IMAGE ENHACEMENT: do depict a particular part more prominent.

Contrast Enhancements Contrast enhancements improve the perceptibility of objects in the scene
by enhancing the brightness difference between objects and their backgrounds. Contrast
enhancements are typically performed as a contrast stretch followed by a tonal enhancement,
although these could both be performed in one step. A contrast stretch improves the brightness
differences uniformly across the dynamic range of the image, whereas tonal enhancements improve
the brightness differences in the shadow (dark), mid-tone (Gray), or highlight (bright) regions at the
expense of the brightness differences in the other regions.

Gray-level histogram: Most contrast enhancement methods make use of the gray-level histogram,
created by counting the number of times each Gray-level value occurs in the image, then dividing by
the total number of pixels in the image to create a distribution of the percentage of each gray level
in the image. The gray-level histogram describes the statistical distribution of the gray levels in the
image but contains no spatial information about the image. It results in enhancements of the
features which are subdued or shadowed, in a satellite data.We adjust the brightness and darkness
factors, in contrast enhancement technique.

Edge enhancement is an image processing filter that enhances the edge contrast of an image or
video in an attempt to improve its acutance (apparent sharpness).

Band Ratios Each object has its own spectral reflectance pattern in different wavelength portion.
Spectral reflectance curve is a kind of fingerprint of the object. The objects may have high
reflectance value in some spectral portion; however, it may absorb in another spectral region.
According to this information, the main concept of the band ratios technique was developed. Basic
idea of this technique is to emphasize or exaggerate the anomaly of the target object.
On band ratios image the extreme black-and-white tones of the gray scale represent the maximum
difference in spectral reflectivity between two bands. The darkest tones are targets for which
denominator of the ratio is greater than the numerator. Conversely the numerator is greater than
the denominator for the lightest tones. Ratio techniques are usually used to enhance the spectral
differences between surface materials that difficult to detect in raw images. Moreover, such
techniques may suppress the effect of variable illumination resulting from topographic variations,
slope shadows, seasonal changes, and either differences in sunlight angle or intensity may also be
eliminated. Information gained by ratio transforms is considered to be almost new and cannot be
obtained from either of the bands independently.

 In band ratio only certain feature is enhanced. In contrast enhancements or histogram the
effect is applied on entire image unlike the band ratio.
 The output of a band ratio is a black and white image
 Band ratio is basically a process of ratio of the values of two different bands pixel value.
 Band ratios is a feature specific enhancement.
 Filter is an image specific enhancement.

Vegetation Indices Vegetation indices are quantitative measures, based on digital values that
attempt to measure biomass or vegetation vigor. Usually a vegetation index is formed from
combinations of several spectral values that are added, divided, or multiplied in a manner designed
to yield a single value that indicates the amount or vigor of vegetation within a pixel. High values of
the vegetation index identify pixels covered by substantial proportions of healthy vegetation. The
simplest form of vegetation index is simply a ratio between digital values from separate spectral
bands.
The green vegetation would have slightly higher reflectance in the green portion of the visible
spectrum than in blue or the red. The dips in the blue and the red are due to photosynthetic
absorption at those wavelengths. To take advantage of this particular spectral feature, researchers
have developed a metric known as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) which is
equal to the signal received in the near infrared minus the signal in the red divided by the sum of the
signals in those bands. (This normalization is performed to reduce intra-class variation due to lighting
and topographic effects)

This index largely compensates for changing illumination conditions, surface slope, and viewing
aspects. Healthy vegetation reflects strongly in the near infrared portion of the spectrum while
absorbing strongly in the visible red. Other surface types, such as soil and water, show near equal
reflectance in both near infrared and red portions. Thus, the NDVI image would significantly enhance
the discrimination of vegetation from other surface cover types. In general, vegetation yields high
positive NDVI values. Clouds, water, and snow yield negative values due to larger red reflectance
than near infrared. The NDVI values for rock and bare soil are near zero due to their similar
reflectance in both bands. Therefore, in a NDVI image the lighter tones are associated with dense
coverage of healthy vegetation.

Low values of NDVI (0.1 and less) correspond to vegetation free regions and to stone, sand and snow
areas. Moderate index values (0.2–0.3) show presence of bush and meadow vegetation; while high
index values (0.6–0.8) denote forests of temperate climate and tropical rainforests.
NDVI is calculated from comparison of visible and near-infrared light reflected from vegetation. A
green pigment in leaves that is chlorophyll greatly absorbs visible light (from 0.4 to 0.7 microns) for
photosynthesis process. At the same time, structure of cells of leaves greatly reflects near-infrared
light (from 0.7 to 1.1 microns). Healthy vegetation absorbs a major part of visible light while it also
reflects a larger part of near-infrared light. Unhealthy or scarce vegetation reflects visible light
mostly and a lesser part of near-infrared light.

Normalized Differential Water Index (NDWI):

This index is used to oversee the situation of water in the study area. The ratio between red and
SWIR1 spectral region dearly enhanced water bodies to the brighter pixels. Plant humidity is an
important indicator for wildfires monitoring and for defining of possibly dangerous regions. Low
humidity contributes to environment susceptible to wild fires, especially it happens in ecosystems
where live and dry vegetation coexist.
NDWI in comparison with NDVI is more accurate indicator of plant humidity. NDWI is calculated
with the help of water absorption band which is more closely connected with moisture than
chlorophyll whose light-absorbing properties are used in calculation of NDVI. During droughts
vegetation condition greatly depends on water stress and in this case Normalized Difference
Water Index is more useful than chlorophyll-based Normalized Difference Vegetation Index.

Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI):

Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI), Built-up Index (BU), Urban Index (UI), Index-
based Built-up Index (IBI), Enhanced Built-up and Bareness Index (EBBI) are most common
indexes for analysis the built-up areas. These different indexes having their own formula,
own calculation method. The build-up areas and bare soil reflects more SWIR than NIR.
Water body doesn’t reflect on Infrared spectrum. In case of greenie surface, reflection of
NIR is higher than SWIR spectrum (Fig 1). For better result, you can use Built-up Index (BU).
Build-up Index is the index for analysis of urban pattern using NDBI and NDVI. Built-up index
is the binary image with only higher positive value indicates built-up and barren thus, allows
BU to map the built-up area automatically.

BU = NDBI - NDVI

SATELLITE IMAGE TECHNIQUES

There are several methods and techniques for satellite image classification:
Satellite image classification methods can be broadly classified into three categories:
• Automated
• Manual
• Hybrid

Automated:
Automated satellite image classification methods use algorithms that applied systematically the
entire satellite image to group pixels into meaningful categories. Majority of the classification
methods fall under this category. Automated satellite image classification methods further classified
into two categories
1) supervised
2) unsupervised classification methods.

Supervised: Supervised classification methods require input from an analyst. The input from analyst
is known as training set. Training sample is the most important factor in the supervised satellite
image classification methods. Accuracy of the methods highly depends on the samples taken for
training. Training samples are two types, one used for classification and another for supervising
classification
accuracy.

Training set is provided before classification is run. Major supervised classification methods use the
following statistical techniques:
• Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
• Binary Decision Tree (BDT)
• Image Segmentation

 Artificial Neural Network: Algorithms fall under Artificial Neural Network (ANN) simulate
human learning process to associate the correct meaningful labels to image pixels.
Advantage of ANN based satellite image classification algorithms is easy to incorporate
supplementary data in the classification process and improves classification accuracy.

 Binary Decision Tree: Binary Decision Tree (BDT) satellite image classification algorithms are
machine learning techniques. Decision tree technique includes a set of binary rules that
define meaningful classes to be associated to individual pixels. Different decision tree
software is available to generate binary rules. The software takes training set and
supplementary data to define effective rules.
 Image Segmentation: Segmentation plays a vital role in satellite image processing, analysis
and pattern recognition. Satellite image segmentation techniques/algorithms are not
directly related to image classification. Image segmentation groups pixels which are
relatively homogeneous into segments. Image segmentation algorithms provide variables
that support analyst to specify relative size and shape of the segments. Segmented image
can be classified at segmentation level, instead of pixel level. Segmentation level satellite
image classification algorithms are much faster than pixel level classification methods

Unsupervised: Unsupervised classification technique uses clustering mechanisms to group satellite

image pixels into unlabelled classes/clusters. Later analyst assigns meaningful labels to the clusters
and produces well classified satellite image. Most common unsupervised satellite image
classification is ISODATA, Support Vector Machine (SVM) and K-Means.

Manual: Manual satellite image classification methods are robust, effective and efficient methods.
But manual methods consume more time. In manual methods the analyst must be familiar with the
area covered by the satellite image. Efficiency and accuracy of the classification, depends on analyst
knowledge and familiarity towards the field of study.

Hybrid: Hybrid satellite image classification methods combines the advantages of automated and
manual methods. Hybrid approach uses automated satellite image classification methods to do
initial classification, further manual methods are used to refine classification and correct errors.
During drought event, vegetation canopy can be affected by water stress. This can have
major impact on the plant development in general and can cause crop failure or lower crop
production in agricultural areas. Early recognition of plant water stress can be critical to
prevent such consequences. By providing near-real time information on the plant water
stress to the stakeholders, water and agricultural management can be much improved,
notably by irrigating specifically areas where plant water needs are not fulfilled anymore.

The Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) is known to be strongly related to the plant
water content. It is therefore a very good proxy for plant water stress.

The Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) (Gao, 1996) is a satellite-derived index from
the Near-Infrared (NIR) and Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) channels. The SWIR reflectance
reflects changes in both the vegetation water content and the spongy mesophyll structure in
vegetation canopies, while the NIR reflectance is affected by leaf internal structure and leaf
dry matter content but not by water content. The combination of the NIR with the SWIR
removes variations induced by leaf internal structure and leaf dry matter content, improving
the accuracy in retrieving the vegetation water content (Ceccato et al. 2001). The amount of
water available in the internal leaf structure largely controls the spectral reflectance in the
SWIR interval of the electromagnetic spectrum. SWIR reflectance is therefore negatively
related to leaf water content (Tucker 1980).

Its usefulness for drought monitoring and early warning has been demonstrated in different
studies (e.g., Gu et al., 2007; Ceccato et al., 2002). It is computed using the near infrared
(NIR) and the short wave infrared (SWIR) reflectance (Eq.1), which makes it sensitive to
changes in liquid water content and in spongy mesophyll of vegetation canopies (Gao, 1996
; Ceccato et al., 2001).

1. Product

The Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) is a remote sensing derived index
estimating the leaf water content at canopy level.

o Geographic coverage: available for Europe

o Spatial scale: 1.2km

o Temporal scale: every 10 days aligned on the first day of each month, which
corresponds to 3 images per month (day 1-10, day 11-20, day 21-last day of month).
o Data source: MODIS spectral bands 2 and 6 are provided by the German Aerospace
Centre (DLR) and pre-processed by the FOREST Action (IES, JRC).

o Frequency of data collection: every day

2. Methodology

2.1 Calculation of NDWI

The NDWI is a remote sensing based indicator sensitive to the change in the water content
of leaves (Gao, 1996). NDWI is computed using the near infrared (NIR – MODIS band 2)
and the short wave infrared (SWIR – MODIS band 6) reflectance’s.

The EFFIS Delivery Data Products delivered by the German Aerospace Centre (DLR) are
used to compute the NDWI. MODIS data are delivered per tile in ETRS_LAEA coordinate
reference system (Figure 1).

Figure 1- Subdivision in tiles of the MODIS

data.

For each tile, a maximum value time composite is produced every 10-day using the daily
MODIS composite files that combine all TERRA or AQUA passes of the day. Each month is
split in 3 periods: from the 1st to the 10th, from the 11th to the 20th, and from the 21th to the
end of the month.
The 10-days composite are then resampled from 250 m to 1 km and the ratio between band
2 and band 6 is then calculated following the equation here above. The different tiles are
then mosaicked to produce a unique map for Europe. Finally, a mask derived from GLC
2000 is applied to recode
water bodies, cities, permanent snow and desert as no
data.

2.2 Calculation of NDWI anomaly

o Anomaly estimation: NDWI anomalies are produced for every 10-day period as
followed: ̅

where is the NDWI of the 10-day period t of the current year and, ̅ is the long-term
average NDWI and δ is the standard deviation, both calculated for the same 10-day
period t using the available time series (see baseline statistics).

NDWI anomalies are produced only for pixels that have at least five years of data for the
given
10-day period.

o Baseline statistics: The archive of NDWI covers the period from January 2006 to
current day.

NDWI and NDWI anomalies can be presented in the form of maps and graphs, providing
information both on the spatial distribution of the vegetation water stress and its temporal
evolution over longer time periods. Gridded data can easily be aggregated over
administrative or natural entities such as hydrological watersheds. This allows for the
qualitative and quantitative comparison of the intensity and duration of the NDWI anomalies
with recorded impacts such as yield reductions, low flows, lowering of groundwater levels, to
cite but a few.

o The NDWI product is dimensionless and varies between -1 to +1, depending on the leaf
water content but also on the vegetation type and cover (Figure 2). High values of NDWI (in
blue) correspond to high vegetation water content and to high vegetation fraction cover. Low
NDWI values (in red) correspond to low vegetation water content and low vegetation fraction
cover. In period of water stress, NDWI will decrease.

Figure 2 – NDWI of the 3rd 10-day period of May 2011.

o The NDWI anomaly product is given in standard deviation units. It is commonly ranging
from -4 to +4 and from red to green, red showing negative anomalies (Figure 3).

Figure 3 – NDWI anomaly of the 3rd 10-day period of May 2011.

The EDO Map server displays the latest available NDWI 10-day composite image and the
NDWI anomaly image calculated by comparing this image to the historical series in the same
10-day period.
Both products are easy to read. The interpretation must take into account the fact that this
indicator is showing a variation in the vegetation conditions.

1. Strength & weaknesses

[+] Every ten days, the NDWI gives a systematic and spatially continuous picture of the
vegetation
water stress at a high spatial resolution (1km) for the entire Europe.
[-] Soil background effects can be important in case of partial vegetation cover (Gao, 1996).
Moreover snow cover is not masked out in the current version. During winter months NDWI
> 0.5 may correspond to snow cover.
[-] Drought and water stress are not the only factors that can cause a decrease of NDWI
values/anomalies. Change in land covers or pests and diseases can also be responsible for
such variation of the signal. Therefore this indicator must be used jointly with other
indicators giving information on the deficit of rainfall /soil moisture in order to determine if the
variation in the vegetation response (signal) is linked with a drought event or not.
[-]Anomalies are dependent of the time series available to calculate the mean values and
the standard deviations. This period should be long enough to characterize the area where
the index is calculated. The length of current archive (6 years) is too short to ensure fully the
accuracy of the NDWI anomalies.
2. Performance of the indicator (reference to literature, reports)

According to Gao (1996), NDWI is a good indicator for vegetation liquid water content and is
less sensitive to atmospheric scattering effects than NDVI (Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index).

MODIS NDWI has been used to detect and monitor the moisture condition of vegetation
canopies over large areas (e.g. Delbart et al. 2005, Jackson et al. 2004) and tested as a
drought indicator (Gu et al. 2008). Gu et al (2007) found that NDWI values exhibited a
quicker response to drought conditions than NDVI. Contrary to NDWI, NDVI has limited
capability for retrieving vegetation water content information, since provides information on
vegetation greenness (chlorophyll), which is not directly and uniformly related to the quantity
of water in the vegetation (Ceccato et al 2002).