor skin irritations or allergic reactions of skin, including
eye irritation and blistering of the lips.  It is believed that polysaccharides derived from the cell wall of the
bacterium cause these external health effects.  On a more serious level, inadvertent ingestion or inhalation
of Microcystis aeruginosa may, within several hours after exposure, lead to abdominal cramps, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, fever, sore throat or hay fever-like symptoms, with recovery within 48 hours; the
bacterial substance causing these symptoms has not been specifically identified.  It is noteworthy however,
that very young children, splashing vigorously in the water and having a small body mass, may be more
likely than adults to experience these internal reactions.

Ill-health effects caused by recreational water exposure to blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa are minor and
self-limited.  Moreover, the risk of developing these adverse reactions increases as the intensity of the
bloom increases.  It is also characteristic of these blooms to wax and wane, or even vanish, from day to
day.  Given these facts, it is reasonable for public health authorities to post an advisory cautioning against
swimming in water where a bloom is readily visible rather than outright closure of the beach for all
activities.  However, it is important to keep in mind that very young children may be at higher risk than
older persons.

Some strains of Microcystis aeruginos, produce a stable, water soluble toxin called microcystin.  Microcsytin
is a large cyclic peptide that causes damage to the liver.  Pets and livestock are especially susceptible to the
toxic effects of microcsytin.  For example, in Nebraska in May of 2004, three dogs died shortly after
swimming and presumably drinking the water in a private, residential lake with an algal bloom; subsequent
analysis of the lake water and tissue specimens indicated that microcystin caused those deaths.  Likewise,
deaths in livestock have also been reported, particularly where droughts may induce animals to drink algae-
contaminated water when fresh water is not readily available.

Human beings are likely to experience serious illness from drinking water containing large concentrations of
microcystin.  In 1988 in Brazil, massive contamination of a drinking water reservoir with microcsytin caused
over 2,000 cases of severe gastroenteritis with 88 deaths.  Fatalities have also been reported where
microcsytin accidentally contaminated water used for kidney dialysis.  However, as noted above, there are
no reports of fatalities or even serious illness resulting from recreational water activities related
to Microycstis aeruginosa.  Nor is it clear what role, if any, microcsytin might play in causing the minor
gastrointestinal or respiratory symptoms that sometimes occur following recreational water use where
microcsytin is present in the water.

Mycrocystis aeruginosa is a common unicellular colonial cyanobacteria found in fresh water environments. This
bacterium produces harmful toxins that create health risks for populations living and harvesting in contaminated
areas where M. aeruginosa blooms. Blooms occur when nutrient levels spike in aquatic environments or
nutrient levels are selective toward Microcystis aeruginosa.
Microcystis aeruginosa is a unicellular, planktonic freshwater cyanobacterium. The existence of intracellular
structures, the gas vesicles, provides cells with buoyancy. These hollow, gas-filled structures can keep
Microcystis cells close to the surface of water body, where there is optimal light and oxygen for growth. Thus,
when the water column is stable, the colonies can accumulate at the water surface and form surface water
blooms.[4] Cells range from 2.61 to 5.40μm in diameter, and can be either ovoid or spherical in shape. The
extracellular covering of M. aeruginosa was divided into several layers: the cytoplasmic membrane or
plasmalemma, the peptidoglycan layer, and the multilayered structure of the cell wall.[3] Microcystis aeruginosa
is light dependent and oxygenic, but cells may live under the dark anaerobic conditions for periods of time in
eutrophic lakes. Microcystis aeruginosa often form blooms in eutrophic lakes and reservoirs. Surface water
blooms can cause anaerobic conditions below the surface in the water and thus make other phytoplankton
including M. aeruginosa themselves live in an unfavorable environment. However, M. aeruginosa appeared to
be more tolerant to dark anaerobic conditions, which may be important to the dominance of M. aeruginosa in
eutrophic lakes. Shi et al (2007) reported that M. aeruginosa showed a slight increase in cell metabolic activity,
no conspicuous death of cells, and absence of decay of chlorophyll-a fluorescence in individual and
competition cases under dark anaerobic conditions.[6]

Distinguishing features:

Distribution:

Importance:
Large occurrences of Microcystis aeruginosa are regularly found at the surface of water bodies in spring and
summer. It is one of the most ecologically damaging species due to its toxicity to aquatic and terrestrial
organisms. Cyanobacteria may adopt different strategies to reduce the possibility of being consumed by their
upper trophic level of food web, such as morphology and intracellular toxins. Microcystins, a group of toxins are
produced by Microcystis aeruginosa. Microcystins are cyclic peptides which are potent hepatotoxins for rodents
and humans and are not allowed by many for grazing compounds. Further, we note recent reports showing that
the ongoing invasion of freshwaters in North America by the filter-feeding zebra mussel, Dreissena
polymorpha, is causing an increase in M. aeruginosa in low-nutrient lakes.[8] Moreover, anaerobic conditions
below the surface water caused by bloom probably cannot sufficiently support fish or shellfish in the vicinity.
Additionally, it pollutes the aquatic system, causes taste and odor problems in drinking water, and decreases
the overall water quality. Some scientists reported that rice straw extract can inhibit the growth of M.
aeruginosa due to the synergistic effects of various phenolic compounds in the rice straw, which indicated that
environment-friendly bio-materials could be used for controlling the algal bloom of M. aeruginosa in eutrophic
water.[5]

Microcystis aeruginosa, a bloom-forming species that is common in eutrophic lakes and reservoirs
throughout the world, produces microcystin, a cyclic peptide that is a hepatotoxin.

Microcystis aeruginosa is a bloom-forming cyanobacterium found in

eutrophic water bodies worldwide. M. aeruginosa blooms usually
occur in freshwater; however, they have also been reported to occur in
brackish water. Because M. aeruginosa often produces the cyanotoxin
microcystin, they are a major concern to public health and
environment. Despite this, the ecology, genomic basis, and
evolutionary process underlying the M. aeruginosa bloom invasion
from fresh to brackish water have been poorly investigated.
This issue summarises the current knowledge of the toxic bloom-forming cyanobacterium
Microcystis aeruginosa, with particular attention to the effects of environmental variables on its
physiology, toxins, toxicity, excretion, and ecology. A global analysis revealed records indicating
increasing biomass as a function of temperature. The production of microcystin by Microcystis and
the factors controlling the synthesis of this toxin are being investigated, as well as the presumed
ecophysiological role of this metabolite. Metabolic analyses have provided important insights into
the ecology and physiology of Microcystis and revealed the high dynamics of fatty acids as a
function of temperature and ultraviolet radiation (UVR). The report also provides evidence for
differential toxic effects in specific brain areas and depending on the type of MC. Finally, the ability
of Microcystis assemblages to avoid their mortality by resisting chemical methodology is reviewed,
and we summarize the latest methods that contribute to the elimination of toxins in the
environment.

Life Cycle:

The annual life cycle of M. aeruginosa is characterized by two distinct

phases. The first is a benthic phase, during which it lives on sediment
during the Winter and the early Spring, and the second a planktonic
phase, during which it lives in the water column during Summer and
Autumn [5]. During this second phase, M. aeruginosa cells are organized
in colonies, which carry out daily vertical migrations in the water
column [6]. These vertical migrations are due to hydrodynamic
processes, and also to the ability of these microorganisms to regulate
their buoyancy [7], [8]. One of the most spectacular effects of this
process is the accumulation of M. aeruginosa colonies in the top few
centimeters of the water column in the early morning, and their
subsequent progressive disappearance from the surface over the course
of the day. The light exposure of M. aeruginosa cells can be very limited
due to these vertical migrations and to low light levels in the water
column when high cyanobacterial biomass reduces water transparency.
This limited exposure to light can have very important consequences for
the metabolism of this photosynthetic microorganism, and may have
resulted in adaptative mechanisms to ensure the optimal use of the light
available. For example, two recent publications have suggested that M.
aeruginosa is better able to tolerate lack of light than green
algae [9], [10]. However, little firm information is available about the
metabolism of this species during the light/dark cycle. Microarray
technology, which provides an overall view of gene expression over time,
is one of the best ways to obtain such data. Several recent publications
on three cyanobacterial species, Synechocystis sp. strain PCC
6803 [11], [12], Cyanothece sp. strain 51142 [13] and Prochlorococcus
marinus strain MED4 [14] have demonstrated the effectiveness of this
approach.

Microcystis is the most common freshwater bloom-forming cyanobacterium. Its massive blooms not only
adversely affect the functionality of aquatic ecosystems, but are also associated with the production of
microcystins (MCs), a group of potent toxins that become a threat to public health when cell-bound MCs
are significantly released from the dying Microcystis into the water column. Managing Microcystis blooms
thus requires sufficient knowledge regarding both the cell death modes and the release of toxins.
Recently, more and more studies have demonstrated the occurrence of programmed cell death-like (or
apoptosis-like) events in laboratory and field samples of Microcystis. Apoptosis is a genetically controlled
process that is essential for the development and survival of metazoa; however, it has been gradually
realized to be an existing phenomenon playing important ecological roles in unicellular microorganisms.
Here, we review the current progress and the existing knowledge gap regarding apoptosis-like death
in Microcystis. Specifically, we focus first on the tools utilized to characterize the apoptosis-related
biochemical and morphological features in Microcystis. We further outline various stressful stimuli that
trigger the occurrence of apoptosis and discuss the potential mechanisms of apoptosis in Microcystis. We
then propose a conceptual model to describe the functional coupling of apoptosis and MC in Microcystis.
This model could be useful for understanding both roles of MC and apoptosis in this species. Lastly, we
conclude the review by highlighting the current knowledge gap and considering the direction of future
research. Overall, this review provides a recent update with respect to the knowledge of apoptosis
in Microcystis and also offers a guide for future investigations of its ecology and survival strategies.

References:

https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=146558

https://www.calverthealth.org/healththreats/healthhazards/microcystis.htm

https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Microcystis_aeruginosa

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123706263001277
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3023806/#:~:text=The%20annual%20life%20cycle
%20of,Summer%20and%20Autumn%20%5B5%5D.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359416149_The_Eco-
Physiological_Role_of_Microcystis_aeruginosa_in_a_Changing_World

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/11/12/706/htm

https://www.slideshare.net/mksateesh/mks-cyanobacteria
Cylindrospermopsis
raciborskii

Figures 1-16. Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (reproduced from Figs 1-16 in Singh, 1962). 1-2, young-
trichomes with acuminate ends; 3-4, short fragmented trichomes; 5-8, showing developmental
stages of heterocytes; 9-11, 13-14, showing developmental stages of akinetes; 12, long trichome
with heterocytes at both ends; 15, short fragmented trichome with heterocytes at one ends; 16,
coiled trichome.
General description:

Identification: This species of cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) is

composed of trichomes (chained filaments) that are solitary and straight. In
Mona Lake, within the Lake Michigan basin, their tube-shaped cells contain
groups of scattered gas vesicles and are divided by barely visible walls
(Hong et al. 2006). In other populations, such as in Lake Constance near
Ottawa, Ontario, the cell walls are thick and conspicuous (Hamilton et al.
2005). The terminal cells may differentiate into cone-shaped heterocytes.
Akinetes (thick-walled spore-like structures) are cylindrical to oval-shaped,
found singly or in pairs, near the terminal heterocytes (Hong et al. 2006).
Both straight and coiled trichomes of this species exist in different locations
around the world. Morphological variation in trichomes, vegetative cells and
heterocytes can occur even among very similar genetic isolates of C.
raciborskii, depending on abiotic conditions (Saker et al. 1999a, Saker and
Neilan 2001, Shafik et al. 2003).
Size: In Mona Lake, trichomes range from 51–311 µm in length and 1.7–4.2
µm in width, heterocytes are 5–11 µm by 2–5 µm, and akinetes are 8–16
µm by 2–5 µm (Hong et al. 2006).

Native Range: The genus Cylindrospermopsis is regarded as

tropical/subtropical in origin, but it has expanded into temperate areas,
particularly the northern hemisphere. The strain of C. raciborskii introduced
to the Great Lakes may have originated in South America.

Distinguishing features:

Figure 3. Distinguishing features of the species Appendicularia sicula

file:///C:/Users/KUYA/Downloads/1999-KomvaLaudaresExtrememorphology.pdf

Distribution:
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii was first observed in the island of Java, Indonesia in 1899–1900 and
identified by Woloszynska (1912). C. raciborskii was later described in India in 1939 (Singh, 1962), and
other tropical regions, and consequently considered a tropical species. An increasing number of
reports have placed this species in tropical, subtropical and temperate climates, in all continents
except Antarctica. The first report of C. raciborskii in Europe was in Lake Kastoria, Greece (Skuja, 1937)
and it was only again described in Europe in the 1970s (Padisák, 1997). It is postulated that the species
colonized from Greece and Hungary toward higher latitudes, near the end of the twentieth century
(Padisák, 1997). Currently C. raciborskii is distributed throughout most of Europe (Dokulil and Mayer,
1996; Krienitz and Hegewald, 1996; Couté et al., 1997; Borics et al., 2000; Briand et al., 2002; Fastner
et al., 2003; Saker et al., 2003). The first description in the African continent probably dates from the
end of the nineteenth century (Huber-Pestalozzi, 1938), which may precede Java Island as the first
description of the species. In America it was first reported in 1955, in KS, USA (Prescott and Andrews,
1955), in 1979 in Australia (Hawkins et al., 1985), and in the Middle East it was firstly described in one
Israeli lake in 1998 (Zohary, 2004; Alster et al., 2010). To this date, the presence of C. raciborskii has
been reported in an increasing number of countries around the globe, both in the Northern and
Southern hemisphere (Figure 1), in rivers, shallow water bodies, lakes and reservoirs. Consequently,
the status of this species as tropical or pan-tropical species is disputed, and due to its global
distribution, it should probably be considered a cosmopolitan species. Regarding the distribution of
toxic strains, C. raciborskii was firstly implicated in the “Palm Island Mystery Disease,” in QLD,
Australia in 1979 (Hawkins et al., 1985). This incident caused symptoms of gastroenteritis to
inhabitants after the water supply was dosed with copper sulfate to control a dense cyanobacterial
bloom. Epidemiological studies demonstrated the presence of an unreported species in Australia, C.
raciborskii (Griffiths and Saker, 2003). Subsequent studies revealed that the C. raciborskii cultured
isolates from those waters were highly toxic (Hawkins et al., 1985) and the compound it produced was
characterized as CYN, a highly potent hepatoxin (Ohtani et al., 1992).

Importance:

Ecology: Akinetes may persist as spores in the sediments for long periods of

time. Akinete formation may be triggered by cold temperatures or large
temperature fluctuations, and requires high levels of reactive phosphorus
(Moore et al. 2003, Moore et al. 2005). In temperate regions, germination
occurs roughly in response to water temperature rising to 22–24°C (Hong et
al. 2006, Padisak 2003). Akinetes are probably necessary to stimulate a new
season’s growth, providing the initial bloom with concentrated phosphorus.
Upon germination, akinetes elongate, split open, and the germling cells that
emerge eventually become trichomes (Moore et al. 2004). In tropical or
subtropical waters, this species is perennial and akinetes rarely develop
(Padisak 2003).

Algae blooms consist of trichomes found in and below the euphotic zone, not
at the surface (Saker and Griffiths 2001). Concentrations of this species in
Mona and Muskegon Lakes have remained low during late summer sampling,
accounting for 6% of phytoplankton count in 2002 and 2003 in the former
and < 1% in 2005 in the latter, possibly due to temperature limitations
(Hong et al. 2006). This species can reach very high concentrations (e.g.,
176 000 units ml-1 in Newnans Lake, Florida) (Chapman and Schelske
1997).

In Constance Lake, Ontario, C. raciborskii blooms appear to be controlled by

water temperature and not nutrients (Hamilton et al. 2005). This species is
capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in its heterocytes in response to low
cell nitrogen concentration, as well as taking up phosphorus at low
concentrations (Shafik et al. 2001, Sprober et al. 2003). The relatively high
phosphorus uptake affinity and storage capacity confer a competitive
advantage upon this species both in deep lakes with nutrient stratification as
well as in lakes lacking such nutrient gradation (Istvanovics et al. 2000).
Moreover, this species may also compete well for light in destratified lakes
(Antenucci et al. 2005) and artificially mixed reservoirs (Burford et al. 2006).
Conditions that are often associated with blooms of C. raciborskii include:
low flow; low water level; low nitrogen to phosphorus ratio; high water
temperature; stable thermal stratification; increased retention time; high
pH; high sulfate concentration; anoxia in at least some strata; high
turbidity; high incident irradiation; and low macrophyte biomass (Berger et
al. 2006, Bormans et al. 2004, Bouvy et al. 1999, Bouvy et al. 2006,
Bowling 1994, Briand et al. 2002, Chellappa and Costa 2003, Da Silva et al.
2001, Fabbro and Duivenvoorden 1996, Hong et al. 2006, Mayer et al. 1997,
McGregor and Fabbro 2000, Ramberg 1987, Saker and Neilan 2001, Tucci
and Sant’Anna 2003). The optimum temperature for growth is 25–30°C,
although growth can occur between 15°C and 35°C, depending on the
strain. The optimum light intensity for growth is 80–121 µmol m -2 s-1, but
growth occurs at levels as low as 22 µmol m-2 s-1 (Briand et al. 2004,
Chonudomkul et al. 2004, Saker and Griffiths 2000, Shafik et al. 2001). The
maximum salinity tolerance is 4 g L-1 NaCl (Moisander et al. 2002).

Some strains of this species are capable of producing cylindrospermopsin, a

toxic compound that affects the human liver and kidneys, as well as
anatoxin-a and saxitoxin, which both act as paralytic shellfish neurotoxins
(Schembri et al. 2001). Increased production of cylindrospermopsin is
associated with long periods of growth in high light intensity conditions
(Dyble et al. 2006), in the presence of a fixed nitrogen source (Saker and
Neilan 2001), and at lower water temperatures (Saker and Griffiths 2000).

Life Cycle:

Reference

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2015.00473/full

https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/greatlakes/FactSheet.aspx?Species_ID=2651&Potential=N&Type=0

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
226360946_Estimation_of_minimum_sedimentary_inoculum_akinete_pool_of_Cylindrospermopsis_raci
borskii_A_morphology_and_life-cycle_based_method/figures?lo=1