INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

PRASHANTH B N
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering
 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS
 Term “Robot” derived from Czech word robota, meaning “forced labor” by Karel Capek,
around 1921.
 Robots are highly automated mechanical manipulators controlled by computers.
 Robotics Industries Association (RIA) defines a Robot as: “A programmable multi-
function manipulator designed to move material, parts, or specialized devices through
variable programmed motion for the performance of a variety of tasks”.
 International Standards Organization (ISO) describes Industrial Robot as: “An
automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, programmable manipulator in
three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial
automation applications.”
 Robots were originally used in hazardous operations such as Handling toxic and
radioactive materials, loading & unloading hot workpieces from furnaces and handling
them in foundries.
 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS
 In 1950s Isaac Asimov Came up with laws of robotics in Robot:
 First Law (Human Safety): A robot may not injure a human being, or, through
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
 Second Law (Robots are Slaves): A robot must obey orders given it by human
beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
 Third Law (Robot Survival): A robot must protect its own existence as long as
such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.

 Automation is a technology concerned with the use of Mechanical, Electrical/Electronics

and computer based systems to control and operate production processes. For example,
Mechanized assembly machines, NC machine tools, Feedback control systems and
robots.
 Robots are Mechanical devices that assist Industrial automation.
 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF ROBOTS
 1921 - R.U.R. (Rossum‘s Universal Robots), a play by Czech writer Karel Capek features
the first mention of the word ‘robot’, from the Czech word ‘robota’, meaning ‘forced
labour’.
 1956 - The world's first robot company, Unimate.
 1961 - Unimate, the first industrial robot goes online in a GM automobile factory in New
Jersey, USA.
 1963 - The first artificial robotic arm to be controlled by a computer is designed.
 1974 - Asia’s first robot, IRB 6, is developed.
 Late 1970s: The robot industry starts its rapid growth, with a new robot or company
entering the market every month.
 The development of robotics technology followed the development of numerical control,
and the two technologies are quite similar.
 NC machines are designed to perform specific processes whereas, robots are designed for
a wider variety of tasks.
 FUNCTIONS OF A ROBOT
 The functions of a robot can be classified into there areas:
 Sensing: External sensors to sense the environment. Example: Vision, Voice, Touch,
Proximity and so on.
 Decision Making: Based on the information received from the sensors, the decision
is made.
 Performing: Decides the task to be performed
 In automation (hard), the machine produces a job following a set of operational
sequence, while a robot can be made to do different jobs at different times and in
different sequences which can be achieved by programming.
 A robot can be programmed to change the sequence of tasks while a fixed machine is set
to perform certain tasks in sequence which cannot be programmed. An automated
machine does not have sensory feedback to reprogram the predetermined path.
 An automated machine has neither a “knowledge base” nor “intelligence”; at best it can
be made to adopt to slight changes in an environment, as in case of a few NC machines.
 CAPABILITIES OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
 Industrial robots are capable of doing tough and tireless jobs:
 To handle a variety of jobs right from material handling to complex assembly tasks.
 To perform hazardous and monotonous tasks with tireless precision
 To improve productivity and reduce manufacturing costs
 To perform complex jobs
 To even cope with changing conditions in the workplace, when fitted with sensors
and adaptive controls
 OBJECTIVES OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
 To reduce production time
 To minimize the labour requirement
 To raise the quality level of products
 To increase productivity
 To improve existing manufacturing processes
 To enhance the life of production machines
 To minimize the loss of man-hours on account of accidents and diseases
 To make the reliability and applicability of new high-speed production processes and
their related machinery possible
 To take advantage of fatigue-free continuous deployment of robots, because the human
beings are always bound to experience fatigue when put to continuous working
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS
Advantages:
 Lifting and moving heavy objects
 Working in hostile environments
 Providing repeatability and consistency
 Working during unfavourable hours
 Performing dull or monotonous jobs
 Increasing productivity, safety, efficiency and quality of products
 Achieving more accuracy than human beings

Disadvantages:
 The robots lack capability to respond in emergencies
 The initial and installation costs of equipments of robots are quite high
 They replace human workers, thus causing anger or dissatisfaction among workers
 ROBOT TECHNOLOGY
 Robot technology is an applied science that is referred to as a combination of Machine
tools and Computer applications.
 In general, there are Industrial, Laboratory, Mobile, Military, Security, Service, Hobby,
Home and Personal Robots.
 Robot is a specialized machine tools with a degree of flexibility that distinguishes them
from fixed-purpose automation.
 Robot is essentially a mechanical arm that is bolted to the floor, a machine, the ceiling,
or, in some cases the wall fitted with its mechanical hand, and taught to do repetitive task
in a controlled, ordered environment.
 Robot has the ability to move mechanical arm to perform work.
 Robot interface with their work environment once a mechanical hand has been attached
to the robot’s tool mounting plate.
 TERMINOLOGIES OF ROBOT
 Payload: The ability to carry, continuously and satisfactorily, a given maximum weight
at a given speed.
 Velocity: The maximum speed at which the tip of a robot is capable of moving at full
extension, expressed in inches or millimeters per second.
 Cycle: Time it takes for the robot to complete one cycle of picking up a given object at a
given height, moving it to a given distance, lowering it, releasing it, and returning to the
starting point.
 Accuracy: A robot’s ability to position the end effector at a specified point in space upon
receiving a control command without previously having attained that position.
 Repeatability: The ability of a robot to return consistently to a previously defined and
achieved location.
 Resolution: The smallest incremental change in position that it make or its control
system can measure.
 Size: The physical size of a robot, which influences its capacity and its capabilities.
 TERMINOLOGIES OF ROBOT
 Work Envelope: The set of points representing the maximum extent or reach of the
robot hand or working tool in all directions.
 ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
 A robot is a system which combines several subsystems that interact themselves as well
as with the environment in which the robot works.
 A robot has some specific objective which may be designed for the following jobs:
 To simply pick up and place the workpieces
 To interact with and work load a lathe, a milling machine or any equipment
 To perform some assembly work
 To accomplish the jobs, a robot should have the following components:
 Base
 Manipulator arm
 End Effector
 Actuators and Transmissions
 Controller
 Sensors
 ROBOT COMPONENTS
 The Base may be fixed or mobile.
 The Manipulator, which is the robot’s arm, consists of segments jointed together with
axes capable of motion in various directions allowing the robot to perform work.
 The End effector which is a Gripper tool, a special device, or fixture attached to the
robot’s arm, actually performs the work.
 The robot arm can be put to a desired motion with its payload if Actuator modules are
fitted in to provide power drives to the systems. Transmission or Gearing are elements
between the actuators and joints of the mechanical linkages.
 The Controller provides the intelligence that is necessary to control the manipulator
system.
 Sensors are any device that provide input of data to the robot controller which collect all
the information a robot needs to operate and interact with its environment.
 MANIPULATOR
 A mechanical unit that provides motion similar to that of a human arm.
 Primary function is to provide the specific motions that will enable the tooling at the end
of the arm to do required work.
 A robot movement can be divided into two general categories: arm and body (shoulder
and elbow) motions and wrist motions.
 The individual joint motions associated with these categories are referred to as degree of
freedom.
 Each axis is equal to one degree of freedom. Typically an industrial robots are equipped
with 4- 6 degrees of freedom.
 The wrist can reach a point in space with specific orientation by any of three motions: a
pitch, or up-and-down-motion; a yaw, or side-to-side motion; and a roll, or rotating
motion.
 The joint labeled pitch, yaw & roll are called orientation axes.
 The points that manipulator bends, slides, or rotates are called joints or position axes.
 MANIPULATOR
 Manipulation is carried out using mechanical devices, such as linkages, gears, actuators,
and feedback devices.
 Position axes are called as world coordinates, is identified as being fixed location within
the manipulator that serves as absolute frame of reference.
 The mechanical design of a robot manipulator relates directly to its work envelope and
motion characteristics.
 The x-axis travel moves the manipulator in an in-and-out motion, y-axis motion causes
the manipulator to move side-to-side and the z axis motion causes the manipulator to
move in and up and down motion.
 END EFFECTOR
 The device that is mechanically opened and closed.
 Act as the tool- mounting plate.
 The origin of the coordinate system or the point of action of the tool attached to the robot
arm is Tool Center Point (TCP).
 End effectors generally custom-made to meet special handling requirements.
 Mechanical grippers are most commonly used and are equipped with two or more fingers.
 The selection of an appropriate end effector for a specific application depends upon
factors such as payload, environment, reliability, and cost.
 The special tooling for a robot that enables it to perform a specific task.
 The gripper can be of two fingers, three fingers or even five fingers.

 End effectors may consist of a gripper or a tool.

 Grippers – To grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., parts) during work cycle
 Tools – To perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray painting
 POWER SUPPLY
 The device that is mechanically opened and closed.
 The function of the power supply is to provide and regulate energy that is required for a
robot to be operated.
 There are three basic types of power supplies:
 Electric
 Hydraulic
 Pneumatic
 Electricity is the most common source of power and is used extensively with industrial
robots.
 The second most common is pneumatic, and the least common is hydraulic power.
 The power supply has a direct relation to the payload rating.
 The actuator output is not directly suitable for driving the robot linkage.
 With appropriate gearing or transmission, the speed may be reduced which is reasonably
fast.
 CONTROLLER
 The controller is a communication and information processing device that initiates,
terminates and coordinates the motions and sequences of a robot.
 It accepts necessary inputs to the robot and provides the output drive signals to a
controlling motor or actuator to correspond with the robot movements and outside world.
 The heart of the controller is the computer and its solid-state memory.
 The computer controls the motion of the robot arm by means of drive signals that pass
through the drive interface to the actuators on the arm.
 ROBOT ANATOMY
 Robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction and characteristics of the
body, arm, and wrist, which are components of robot manipulator.
 Movements between the various components of the body, arm, and wrist are provided by
a series of joints.
 Attached to the robot wrist is the end effector (or end-of-arm tooling) that performs the
work.
 The end effector is not considered a part of the robot’s anatomy.
 Robot anatomy deals with:
 Types and sizes of these joints and links
 Other aspects of the manipulator’s physical construction
 ROBOT ANATOMY
 What is a Joint?
 A joint of robot is similar to a joint in the human body.
 Each joint gives the robot with a degree-of-freedom (d.o.f) of motion.
 In the nearly all cases, only 1 d.o.f is allowed to a joint.

 What is a Robot link?

 Links are rigid components that form a chain connected together by joints.
 Each joint has two links, known as an input link and an output link.

Link

Joint
 ROBOT ANATOMY
 Manipulator consists of joints and links
 Joints provide relative motion
 Links are rigid members between joints
 Various joint types: linear and rotary
 Robot manipulator consists of two sections:
 Body-and-arm – for positioning of objects in the robot's work volume
 Wrist assembly – for orientation of objects
 Types of Robot joints
 Linear joint or Prismatic (Parallel) joint (L)
 Orthogonal joint (O)
 Rotational joint (R)
 Twisting joint (T)
 Revolving joint (V)
 TYPES OF ROBOT JOINTS
 Linear or Prismatic or Parallel Joint (L)
 The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a linear sliding
motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel.

 Orthogonal Joint (O)

 This is also linear sliding motion, but the input and output links are perpendicular to
each other during the move.
 TYPES OF ROBOT JOINTS
 Rotational Joint (R)
 This type provides a rotational relative motion of the joints, with the axis of rotation
perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.

 Twisting Joint (T)

 This joint also involves a rotary motion, but the axis of rotation is parallel to the
axes of the two links.
 TYPES OF ROBOT JOINTS
 Revolving Joint (V)
 In this types, the axis of the input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint,
and the axis of the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
 JOINT NOTATION SCHEME
 Uses the joint symbols (L, O, R, T, V) to designate joint types used to construct robot
manipulator.

 Separates body-and-arm assembly from wrist assembly using a colon (:)

 Example: TLR : TR

 Common body-and-arm configurations …

 EXAMPLE
 Sketch following manipulator configurations
(a) TRT:R
(b) TVR:TR
(c) RR:T
 Solution:
R
R
T T R
R T
R
R V

T T

(a) TRT:R (b) TVR:TR (c) RR:T

 BASIC MOTIONS OF ROBOT
 The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be compared to the way in which
the human body moves.
 For each degree of freedom a joint is required.
 Three degrees of freedom located in the arm define the configuration.
 Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end effector all the flexibility.
 A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a robot’s hand at any point in its
work space.
 Although six degrees of freedom are needed for maximum flexibility, most robot
employee only three to five degrees of freedom.
 The more the degrees of freedom, the greater is the complexity of motions encountered.
 Wrist assembly is attached to end-of-arm.
 End effector is attached to wrist assembly.
 Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector.
 Body-and-arm determines global position of end effector.
 BASIC MOTIONS OF ROBOT
 The three degrees of freedom located in the arm of a robotic system are:
 Rotational Traverse: Movement of the arm assembly about a rotary axis, such as
left-and-right swivel of the robot’s arm about a base
 Radial Traverse: Extension and retraction of the arm or the in-and-out motion
relative to the base
 Vertical Traverse: Provides the up-and-down motion of the arm of the robotic
system
 The three degrees of freedom located in the wrist are
 Pitch or Bend: Up-and-down movement of the wrist
 Yaw: Right-and-left movement of the wrist
 Roll or Swivel: Rotation of the hand
 ROBOT CLASSIFICATION

 Arm Geometry: Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinate Configuration; Cylindrical

Coordinate Configuration; Polar or Spherical Coordinate Configuration; Revolute or
Jointed Arm Robot Configuration; SCARA Type Configuration.
 Degrees of Freedom: Robot Arm; Robot Wrist.
 Power Sources: Electrical; Pneumatic; Hydraulic; Any Combination.
 Types of Motion: Slew Motion; Joint-interpolation; Straight-line Interpolation; Circular
Interpolation.
 Path Control: Limited Sequence; Point-to-point; Continuous Path; Controlled Path.
 Intelligence Level: Low-technology (Non-servo); High-technology (Servo).

Normally, robot manipulators are classified according to their arm geometry or robot
configuration or kinematic structure.
ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
 CARTESIAN COORDINATE CONFIGURATION
 Notation: LOO
 Consists of three sliding joints, two of which are orthogonal.
 Other names include rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot.
 Robot must be able to reach a point in space within three axes by moving forward and
backward, to the left and right, and up and down.
 Robot manipulator may be classified according to the type of movement needed to
complete the task.
 Rectangular Coordinate has three linear axes of motion
 X represents left and right motion
 Y describes forward and backward motion
 Z is used to depict up-and-down motion
 The work envelope of a rectangular robot is a cube or rectangle, so that any work
performed by robot must only involve motions inside the space.
 Applications: Pick-and-place operations, Adhesive applications etc.
CARTESIAN COORDINATE CONFIGURATION

Rectangular or Cartesian-coordinated Robot:

(a) A rectangular coordinated arm moves in three linear axes.
(b) The box-shaped work envelope within which a rectangular manipulator operates.
(c) Overhead crane movements are similar to those of a rectangular-coordinated arm.
 CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE CONFIGURATION
 Notation: TLO
 Consists of a vertical column, relative to which an arm assembly is moved up or down.
 The arm can be moved in or out relative to the column.
 Has two linear motions and one rotary motion.
 Robots can achieve variable motion.
 The first coordinate describe the angle theta of base rotation - about the up-down axis.
 The second coordinate correspond to a radial or y axis - in out motion at whatever angle
the robot is positioned.
 The final coordinate again corresponds to the up-down z axis position.
 Rotational ability gives the advantage of moving rapidly to the point in z plane of
rotation.
 Results in a larger work envelope than a rectangular robot manipulator.
 Suited for pick-and-place operations.
 Applications: Assembly, Coating applications, Conveyor pallet transfer, Die casting etc.
 CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE CONFIGURATION

Cylindrical-coordinated Robot:
(a) A cylindrical-coordinated arm rotates about its base, moves in & out, and up & down.
(b) The space between the two cylinders shown is the work envelope occupied by a cylindrical-coordinated manipulator.
(c) The movements of a construction crane on top of a tall building are similar to those of a cylindrical-coordinated manipulator.
 SPHERICAL COORDINATE CONFIGURATION
 Notation: TRL
 Consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body, which can rotate about
both a vertical axis (T joint) and horizontal axis (R joint).
 Has one linear motion and two rotary motions.
 The work volume is like a section of sphere.
 First motion corresponds to a base rotation about a vertical axis, second motion
corresponds to an elbow rotation and third motion corresponds to a radial or in-out,
translation.
 A spherical-coordinated robots provides a larger work envelope than the rectilinear or
cylindrical robot.
 Design gives weight lifting capabilities.
 Advantages and disadvantages same as cylindrical-coordinated design.
 Applications: Die casting, Dip coating, Forging, Injection molding, Machine tool
handling, Material transfer, Parts cleaning, Press loading, Stacking and unstacking etc.
 SPHERICAL COORDINATE CONFIGURATION

Spherical-or Polar-coordinated Robot:

(a) A polar- or spherical-coordinated manipulator rotates about its base and shoulder and moves linearly in and out.
(b) The work envelope of a polar-coordinated manipulator is the space between the two hemispheres.
(c) A ladder on a hook-and-ladder truck has movements similar to those of a polar-coordinated manipulator.
 JOINTED-ARM ROBOT CONFIGURATION
 Notation: TRR
 Best simulates a human arm.
 Also called as an Anthropomorphic manipulator.
 Consists of two straight links, corresponding to the human “forearm” and “upper arm”
with two rotary joins corresponding to the “elbow” and “shoulder joints”.
 Also called as Revolute Arm Robot Configuration.
 Work volume of the configuration is spherical shaped.
 Consists of rotary motions actuated relative to the body, which can rotate about both
vertical axis (T joint) and horizontal axes (R joints).
 SCARA ROBOT CONFIGURATION
 Notation: VRO
 SCARA stands for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Actuator or Arm.
 Characteristics of articulated and cylindrical configurations are combined.
 Main advantage is of high speed and high precision in the horizontal plane.
 Provides high stiffness to the arm in the vertical direction.
 Provide high compliance (Acting according to certain accepted standards).
 Similar to jointed-arm robot except that vertical axes are used for shoulder and elbow
joints to be compliant in horizontal direction for vertical insertion tasks.
 ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS

Configurations Advantages Disadvantages

Cartesian 3 linear axes, easy to visualize, rigid
coordinates structure, easy to program
2 linear axes +1 rotating, can reach all
Cylindrical
around itself, reach and height axes
coordinates
rigid, rotational axis easy to seal
Can only reach front of itself,
requires large floor space, axes hard
to seal
Can’t reach above itself, base rotation
axis as less rigid, linear axes is hard
to seal, won’t reach around obstacles

SCARA 1 linear + 2 rotating axes, height axis is 2 ways to reach point, difficult to
coordinates rigid, large work area for floor space program off-line, highly complex arm
Spherical 1 linear + 2 rotating axes, long Can’t reach around obstacles, short
coordinates horizontal reach vertical reach
3 rotating axes can reach above or Difficult to program off-line, 2 or 4
Revolute
below obstacles, largest work area for ways to reach a point, most complex
coordinates
least floor space manipulator
 DRIVE SYSTEM
 Robot joints are actuated driven systems.
 Actuator is a device in robots that converts energy or power into motion.
 Actuator is the term used for the mechanism that drives the robotic arm.
 There are three different types of power drives in common use:
 Electric
 Hydraulic
 Pneumatic
 Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are generally suited to driving prismatic joints since
they produce linear motion directly.
 Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are also known as linear actuators.
 Electric motors are more suited to driving revolute joints as they produce rotation.
DRIVE SYSTEM
 PNEUMATIC DRIVES
 Systems use compressed air to move the robot arm.
 The pneumatic systems may employ a linear actuator, i.e., double acting cushioned
cylinders or it may employ rotary actuators like vane motors.
 Linear actuators are more popular.
 Generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators with low load carrying capacity.
 Pneumatic drives have been used for many years for powering simple stop-to-stop
motions.
 It is inherently light weight, particularly when operating pressures are moderate.
 For smaller robots that possess fewer degrees of freedom (two to four joint motions).
 They are limited to pick-and-place tasks with fast cycles.
 Used to open and close the gripper.
 Non-servo robots can be built up with pneumatically powered actuators.
 PNEUMATIC DRIVES
Advantages
 Simple construction
 Relatively inexpensive
 Fast and reliable

Disadvantages
 Smaller payloads
 Mass inertia and delayed response of the robot arm due to the sponginess and reduced
repeatability
 HYDRAULIC DRIVES
 In a hydraulic system, the electric motor pumps fluid (oil) from a reserve tank to the
hydraulic actuators which are, in general, double acting piston-cylinder assemblies.
 Fluid at a higher pressure passes through control valves before its entry into the linear
actuators.
 On the other hand, rotary actuator comprising some motors or hydraulic motors which
rotate continuously may be employed.
 Hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power for a given actuator.
 The high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic actuator an attractive choice for
moving moderate to high loads at reasonable speeds and moderate noise level.
 Hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way of energy to achieve a better
performance.
 Larger robots make use of hydraulic drives.
 Applications: Spray coating robot, Heavy part loading robot, Material handling robot,
Translatory motions in cartesian robot, Gripper mechanism.
 HYDRAULIC DRIVES
Advantages
 High payload capacities
 Relatively easy to maintain
 Associated with large robot
 Provide greater speed & strength

Disadvantages
 Requires more floor space
 Tendency to oil leakage
 Rather expensive
 Not as accurate as either the pneumatic or electric drives
 ELECTRIC DRIVES
 All robots use electricity as the primary source of energy.
 Electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraulic and pneumatic pressure.
 It also powers the robot controller and all the electronic components and peripheral
devices.
 In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are electrically
powered.
 Because electric robot do not require a hydraulic power unit, they conserve floor space
and decrease factory noise.
 No energy conversion is required.
 DC servo motors, Brushless DC motors, Reversible AC servo motors and Stepper motors
are important electrical drives.
 Small and medium size robots are usually powered by electric drives via gear trains using
Servomotors and Non-servo motors (stepper motors).
 All industrial robots are either Servo or Non-servo controlled.
 ELECTRIC DRIVES
Advantages
 Better accuracy & repeatability
 Require less floor space
 More towards precise work such as assembly applications

Disadvantages
 Generally not as speedy and powerful as hydraulic robots
 Expensive for large and powerful robots, can become fire hazard
 SENSORS
 Sensors are any device that provide input of data to the robot controller.
 Sensors collect all the information a robot needs to operate and interact with its
environment.
 The control of a manipulator or industrial robot is based on the correct interpretation of
sensory information.
 The information can be obtained either internally to the robot (for example, joint
positions and motor torque) or externally using a wide range of sensors.
 A variety of sensors is available for inclusion in end effectors.
 Most common sensors employed in end effectors measure proximity, collision, and force.
 Since the “action” capability is physically interacting with the environment, two types of
sensors have to be used in any robotic system:
 “Proprioceptors” for the measurement of the robot’s (internal) parameters
 “Exteroceptors” for the measurement of its environmental (external, from the robot
point of view) parameters
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
PROPRIOCEPTORS
 From a mechanical point of view a robot appears as an articulated structure consisting of
a series of links interconnected by joints.
 Each joint is driven by an actuator which can change the relative position of the two links
connected by that joint.
 Proprioceptors are sensors measuring both kinematic and dynamic parameters of the
robot.
 Based on these measurements the control system activates the actuators to exert torques
so that the articulated mechanical structure performs the desired motion.
 Proprioceptive sensors measure values internal to the system (robot); e.g. motor speed,
wheel load, robot arm joint angles, battery voltage.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
EXTEROCEPTORS
 Exteroceptors are sensors that measure the positional or force-type interaction of the
robot with its environment.
 Exteroceptive sensors acquire information from the robot’s environment; e.g. distance
measurements, light intensity, sound amplitude.
 Exteroceptive sensor measurements are interpreted by the robot in order to extract
meaningful environmental features.
 Exteroceptors can be classified according to their range as follows:
 Contact sensors
 Proximity (“near to”) sensors
 “far away” sensors
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Contact Sensors
 Contact sensors are used to detect the positive contact between two mating parts and/or to
measure the interaction forces and torques which appear while the robot manipulator
conducts part mating operations.
 Another type of contact sensors are the tactile sensors which measure a multitude of
parameters of the touched object surface.
 Contact sensors can be further classified as
 Force/Torque Sensors
 Tactile Sensors
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Force/Torque Sensors
 The interaction forces and torques which appear, during mechanical assembly operations,
at the robot hand level can be measured by sensors mounted on the joints or on the
manipulator wrist.

Tactile Sensors
 Tactile sensing is defined as the continuous sensing of variable contact forces over an
area within which there is a spatial resolution.
 Tactile sensing is more complex than touch sensing which usually is a simple vectorial
force/torque measurement at a single point.
 Tactile sensors mounted on the fingers of the hand allow the robot to measure contact
force profile and slippage, or to grope and identify object shape.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Proximity Sensors
 Proximity sensors detect objects which are near but without touching them.
 These sensors are used for near-field (object approaching or avoidance) robotic
operations.
 Proximity sensors are classified according to their operating principle:
 Inductive
 Hall effect
 Capacitive
 Ultrasonic and Optical
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Inductive Sensors
 Sensors are based on the change of inductance due to the presence of metallic objects.
Hall Effect Sensors
 Sensors are based on the relation which exists between the voltage in a semiconductor
material and the magnetic field across that material.
 Inductive and Hall effect sensors detect only the proximity of ferromagnetic objects.
Capacitive Sensors
 Sensors are potentially capable of detecting the proximity of any type of solid or liquid
materials.
Ultrasonic and Optical Sensors
 Sensors are based on the modification of an emitted signal by objects that are in their
proximity.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
“Far Away” Sensors
 Two types of “far away” sensors are used in robotics:
 Range Sensors
 Vision Sensors

 Range Sensors measure the distance to objects in their operation area. They are used for
robot navigation, obstacle avoidance or to recover the third dimension for monocular
vision.
 Vision Sensors or Robot Vision is a complex sensing process. It involves extracting,
characterizing and interpreting information from images in order to identify or describe
objects in environment.
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
PASSIVE SENSORS
 Passive sensors measure ambient environmental energy entering the sensor.
 Examples of passive sensors include temperature probes, microphones and CCD or
CMOS cameras.

ACTIVE SENSORS
 Active sensors emit energy into the environment, then measure the environmental
reaction.
 Active sensors can manage more controlled interactions with the environment, they often
achieve superior performance.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
 SENSORS USED IN ROBOT
 Resistive Sensors
 Bend sensors, potentiometer, resistive photocells, ...
 Tactile Sensors
 Contact switch, bumpers…
 Infrared Sensors
 Reflective, proximity, distance sensors…
 Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
 Inertial Sensors (measure the second derivatives of position)
 Accelerometer, Gyroscopes,
 Orientation Sensors
 Compass, Inclinometer
 Laser Range Sensors
 Vision, GPS, …
 END EFFECTOR
 Robot end-effector is the gripper or end of arm tooling mounted on the wrist of the robot
manipulator arm.
 A robot performs a variety of tasks for which various tooling and special grippers are
required to be designed.
 A robot manipulator is flexible and adaptable, but its end-effector is task-specific.
 The wide range of gripping methods include:
 Mechanical Clamping
 Magnetic Gripping
 Vacuum (Suction) Gripping
 END EFFECTOR
Mechanism of Gripping
 Generally, the gripping mechanism is done by the grippers or mechanical fingers.
 Though in the industrial robotics due to less complications, two finger grippers are used.
 The fingers are also replaceable.
 Due to gradual wearing, the fingers can be replaced without actually replacing the
grippers.

Shape of the Gripping Surface

 The shape of the gripping surface on the fingers can be chosen according to the shape of
the objects that are lifted by the grippers.
 For example, if the robot is designated a task to lift a round object, the gripper surface
shape can be a negative impression of the object to make the grip efficient, or for a square
shape the surface can be plane.
 TYPES OF END EFFECTORS
 Impactive Gripper
 One of the most popular end effectors to be seen
in general manufacturing applications.
 These are usually jaw or claw-like effectors that
physically grasp the object to relocate or reorient
the object based on the need.
 Ingressive Gripper
 Ingressive grippers are end effectors that include
pins, needles, or hackles that are used to
physically penetrate the surface of the object.
 These are commonly used in applications like
carbon and glass fiber handling, where physically
grasping the object isn’t possible or efficient.
 TYPES OF END EFFECTORS
 Astrictive Gripper
 Grippers are used when a robot isn’t allowed to grip or
penetrate an object such as a bag of flour.
 Grippers create & use an attractive force that is applied
to the object in order to grasp the product.
 These attractive forces are created by vacuum, magneto
or electro adhesion.
 Contigutive Gripper
 Not all grippers are used to relocate or reorient objects.
 Grippers are implemented into a system where the
robot is required to make direct contact with the
product in order for adhesion to take place.
 Type of application is used on products that require the
addition of things like glue, surface tension, or freezing.
 TOOLS AS END EFFECTORS
 A tool is equipped in the robot for carrying out several operations on the work parts
instead of grasping it.
 A tool acts as an end effector when it is attached directly to the robot’s wrist.
 In some applications, there will be a need for multi-tool task, and changing the tool all the
time from the robot wrist will be highly difficult.
 As a result, a gripper is used in this process to grasp and manipulate the tool.
 It certainly helps the robot to handle several tools in an operation, and thus makes the
multi-tooling function possible.
 Moreover, the time taken to change the tool is very low.
 TOOLS AS END EFFECTORS
 In robot applications, the most commonly used three tools as end effectors are:
 Spot Welding Tools
 Spray Painting Nozzle
 Arc Welding Torch
 UNILATERAL VS MULTILATERAL GRIPPER
 Unilateral
 Only one point or surface is touching the object to be handled
 Example: Vacuum pad gripper & Electro magnetic gripper
 Multilateral
 More than two points or surfaces touching the components to be handled
 GRIPPERS AS END EFFECTORS
 Grippers are the end effectors used for holding the parts or objects.
 Grippers are devices which can be used for holding or gripping an object.
 They include what you might call mechanical hands and also anything like hooks,
magnets and suction devices which can be used for holding or gripping.
 Grippers take advantage of point-to-point control (exact path that the robot takes between
what it is picking up and where it is placing it).
 Grippers should be designed so that it requires the minimum amount of maneuvering in
order to grip the work piece.

 Applications of Grippers:
 Machine Loading and unloading, picking and placing of parts on conveyor, material
handling, bottle handling, arranging parts onto pallets, etc.
 GRIPPERS AS END EFFECTORS
 Types of Grippers
 Mechanical Grippers
 Hooks and Scoops
 Magnetic and Vacuum Grippers
 Expandable Bladder Type Grippers
 Adhesive Grippers
 MECHANICAL GRIPPERS
 A basic robot hand will have only two or three fingers.
 A mechanical hand that wraps around an object will rely on friction in order to secure the
object it is holding.
 Friction between the gripper and the object will depend on two things:
 First is the type of surface whether it be metal on metal, rubber on metal, smooth
surfaces or rough surfaces.
 Second is the force which is pressing the surfaces together.
 Mechanical grippers are often fitted with some type of pad usually made from
polyurethane as this provides greater friction.
 Pads are less likely to damage the work piece.
 Pads are also used so to have a better grip as the polyurethane will make contact with all
parts of the surface when the gripper is closed
 Mechanical grippers can be designed and made for specific purposes and adjusted
according to the size of the object.
 MECHANICAL GRIPPERS
 Mechanical grippers can also have dual grippers.
 We are all familiar with the saying ‘two hands are better than one” and robots benefit
from having dual grippers as they can increase productivity, be used with machines that
have two work stations where one robot can load two parts in a single operation,
operations in which the size of objects or part change due to the machining processes and
where the cycle time of the robot is too slow to keep up with the production of other
machines.
 MECHANICAL GRIPPERS
Holding of Part by Mechanical Gripper
 Using the finger pads as like the shape of the work part:
 The contact surfaces of the fingers are designed according to the work part for
achieving the estimated shape.
 It will help the fingers to hold the work part for some extent.
 Using soft material finger pads:
 The fingers must be capable of supplying sufficient force to hold the work part.
 To avoid scratches on the work part, soft type pads are fabricated on the fingers.
 As a result, the contact surface of the finger and co-efficient of friction are
improved.
 This method is very simple and as well as less expensive.
 It may cause slippage if the force applied against the work part is in the parallel
direction.
 The slippage can be avoided by designing the gripper based on the force exerted.
 HOOKS AND SCOOPS
 Hooks and scoops are the simplest type of end effectors that can be classes as grippers.
 A scoop or ladle is commonly used to scoop up molten metal and transfer it to the mold.
 A hook may be all that is needed to lift a part especially if precise positioning in not
required and if it is only to be dipped into a liquid.
 Hook are used to load and unload parts hanging from the overhead conveyors.
 The parts to be handled by a hook must have some sort of handle, eyebolt or ring to
enable the hook to hold it.
 Scoops are used for handling the materials in liquid or powder form, the limitation of
scoop is, it is difficult to control the amount of material being handled by the scoop.
 In addition, spilling of the material during handling is another problem.
 MAGNETIC GRIPPERS
 Magnetic grippers obviously only work on magnetic objects and therefore are limited in
working with certain metals.
 For maximum effect the magnet needs to have complete contact with the surface of the
metal to be gripped.
 Any air gaps will reduce the strength of the magnetic force, therefore flat sheets of metal
are best suited to magnetic grippers.
 If the magnet is strong enough, a magnetic gripper can pick up an irregular shaped object.
 In some cases the shape of the magnet matches the shape of the object.
 A disadvantage of using magnetic grippers is the temperature.
 Permanent magnets tend to become demagnetized when heated and so there is the danger
that prolonged contact with a hot work piece will weaken them to the point where they
can no longer be used.
 The effect of heat will depend on the time the magnet spends in contact with the hot part.
 Most magnetic materials are relatively unaffected by temperatures upto around 1000C.
 MAGNETIC GRIPPERS
 Electromagnets can be used instead and are operated by a DC electric current and lose
nearly all of their magnetism when the power is turned off.
 Permanent magnets are also used in situations where there is an explosive atmosphere
and sparks from electrical equipment would cause a hazard.
 SUCTION GRIPPERS
 There are two types of suction grippers:
 Devices operated by a vacuum – the vacuum may be provided by a vacuum pump
or by compressed air.
 Devices with a flexible suction cup – this cup presses on the work piece.
 Compressed air is blown into the suction cup to release the work piece.
 The advantage of the suction cup is that if there is a power failure it will still work as the
work piece will not fall down.
 The disadvantage of the suction cup is that they only work on clean, smooth surfaces.
 There are many more advantages for using a suction cup rather than a mechanical grip
including:
 There is no danger of crushing fragile objects
 The exact shape and size does not matter
 The suction cup does not have to be precisely positioned on the object
 SUCTION GRIPPERS
 The downfalls of suction cups as an end effector include:
 The robot system must include a form of pump for air
 The level of noise can cause annoyance in some circumstances
 EXPANDABLE BLADDER TYPE GRIPPERS
 A bladder gripper or bladder hand is a specialized robotic end effector that can be used to
grasp, pick up, and move rod-shaped or cylindrical objects.
 The main element of the gripper is an inflatable, donut-shaped or cylindrical sleeve that
resembles the cuff commonly used in blood pressure measuring apparatus.
 The sleeve is positioned so it surrounds the object to be gripped, and then the sleeve is
inflated until it is tight enough to accomplish the desired task.
 The pressure exerted by the sleeve can be measured and regulated using force sensors.
 Bladder grippers are useful in handling fragile objects.
 However, they do not operate fast, and they can function only with objects within a rather
narrow range of physical sizes.
 ADHESIVE GRIPPERS
 Adhesive Substance can be used for grasping action in adhesive grippers.
 The adhesive substance losses its tackiness due to repeated usage and reduces the
reliability of the gripper.
 Adhesive material is continuously fed to the gripper in the form of ribbon by feeding
mechanism. A major asset of the adhesive gripper is the fact that it is simple.
 As long as the adhesive keep its stickiness it will continue to function without
maintenance, however, there are certain limitations, the most significant is the fact that
the adhesive cannot readily be disabled in order to release the grasp on an object.
 Some other means, such as devices that lock the gripped object into place, must be used.
 The adhesive grippers are used for handling fabrics and other lightweight materials.
 END EFFECTOR
 Depending on the type of operation, conventional end effectors are equipped with various
devices and tool attachments, as follows:
 Grippers, hooks, scoops, electromagnets, vacuum cups, and adhesive fingers for
material handling.
 Spray gun for painting.
 Attachments for spot and arc welding and arc cutting.
 Power tools such as drills, nut drivers, and burrs.
 Special devices and fixtures for machining and assembly.
 Measuring instruments, such as dial indicators, depth gauges etc.
 END EFFECTOR
Cam-operated Hand
 Can easily handle heavy weights or bulky
objects.
 Designed to hold the object so that its center of
gravity (CG) is kept very closed to the wrist of
hand.
 The short distance between the wrist and the
CG minimizes the twisting tendency of a heavy
or bulky object.
Special Hand with Modular Gripper
 Special hand, with pair of pneumatic actuators,
is one of the many special hand designs for
industrial robots.
 Suitable for parts of light weight.
 END EFFECTOR
Simple Vacuum Cup Hand
 Suitable for Handling fragile parts such as cathode ray tube face
plates.
Magnetic Pickup
 Magnetic handling is most suitable for parts of ferrous contents.
 Magnets can be scientifically designed and made in numerous
shapes and sizes to perform various tasks.
Laddle
 Ladling hot materials such as molten metal is a hot and
hazardous job for which industrial robots are well suited.
 In piston casting permanent mold die casting and related
applications, the robot can be programmed to scoop up and
transfer the molten metal from the pot to the mold, and then do
the pouring.
 END EFFECTOR
Special Hand for Glass Tubes
 Hand is specially designed for industrial robots to securely
grasping of relatively short tubes.
Spray Gun
 Ability of the industrial robot to do multi pass spraying with
controlled velocity fits it for automated application of primers,
paints, and ceramic or glass frits, as well as application of
masking agents used before plating.
 For short or medium-length production runs, the industrial robot
would often be a better choice than a special purpose setup
requiring a lengthy change-over procedure for each different
part. Also the robot can spray parts with compound curvatures
and multiple surfaces.
 END EFFECTOR
Tool Changing
 A single industrial robot can also handle several tools sequentially, with an automatic
tool-changing operation programmed into the robot's memory.
 The tools can be of different types or sizes, permitting multiple operations an the same
work piece.