Querying Data

Introduction toUsing SQL Database

Relational Server Management Systems
Rationale

Database is an integral part of an organization. Aspiring

database developers should be able to efficiently design
and implement databases.
This knowledge will enable the developers to build robust
database solutions.
This course will help students to understand the concepts
related to relational databases as well as equip them with
basic and advanced knowledge of SQL Server.

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Objectives

In this session, you will learn to:

Define a database management system
Describe the types of data models
Define a relational database management system
Describe the operators that work on relations
Map an ER diagram to a table
Identify tips of logical database design

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Database Management System

A database is a collection of logically related data.

Database Management System (DBMS) is the software
required to perform the task of maintaining databases.
Management of data involves:
Defining structures for data storage.
Providing methods for data manipulation.
Providing data security.
The main advantages of any DBMS is to:
Provide an efficient and easy way to store, update, and retrieve
data.
Manage information about users who interact with the DBMS,
and the tasks that they can perform.

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Data Models

A data model is a description of the data in a database.

Data models can be broadly classified into the following
categories:
Object-based logical model
Record-based logical model

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Object-Based Logical Model

The ER model:
Views the real world as a collection of objects or entities and
the relationship among them.
An entity:
Is any object, place, person, or activity about which the data is
recorded.
Can be categorized as entity type and entity instance.
An entity can be of the following types:
Dependent entity
Independent entity

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Object-Based Logical Model (Contd.)

A relationship is:
Defined as an association among entities.
Depicted in a diamond shaped box with the name of the
relationship type inside it.
The following diagram depicts a relationship between the
entities (TEACHER and STUDENT).

Relationship

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Just a minute

Consider the following statement:

“A supplier ships certain parts.”
Identify the entities and the relationship which exists
between them.
Entities: SUPPLIER and PARTS
Relationship: SHIPS
Entities: SUPPLIER and SHIPS
Relationship: PARTS
Entities: PARTS and SHIPS
Relationship: SUPPLIER
Entities: SUPPLIER, PARTS, and SHIPS
Relationship: SUPPLIES

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Just a minute (Contd.)

Solution:
Entities: SUPPLIER and PARTS
Relationship: SHIPS

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Object-Based Logical Model (Contd.)

The three types of relationships are:

One-to-One
One-to-Many (or Many-to-One)
Many-to-Many
An attribute:
Is a property of a given entity.
Is depicted as ellipses, labeled with the name of the property.

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Just a minute

An attribute is a property of a given entity, which is depicted

as ___________, labeled with the name of the property.

Solution:
ellipses

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Just a minute

Consider the following statement:

“A supplier ships certain parts. A particular part is not necessarily

supplied by only one supplier. No supplier supplies only a

single
part.”
What type of relationship is possible between the two
entities?
One-to-One relationship
One-to-Many relationship
Many-to-Many relationship
Solution:
Many-to-One relationship
Many-to-Many relationship

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Object-Based Logical Model (Contd.)

A subtype:
Is a subset of another entity.
Is always dependent on the supertype for its existence.
The attributes of a supertype apply to all of its subtypes.
The following diagram depicts the relationship between
supertype (COURSE) and subtypes (STANDLONE and
SEMESTER).

The supertype is connected

to the relationship with a line
containing a crossbar.

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Just a minute

There are two types of suppliers. One type of supplier allows

credit, while the other type insists on payment in cash before
delivery. The manufacturer wishes to maintain separate
information on these two types of suppliers. For the credit
supplier, “credit period” and “credit limit” have to be recorded. For
the cash supplier, “date of payment” has to be stored. Identify the
subtype and supertype entities.
Subtypes: Suppliers and Cash
Supertype: Credit
Subtype: Credit
Supertypes: Cash and Suppliers
Subtypes: Cash and Credit
Supertype: Suppliers
Subtype: Suppliers
Supertypes: Cash and Credit

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Just a minute (Contd.)

Solution:
Subtypes: Cash and Credit
Supertype: Suppliers

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Record-Based Logical Model

The three types of record-based logical models are:

Hierarchical model:
Represents data in the form of a tree, and relationships between
the data by links.
Network model:
Is similar to a hierarchical model.
Represents records in a database graphically.
Relational model:
Represents data in the form of tables in a database.
Is the most popular model.

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Record-Based Logical Model (Contd.)

The following diagram depicts the parent-child relationship in a

relational model.

Column A is a primary key of Table1, which is

also present in Table2 as a foreign key.

Table3, which consists of columns, A, B, and F

can have a combination of columns (A and B)
as a foreign key.

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Steps for Creating an ER Diagram

The following steps should be followed while creating an ER

diagram:
1. Identify the entities.
2. Find the relationships.
3. Identify the key attribute.
4. Identify other important attributes.
5. Draw a complete ER diagram.
6. Review the ER diagram.

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Just a minute

Which one of the following is NOT a record-based logical

model?
Hierarchical model
Network model
ER model
Relational model

Solution:
ER model

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Steps for Creating an ER Diagram (Contd.)

Click the following link to view an animation on constructing

an ER diagram.

Constructing an
ER Diagram

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Relational Operators

Relational algebra is a collection of operators that operate

on relations.
Each operator takes one or two relations as its input and
produces a new relation as its output.
The following operators have been defined as relational
operators:
RESTRICT
PROJECT
PRODUCT
UNION
INTERSECT
DIFFERENCE
JOIN
DIVIDE

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Relational Operators (Contd.)

Click the following link to view an animation on relational

algebra.

Relational Algebra

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RESTRICT

The restrict operator extracts specified tuples or rows from a

given relation based on a condition, as shown in the
following diagram.

Extracted Rows

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PROJECT

The project operator extracts specified attributes or columns

from a given relation, as shown in the following diagram.

Extracted Columns

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PRODUCT

The product operator joins two relations such that every tuple of
the first relation is matched with every tuple of the second relation.
To be product compatible, the two tables must have common
attributes.
The following diagram shows an example of the product operator.

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UNION

The union operator builds a relation from tuples appearing

in either or both of the specified relations.
The following diagram shows the mathematical
representation of the union operator.

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INTERSECT

The intersect operator builds a relation consisting of tuples

that appear in both the relations.
The following diagram shows the mathematical
representation of the intersect operator.

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DIFFERENCE

The difference operator builds a relation of tuples appearing

in the first but not in the second of the two specified
relations.
The following diagram shows the mathematical
representation of the difference operator.

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JOIN

The join operator builds a relation that consists of all the

possible combinations of tuples, one from each relation that
satisfies the specified condition.
The following diagram depicts the working of the join operator.

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DIVIDE

The divide operator builds a relation that consists of values

of an attribute of one relation that matches all the values in
the other relation.
The divide operation is the opposite of the product
operation.
The following diagram depicts the working of the divide
operator.

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Just a minute

Which operator is used to extract specified tuples or rows

from a given relation based on a condition in a relational
algebra?
Project
Join
Restrict
Product

Solution:
Restrict

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Conceptual Model

The conceptual model can be mapped to a relational,

hierarchical, or network model.
Data analysis is the first step in designing a conceptual
model.
Data analysis involves identifying entities, their attributes,
and relationships between entities based on the data
collected.
An entity-relationship diagram gives a detailed overview of
the database design.

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Mapping ER Diagrams to Tables

The following components play an important part while

mapping an ER diagram to a table:
Regular entities
Attributes
Relationships
Weak entities
Subtypes and supertypes

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Mapping ER Diagrams to Tables (Contd.)

Regular entities:
They can exist alone, independent of any other entity.
They are the “building blocks” of the database.
Each regular entity maps to a table.
For example, STUDENT and BOOKS are two separate entities
in the following ER diagram.

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Mapping ER Diagrams to Tables (Contd.)

Attributes:
Each property or attribute shown in the ER diagram maps to an attribute in the
appropriate table.
In the following ER diagram, STUDENT and BOOKS individually have different
attributes.

Entity becomes the table and the

attributes of the entity become
columns of the table.

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Mapping ER Diagrams to Tables (Contd.)

Relationships:
Map to tables in a different manner in the relational DBMS,
which depends on the type of the relationship.
Click the following link to view an animation on mapping
an ER diagram to table.

RDBMS_02_Relationship.swf

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Mapping ER Diagrams to Tables (Contd.)

Weak entity:
It is an entity whose existence depends on some other entity.
The following diagram depicts the weak entity (EMPLOYEEADDRESS).

The EMPLOYEEADDRESS
entity can be mapped to a
separate table.

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Mapping ER Diagrams to Tables (Contd.)

Subtypes and supertypes:

A subtype is a subset of another entity.
A subtype is always dependent on supertype for its existence.
The primary key of the supertype creates a link between the
supertype and subtypes.

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Tips on Logical Database Design

There are some tips and guidelines to be followed in

database design.

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Attributes

Do not introduce any unnecessary attributes.

An attribute serves the following purposes:
It identifies its owner entity.
It refers to another entity.
It simplifies the description of an entity.
If there are any entities with common attributes, merge
the entities.

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Keys

An RDBMS identifies and locates rows by value.

The physical address is transparent to the user.
Relational systems require keys that can uniquely identify
the rows of a table.
The various types of keys used in an RDBMS are:
Primary
Foreign
Candidate
Alternate
Composite
Click the following link to view an animation on keys.

RDBMS_02_Keys.swf

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Just a minute

Which one of the following keys could be a candidate for the

primary key but is not the primary key?
Candidate
Alternate
Composite
Foreign

Solution:
Alternate

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Just a minute

Which one of the following keys is made up of more than

one attribute and uniquely identifies the rows of the table?
Candidate
Alternate
Composite
Primary

Solution:
Composite

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Entities

You can create a new entity to represent important recurring

groups of attributes, as shown in the following diagram.

Attribute
ADDRESS
becomes an
entity.

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Subentities

Entities that have optional attributes can be replaced with subentities.

Specialization is the result of taking a subset of a
higher-level entity set to form a lower-level entity set.
Generalization is the result of taking the union of two or more lower-level entity sets to produce a higher-level entity set.

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Demo: Mapping the ER Diagram to Tables

Problem Statement:
Map the following ER diagram to its corresponding tables.

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Summary

In this session, you learned that:

Data models can be classified as:
Object-based logical model
Record-based logical model
In the ER diagramming technique:
Entities are represented as rectangles.
Relationships are represented as diamonds.
Attributes are represented as ellipses.
Weak entities are represented by double-lined boxes.
Subtypes are connected to the supertype by an unnamed
relationship, marked with a crossbar on top.
The number of tuples is called the cardinality of the table, and the
number of attributes is called the degree of the table.
An attribute (or set of attributes) that is unique in every tuple is
called the primary key.

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Summary (Contd.)

The foreign key is a column in one table that matches the

primary key of another table.
The eight operators that operate on relations are restrict,
project, product, union, intersect, difference, join, and divide.
Regular entities are not dependent. They can exist in isolation,
independent of any other entity.
A weak entity is an entity whose existence depends on some
other entity.
A subtype is a subset of another entity. A subtype is always
dependent on supertype for its existence.

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What’s Next?

Before the next session, please ensure to:

Read Chapter 1 of the book, Introduction to Relational
Database Management Systems.
Go through the recorded lectures on the following topics
through Cloudscape:
ER Model
Using the Intersect, Product, and Union Operators
Complete the Lab@Home exercises based on the learning
plan available on the technology page on Cloudscape.

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