Papers in Honor of Melville J.

Herskovits: American Indians, White and Black: The

Phenomenon of Transculturalization
Author(s): A. Irving Hallowell
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Current Anthropology, Vol. 4, No. 5 (Dec., 1963), pp. 519-531
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological
Research
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Papersin Honor of MelvilleJ.Herskovits

Indians,WhiteandBlack:
American
The PhenomenonofTransculturalization
Hcllowell
byA. Irving

MY FIRST ACQUAINTANCE with Indians"at home"was French-Canadian,and many personscould also speak
in the twentieswhen, as a graduate studentunder the English. There were a few old-timersleft who occa-
tutelage of Frank G. Speck, I began visiting the sionally huntedand trapped,althoughtherewas little
St. Francis Abenaki at Odanak, Quebec, Canada. In ostensibleevidence of an aboriginalmode of life. The
this little Indian communityan Algonkian language Abenaki had been Christianized for generations,the
could still be heard, but the dominant speech was majority of them being devout Roman Catholics.
Across the railroad track was a typical French-Cana-
dian village. In short,the St. Francis Abenaki were a
A. IRVING HALLOWELL is ProfessorEmeritusof Anthropology highly acculturatedgroup of Indians.' I did not go
at the Universityof Pennsylvania,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, thereto study acculturation,however,for this was a
and curatorof Social Anthropologyat the UniversityMuseum. decade beforestudiesof acculturationhad been "legiti-
He received his M.A. and Ph.D. from this Universityand
an Honorary Sc.D. (1963). With the exception of three years
at NorthwesternUniversity(1944--47) he has been an active 1 For informationon the historyand ethnography of this group
memberof theAnthropologyDepartmentthere from 1923-63.
see Leger (1929), Maurault (1866), and Fried (1955). Gordon M.
In addition,he has taughtat SwarthmoreCollege, Bryn Mawr,
Day, in a recentarticleon the relationsof the St. Francis Abenaki
Columbia, and the Universitiesof California (Berkeley) and to Dartmouth College (1959), writes:
Washington. Currentlyhe is conductinga seminar for selected
graduate studentsat Teniple University,as Adjunct Professor "These were the Abenakis whom the Jesuitsextolled for their
of Sociology. Dr. Hallowell is a member of the Permanent native mildness, their exemplary piety, and whom Canadian
Council of the InternationalCongress of Anthropologicaland historians lauded for their loyalty and militaryqualities in the
Ethnological Sciences and a past president of the American service of New France. These were the model converts whose
Anthropological Association, the American Folklore Society, conversionconsoled the Fathers for the destructionof the Huron
and the Society for Projective Techniques. He was chairman Nation by the Iroquois and the debauching of the Algonquins of
of the division of Anthropologyand Psychologyof the National Three Rivers by the fur traders."
Research Council, 1946--49, and has been chairman of the From this village, too,
Board of Directors of the Human Relations Area Files since "came the war parties which raided the New England frontier
1957. From 1950-55 he was editor of the Viking Fund and warriors who ambushed Braddock; from it came Hannah
Monographs in Anthropology(Wenner-Gren Foundation for Dustin's captors and the attackersof Fort Number Four, now
AnthropologicalResearch). He is a member of the National Charlestown,New Hampshire. This is the village where John
Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society,and Stark was captive and which was burned by Rogers' Rangers. And
in 1955 was the recipientof the Viking Medal and Award in oddly enough, this is the village which provided one of Eleazar
General Anthropology. Wheelock's strongestmotives for locating his Indian school at
Dr. Hallowell's field work has been principally conducted Hanover . . ."
among the NorthernOjibwa of Canada and other Algonkian The purpose of the school was to train Indians and missionaries
peoples. His focal points of professionalinterest,as represented to the Indians. After Wheelock lost his Six Nations pupils and
in papers published in journals and symposia,have included the cooperationof Sir William Johnson,most of the Indian recruits
kinship and social organization,folklore,culture and person- over the next 80 years came from St. Francis,thus reinforcingthe
ality, the psychological dimension of human evolution and Protestanttraditionin the Canadian village. "At the presenttime,"
the history of anthropology.A collection of selected papers says Day, "about 130 Indians live at Saint Francis, but the band
is to be found in Culture and Experience (1955). Mono- numbersover 500 registeredmembers.There is in additiona sizable
graphic publications are Bear Ceremonialismin the Northern number of persons of Saint Francis descent who have given up
Hemisphere (1926) and The Role of Conjuring in Saultean formalconnectionswith the band and live in otherpartsof Quebec,
Society (1942). in Ontario, and in the NortheasternStates,oftennot known as In-
A. Irving Hallowell's paper is the fifthin a series,edited by dians by their neighbors. In all this number there remain only
Francis L. K. Hsu and Alan P. Merriam specially prepared to about fiftypersonswho can speak the native language fluently.The
honor Melville J. Herskovits. The entire series, when com- native speakers are mostly over 65 years of age, and with few
pleted, will constitutea new type of Festschrift(CA 4:92). exceptionsthe childrenare not learningthe language."
Vol. 4 * No. 5 * December 1963 519

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matized" in American anthropologicalresearch. My
purpose was to secureinformationabout the vanished
culture of their aboriginal past. Being very green in
cultural anthropology,and knowing even less about
Indian-white relations in American history, I was
surprisedto learn about theirfamouswhite chief,Jo-
seph-LouisGill, who had servedin thiscapacity during
fiftyyearsof the eighteenthcentury.I had nevergiven
any thoughtto the circumstancesunder which a white
man could becomean Indian chief.Indeed, nothinghad
led me even to conjecturethat the impact of European
cultureon Indian culturewould produce white Indian
chiefs.
Joseph-LouisGill was white only in a biological
sense.In the early eighteenthcenturythe Abenaki had
capturedtwo Englishchildren,a boy and a girl,in one
of their raids across the border. These children had
been adopted into Indian families and raised in In-
dian fashion and also as Catholics like theiradoptive
parents.Later, these captives married each other and
remainedwith the Abenaki for the restof theirlives.
Joseph-Louis,born in 1719, was the eldest son of his
"captivated" fatherand motherwho raised a family
of seven children.His firstwife was an Indian who
was killed by Rogers' Rangers; his second wife was
French.He became chiefin 1747. (See Maurault 1866
and Huden 1956).
Here, then,in the historyof the Abenaki we have
epitomizedall of the complex relationsof whites and
Indians that arose in the frontierareas: the intrusion
of Europeans, trade, warfare,white captives, Christi-
anization of the Indians, interracial marriages. Al-
though changes were initiatedin the mode of life of
this Indian group, there were resistant tendencies
toward linguistic and cultural conservatism.Fitting
into the old pattern was the "Indianization," the
cultural assimilation,of captured individuals.
Problems of historical research derived from the
consequences of such complex events on American
frontiershave long engagedthe attentionof historians,
linguists,anthropologists,and others.Many American
writers,too, have been fascinated by this historical
material. Cooper's romances of the frontier, the
historicalnovel and the dime novel, the western,have
been immenselypopular since the beginningof the
nineteenthcentury.Interestinglyenough, it has been
mainly the Americannovelist,ratherthan the scholar,
whose interesthas been caught by the phenomenonof
"Indianization." Possibly it was due to the immense
popularity of actual accounts of captivities in the
eighteenthcentury that early writers took up the
theme.
"Indianize," in the sense of "to adopt the ways of
Indians," is an Americanismdating back to the late
seventeenthcentury. Cotton Mather asked: "How
much do our people Indianize?" While the word has
sometimesbeen used in a collective sense, in its later
usage it seemsto have been employedprimarilywith
referenceto individuals who adopted the ways of
Indians (Mathews 1951). In his articleentitled"White
Indians," in which eight cases of captured children
who became Indianized are analyzed in detail, Acker-
knecht (1944) uses the term only for individuals. I
am using Indianization in this old American sense.
Probably the earliestintroductionof the Indianiza-
tion themein Americanliteratureoccurs in the poem
520
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published in 1790, Ouacbi, or The virtues of nature,
by Mrs. Sarah WentworthMorton writingunder the
pen name Philena. Celario, a white man, falls in love
with Azakia, an Illinois girl who is already married.
He becomes identifiedwith her people, leads a war
party and rescuesher husband, Ouabi. He finally is
able to marry Azakia when Ouabi recognizes their
love and his debt to Celario for saving his life. Mrs.
Morton most have felt the novelty of her theme
because she says in the Introduction:
I am awareit maybe considered improbable,thatan ami-
able and polishedEuropeanshouldattachhimself to theper-
sonsand manners of an uncivilizedpeople;butthereis now
ofa likepropensity.
a livinginstance A gentleman offortune,
bornin America,and educatedin all the refinements and
luxuriesof Great Britain,has lately attachedhimselfto
a femalesavage,in whomhe findseverycharmI have
givenmyAzakia,and in consequence has
of hisinclination,
relinquishedhis own countryand connections, incorporated
himselfinto the society,and adoptedthe mannersof the
virtuous, thoughuncultivatedIndian.
(For furtherinformationsee Bissell 1925:207 ff.).
In two early American novels white girls marry
Indians. In Hobomok: a tale of early times (1824),
by Lydia Maria Child, the young chief,for whom the
novel is named, marriesMary Conant afterhis fiance
is thoughtto be dead. They have a child. The lover
returns,and Hobomok, a noble savage, magnanimously
disappears in the forestleaving Mary a newly killed
deer. In Hope Leslie (1827), by Catherine M. Sedg-
wick, Faith Leslie is abducted by the Indians, marries
a brave, and choosesto remainwith him. N. M. Hentz
attempted to draw the character of a white girl
broughtup among the Indians in Tadeukund, the last
king of the Lenape (1 825).2
It was Cooper, however,who was the firstAmeri-
can writer to dramatize the Indianization theme in
any psychological depth, to come to grips with the
actual consequences of intimate identification of
whites with Indians. In The wept of Wish-ton-Wish
(1829), Ruth Heathcote was captured as a child of
seven or eight and lived a decade with the Indians as
Narra-mattah (Driven Snow), before she returnedto
her Puritan family with her Indian husband to face
tragedy.Confrontingherwhiterelativesafterso many
years,Cooper writes(p. 348):
2 Long before these American novels appeared, Smollett in
Humphrey Clinker (1771) had introduced an episode in which
the Scot, Lismahago, fightingon the early American frontier,had
been captured and adopted by an Indian sachem to replace his
lost son. Lismahago marries the betrothedof the latter and' has
a son by her. He becomes a sachem and is "acknowledged first
warrior of the Badger tribe (clan)." Then his wife dies, he ex-
changed for an Indian and returnsto Britain afterthe war. Still
earlier,in France,Voltaire had published L'Lnge'nm(1767), a witty
littletale about an Indianized French boy who had been raised by
a Huron fostermother after his parents had been killed in the
New World. Returning to France as a young man he declares
himselfa Huron, but is identifiedby his uncle and aunt as their
nephew. For the purposes of the story,which is a vehicle for
satirizing French attitudes, customs and institution,what are
purportedlyIndian aittitudesare given The Simple Soul. But these
are superficialand have no psychologicaldepth. While this story
is historicallyimportant so far as the Indianization theme is
concerned,it does not come to grips with the actual consequences
of early association with Indians on the part of white children.
For the literarybackground of Voltaire's story see, Eugene E.
Rovillain, TL'Ingenu de Voltaire: quelques influences."Pub. Mod-
ern Language Association of America (1929 44:537-45).
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY
 and attitude,(she) resembled
-Inair,expression, one who Hallowell : AMERICAN INDIANS: TRANSCULTURALIZATION
had a fanciedexistencein the delusionof some exciting
dream.Her ear remembered soundswhichhad so often captive who marriesan Indian girl. In Green centuries
beenrepeatedin herinfancy,and hermemoryrecalledin- (Jordon1953) a whitecaptive boy becomescompletely
of most of the objects and usages
distinctrecollections
that were so suddenlyreplacedbeforeher eyes,but the identifiedwith the Cherokee. Conrad Richter's The
formernow conveyedtheirmeaningto -a mindthat had light in the forest (1954), later transferredto the
gaineditsstrengthundera verydifferent systemof theolo- screen,is concernedwith a captive boy who is formally
gy, and the lattercame too late to supplantusagesthat adopted by the Delaware but develops a conflict in
wererootedin her affections by the aid of all thosewild values and leaves them. An English lord appears as
and seductivehabitsthatare knownto becomenearlyun- a "white Indian" in King's rebel (Horan 1955). The
conquerablein thosewho have long been subjectto their Kentuckians (Giles 1955) contains a villain who is a
influence. white man who hates the settlersand identifieshim-
Leatherstocking,of course, was a semi-Indianized self with the Indians. The hero of Roanoke renegade
white man. Carl Van Doren (1917) has declared him (Tracy 1955) finally chooses to make his life among
"the most memorablecharacterAmerican fictionhas the Indians. In White Warrior (Patten 1956), a story
given to the World." His early life was spent among told in the firstperson,the narratoris capturedby the
the Delaware, and long beforetheycalled him "Deer- Arapaho at the age of ninewhen his motherand father
slayer" he had successivelyborne three other Indian are killed. He is formallyadopted by an Indian fami-
nicknames.He acquired "knowledge of most of our ly in place of a lost son. The manner in which his
Indian dialects," and absorbed Indian values. When fosterparents train him to be an Arapaho, the affec-
contemplatingtortureby the Hurons, he says he will tion with which they treathim, the way he gradually
strive"not to disgracethe people aniong whom I got identifieshimselfmore and more fully with the In-
my training."(Quotations fromThe Deerslayer). dians is convincinglyportrayed.The searchers(Le May
In nineteenthcentury fiction we also find the 1956), made into a movingpicture,is concernedwith
renegade theme-the white man who, becoming a six-year search for Debbie, a white child captured
Indianized and finding"savagism" good, symbolized by the Comanche at the age of ten. When the hero
the rejectionof progress,civilization,and Christianity, findsher it is a nightmareforhim. "Behind the surface
and was easily cast as a villain. Shoshone Valley of this long-lovedface was a Comanche squaw." Her
(1830), by Timothy Flint; The renegade (1848), by Comanche speech was fluent,but her English almost
Emerson Bennett; Old Hicks the guide (1848), by forgotten.She did not wish to leave "her people." The
Charles Webber, are all early novels of this type. author says it was as if theyhad taken out her brains
Among the later dime novels,for example,The jaguar and put in an Indian brain instead. "You-you are
queen, or the outlaws of the Sierra Madre (1872) by Long Knives," she said, "We hate you-fight you-
FrederickWhittaker,characterslike the latter'sCount always, till we die." Another Indianized white girl is
Montriche who became an Apache chief and a one of themain charactersin Pemmican(Fisher 1957).3
renegade, often appeared. (See Pearce 1953:244-25 The double man (Pryor 1957) and Cherokee (Tracy
and Smith1950:114-15). 1957) both portray divided loyalties. Tsani, the hero
Despite the radical changes in intellectualclimate of the former,becomes war chief of the Cherokee at
fromthe eighteenthcentury,when the colonistswere eighteen.But he is not an Indian; his parentswere Eng-
confrontedwith the disturbingrealitiesof captureand lish, ambushedand killed when he was an infant.Co-
many accounts of captivityexperienceswere publish- manche captives (1960) by Will Cook, is a highlyre-
ed, up untilthe presentday-a period of two hundred alistic account of the pressurebroughtupon the army
years-Indian captivity,the renegade,and Indianiza- to redeemcapturedwhites.The plot turnson the lack
tion have never lost their fascinationfor the Ameri- of understanding by relativesand othersof thepsycho-
can public. These themes have as much vitality in logical depth of the emotionalties Indianization may
popular fictionas theyever had. In the early years of bring about and the consequencesof a blind demand
thiscenturyThe Squaw Man (Royle 1905) was a very for captives' redemption.One boy had become com-
popular sentimentalplay. In it an Englishmanmarries pletely identified with the Comanche and fought
an Indian girl who has saved his life. When she dis- against his rescuers,saying over and over again, "I
covers that he has inheritedan earldom she leaves him am a Comanche!" When his white mother "cooked
and their children and commitssuicide. First staged a meal for the boy, a homecomingmeal that had been
in 1905, this play is historicallynoteworthysince it long planned and was the best she had,... he picked
later became the first full-lengthmotion picture, up the laden tin plate and threwit in her face." His
directed by Cecil B. DeMille (Blum 1953). father"did not know whetherto hit the boy or for-
Currently,more than an occasional storyis woven
about the white man, woman, or child who, whether 3 In his Foreword the author, Vardis Fisher, writes:
"captivated" or not, has been Indianized to some If any readerthinksit unlikelythat a whitegirl could have been
degree and is sometimesa renegade. Without any on the scene as an Indian, I would refer him to John Henry
systematicsearch, I have picked up over a dozen of Moberly, an HB (Hudson Bay) factorof a little later time, who
these in paperbacks that have appeared within the who says in his Journal:"Quite a numberof women among the Indians
came to the tradingposts in those days had no sign of a drop
past decade or so. The leading characterin Arrow in of Indian blood. Their hair was light, they had blue eyes and
thehill (Jefferson Cooper 1955) was raisedfromchild- good figuresand, except for sunburn,were as fair as any white
hood by the Mohawk; the villain is a renegadeEng- woman. For this there was an explanation: when the Indians
lishman disguised as a Huron who leads war parties raided an immigranttrain on the American side they killed all
grown people and boys but preserved the female children, who
and spies for the French.Thunder on the river(Laird grew up perfect Indians in their ways. Rarely could they be
1950) deals with divided loyalties in an adopted persuaded to leave their Indian friends."
Vol. 4 * No. 5 * December 1963 521

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 givehim;he touchedhimand theboy seizedhis arm that theybecamean integralpart of socio-economic
and bit it deeply.. ." 4 systemsin the United States. Primarilythey were
Although Indianization hasbeena distinctive feature slavesof thewhitesbutin somecasestheysubsequent-
of Americanhistoricalexperienceand the Indianiza- ly becameslavesof theIndianswhenseveralSouthern
tion themestill stronglyappeals to readersof light Indiannationsacquiredtheinstitution of slaveryfrom
fiction,why is it, then,that (like so many other theirwhiteneighbors. Underthesecircumstances Ne-
aspectsof the impactof the Indian upon us) it has groeswereassimilatedto the same role in an Indian
remaineda neglectedtopicof scholarlyresearch? Dr. culturethattheyhad played in whitesociety.How-
WilcombWashburnhas ponderedthe same question ever,thereappearsto have beena notabledifference,
and thinksit has been too simplypassed over. In a for Negro slaves continuedto run away fromtheir
paper contributed to the AmericanIndian Ethno- whitemastersand offerthemselves as slaves to the
historicConferencein 1956 and publishedin 1957 Indians.Negrofreedmen, too,oftenchoseto casttheir
(4:51-52), he observes: lot withthe Indians.Furthermore, the Indiansinter-
Mostofusknowthatan extraordinary number ofwhites married
some
with both slaves and freedmen.
whites there
Thus like
preferred Indiansociety,whilealmostno Indianspre- were Negroes who became com-
ferred Whitesociety.
Whydid theSpanishreport in 1612 pletelyIndianized.6
thatforty or fifty
oftheVirginia settlershadmarried In- Outside the South, the Indianizationof Negroes
dianwomen, thatEnglish womenwereintermingling with occasionally occuredbutit did notinvolveslavery.To
thenatives,andthata zealousminister hadbeenwounded mentiona few examples:in the West the famous
forreprehending it?Whywerethere, at thistimein Vir- Negro,JimBeckwourth, was a Crow chief.An active
ginia,suchseverepenalties forrunning awayto jointhe participant in theSioux massacreof 1862 was an In-
Indians?Why,indeed,did so manyWhiteswantto run dianized Negro named Godfrey.'When
awaytojointheIndians? Somehavedismissed theevidence Schoolcraft Henry R.
as showing merelythatWhitecivilization is so fragile
and madehisjourneythrough theGreatLakes
sophisticated
thatmentendtorevert to theprimitive when countryto thesourceof theMississippi River,he dis-
giventheopportunity. covereda Negrolivingin an Ojibwa villageof sixty
people near the mouthof the St. Louis River. This
The problemis furthercomplicatedif American Negro, a freedman, had been in the serviceof the
Negroesas well as whitesare taken into account. Hudson'sBay Companyformanyyearsand had mar-
Negroslavesin the Southran away and took refuge riedan Ojibwa womanbywhomhe had had fourchil-
with the Seminole,Cherokee,Creek, Choctaw and dren (Schoolcraft1953:139). Swantonearly in this
Chickasaw, the socalled "Five Civilized Tribes" century notedthefactthattherichestmanamongthe
(Hodge 1907, 1910. Handbook of AmericanIndians SkidegateHaida on theNorthwest Coastwas a Negro
2:600). While in the colonial periodof our history (See "Negroand Indian,"Hodge, 1907, 1910. Hand-
someIndianssharedthestatusof slaveswithNegroes book of AmericanIndians 2:53) Dr. Ruben Reina
(Crane 1956:113-14),5 basically the relationsof tellsme thattodaythereis a CaribbeanNegro from
the Indianswith whiteswas structured in a totally Belize (Honduras) who marriedan Indian woman
differentway fromwhite-Negro relations. D-espitethe fromSan Josein Peten and has been livingin her
vicissitudesof contact,theindigenous Indiansmanaged villageforthepastquarterof a century. She is a mid-
to maintaina high degreeof culturalautonomyin wifeand he is recognizedas havingan expertknow-
organizedcommunities. This was particularly truein
thecase of theFive CivilizedTribesin theSouth.On 6 Johnson(1929) calls attentionto the fact that in
the otherhand, whatevertheirretentionof Afri- the first 1832, when
census of the Creek nation was taken, the commissioners
canismsmay have been, groupsof Negroesnever were confrontedwith questions concerningthe status and rights
constitutedautonomoussocio-culturalunits in the of individuals with Negro blood for which they sought authori-
UnitedStates.Forciblydetachedfromvarioustribal tative decisions. They reported(1) cases in which an Indian has
"living with him as his wife a Negro slave, the propertyeither
groupsin theirhomelandand transported to theNew of himself or of another," and (2) the existence of "free black
World,it was solelyin theirindividualrolesas slaves familiesthat seem to be in everyway identifiedwith these people
and the only differenceis color." The decision in such cases was:
(1) An Indian, whetherfull or half blood, who has a female
4 I have omitted referenceto short stories in which the In- slave living with him as his wife, is the head of a family and
dianization theme can also be found. In this genre Dorothy M. entitledto a reservation;(2) free blacks who have been admitted
Johnson'sIndian Country(1953) is an outstandingcontemporary membersof the Creek nation, and are recognizedas such by the
example. It containsthreedistinguishedstoriesdealingwithcaptivity tribe, if they have families are entitled to reservationsof land
and Indianizationwhich firstappeared in Argosyand Colliers prior under the second section of the Creek treaty.
to the date of publication in bookform."Flame on the Frontier," Herskovitssays (1930:279):
for example, is concernedwith two sisterswho are captured.One "Although the Indian element is not readily discerniblein the
of them marries an Indian and refuses redemption.The other analysisof traitswithin the genealogical classes,there is no reason
goes back and marriesa white man by whom she has two children. to doubt the statementof 29% of the personsmeasuredwho claim
One of her Indian suitors never forgetsher and afteran interval to have partial Indian ancestry,partlybecause of known historical
of ten yearsmakes a long journeyto see how she is. Her husband contacts between the Negroes and the Indians, and particularly
says, "What's that bloody Injun doing here?... If I ever set eyes because the statementsas to the amounts of Negro-Whiteancestry
on that savage again, I'll kill him. You know that,don't you, you check so satisfactorilywith the resultsof anthropometric measure-
damn squaw." ments."
5 In Charleston there were markets in which both types of 7 See Bonner 1931; Heard 1863: Chapter 13.
Godfrey'sfather
slaves were sold. In 1708, when the total population of South was French Canadian and his mother was a Negro. At the time
Carolina was 9,580, the slave population was more than 44 per of the Sioux uprising he was 27 years old. He had been married
cent of this figure; the Negro slaves numbered2,900, the Indian 4 years to a Sioux woman, daughter of Wakpadoota. Godfrey's
slaves, 1,400. At this time there was a market for Indian slaves father-in-law was later executed but his own part in the massacre
in New England. Crane says, "In the early eighteenthcentury was never fully clarified.Although the commisionersfound him
the Boston News Letter printed frequentadvertisementsof run- guiltyof murder,theyrecommendedthat the penaltybe commuted
away Carolina Indians." to ten years imprisonment.
522 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

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 ledgeof theforest and "goodpower."Theyhaveraised Hallowell : AMERICAN INDIANS: TRANSCULTURALIZATION
a familyof six children.
So faras I am aware,theexperience of Negroesin organized group undergoing acculturation. Since I
Indian cultureshas been almostcompletely neglected have not found a generic term already in use that
in fiction.The onlyexamplesI knowof are Tarquini- characterizesthisphenomenon,I have had to coin one.
ous,a minorcharacterin AlabamaEmpire(1957) by Transculturalizationseems appropriate. It is the pro-
WellbournKelley,and Spencein Dale Van Every's cess whereby(individualsunder a variety of circum-
The Voyagers(1957).8The periodof theformer novel stancesare temporarilyor permanentlydetached from
is the late eighteenth centuryand the famousCreek one group, enter the web of social relations that
chiefAlexanderMcGillivray, who was himselfmixed constituteanother society, and come under the in-
Indianand white,is a majorfigurein it. Tarquinious fluence of its customsideas, and values to a greater
speaksCreekfluently. Perhapsracial attitudesin the or lesserdegree.A correlativeterm,transculturite, can
UnitedStateshave madetheIndianization of Negroes then be used to designatethose individuals who have
a lessromantic themeforthegeneralreader.The same undergonetransculturalization.
racial attitudeshave made it a sensitivesubjectfrom In transculturalization,at one polar extreme are
the pointof the Indianswho in manypartsof the individuals who become permanentlyidentifiedwith
countryhave struggled to achievethesocial statusof the second culture.In such cases thereis more than a
whites. cultural readaptation-typically,there is a psycho-
A further questionnow arises.The termIndianiza- logical transformation. At the otherextreme,readjust-
tionhas a provincialring.Is it a phenomenon unique ment may be relatively superficial and have little
to Americanhistory, or is it onlya particular manifes- psychological depth. Manners and speech may be
tationof a farwiderphenomenon? I believethelatter affected,but not basic attitudes and values. In be-
to be the case. tween, we have cases where historical circumstances
Firstof all, is it simplyone aspectof accultura- combinedwith unusualpersonalitycharacteristics have
tion? What Americananthropologists have called motivated some individuals to play a dual role ef-
acculturation, Britishanthropologists, culturecontact, fectively.For example, on the American frontierwe
and theCubanscholarOrtiz,transculturation (1947:98 have the unusual double identificationof Sir William
ff.and Introduction), referprimarily to theeffects of Johnson.His most recentbiographer,JamesT. Flex-
contactupon the subsequentculturalattributesof ner (1959:38), refersto:
organizedgroups.Whileindividuals belonging to these ... Johnson's"singulardisposition"which includeda
groupsare,of course,involvedand play a varietyof quality muchrarerthanthe appreciationand practiceof
mediating rolesin theprocess,thecharacteristic focus Indian skills-throughout Americanhistorythousandsof
in acculturation studiesis upon the changesinduced white men joyfullyexchangedbreechesfor breechcloth.
in the modeof life of either,or both,groups.From His uniquegiftwas his abilityto feelsimultaneous loyalty
the beginning, acculturation has been recognizedas to bothIndian and whiteinstitutions...
one aspect of the studyof culturaldynamics.The
pioneermemorandum The degreeof transculturalizationdepends,of course,
of Redfield,Lintonand Hers-
kovitsin 1936 (38:149-52) and the Social Science on a numberof differentvariables: the age at which
ResearchCouncil,SummerSeminaron Acculturation,the process begins; the previous attitude toward the
whichreviewedthisfieldof studyin 1953 (56:973- people of the second culture; length of residence;
1002) delineated thefundamental problemin muchthe motivational factors; the nature of the roles played,
sameterms.The SummerSeminardefinedaccultura- and so on. Indianization is thus a specificexample of
tionas "culturechangethatis initiated by theconjunc- the wider human phenomenonof transculturalization.
tion of two or more autonomousculturalsystems" The same process has occurred in other parts of the'
world.
(56:974).
While sometimes occurringin the same historical In the Pacific, for instance,some of the firstmis-
contextas acculturation, Indianizationcan be cate- sionaries sent out by the London Missionary Society
goricallydistinguished fromit and requiresconceptual in the late eighteenthcenturybecame transculturites
and terminological differentiation.It is a phenomenon (Wright and Fry 1936: chapter 1). They were among
thatinvolvesthe fateof personsratherthan changes the earliest "squaw men" of the South Seas. There
in socio-cultural systems. The factthattheidentifica- were also otherwhite men who marriednative women
tion of thesepersonswith the groupto whichthey but became more than squaw men in the narrow sense.
formerly belongedhas beenbroken,or modified,dis- Churchill of the "Bounty" became a Tahitian chief;
tinguishes themas a class frompersonsundergoing JohnYoung and Isaac Davis, Britishseamen captured
readjustment who remainfunctioning members of an
9 Reconstructing Johnson'sparticipation,inan Indian dance in
his youngerdays, Flexner writes (p. 54):
8 In a more recent historical
novel, Trask,(Berry 1960), the "Round and round Johnsonwent,yellingas he drove an imagi-
scene of which is laid in Oregon Territoryin the fortiesof the nary hatchetinto an imaginaryskull, and gradually his mind was
last century,Don Berry has introduced a character who is a washed clean of every European thing. No longer was he an
descendantof a Negro. The latter,a blacksmith,was a castaway ambassador on a ticklish mission from another world: he was
from a wrecked ship, who married a Killamook (Tillamook) one with his fellow dancers,one flesh,one heart,one brain. And
woman. Kilchis (his son or grandson?) who was tyee of the Killa- when he too sank to the ground in exhaustion,his war-painted
mook at -the time of the story is a major character.He "stood body was hardly distinguishablefrom the bodies that lay around
several inches over six feet" and his face was like "an ebony him. But when he awoke the next morning,his mind awoke with
mask." Trask says to his Indian companion: "That man's a nigger! him, and he returnedto his schemingfor English ends."
He's no more Indian than I am." The replyis: "He is a Killamook. And speaking of George Croghan he says: "He became second
What color doesn't matter.He was born a Killamook and lives only to Johnson as the most powerful white Indian on the
and will die a Killamook." continent."(p. 126)
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in Hawaii, married into the native aristocracyand Cheri (New Troops) or Janissariesas they became
achieved chieflyrank (Furnas 1947:121, 215). William known in the West. (Rouillard 1941:13-14, 173, 210,
Mariner,a boy under sixteenwhen his life was spared 225).1o
in Tonga in 1806, became Chief Toki Ukamea and a Althoughthe conditionsunder which transcultural-
landowner. His sojourn as a transculturitewas tem- ization has occurred have not yet been studied sys-
porary,however.He did not marrya native girl,but tematicallyon a wide comparativescale, the American
afterfouryears returnedto England wherehe married material on Indianization provides clues to the kind
and raised a family of eleven children. These few of analysis that is needed and possibly to the kind
selected cases illustratethe varying degrees of trans- of generalizationsthat may emerge.In America, two
culturizationwhich took place in the Pacific and the specific conditions initiating the detachmentof an
differingconditions under which it occurred. To individual from his primary cultural affiliationcan
appreciatethe importanceof the transculturites in the be distinguished:involuntarydetachmentsand volun-
Pacific Islands in the late eighteenthand the nineteenth tary ones.
centurieswe mustrealize that even the many recorded We know, of course, that involuntarydetachment-
cases are only an insignificantsample; their numbers capture-did not necessarilylead to transculturaliza-
reached the proportions of a migration. Ernest S. tion. But in the case of childrenit seemsto have been
Dodge says,"No one knowshow many runawaysailors the major condition that led to the most complete
settled in the various Polynesian islands and became transculturalization, even without any systematicin-
absorbed in the native population, but there were doctrinationsuch' as that adopted by the Ottoman
literallythousands" (1963:106). Turks. What aroused the astonishmentof the early
While the expansion on European peoples since the American colonists was the fact that captives often
fifteenthcentury has tremendouslyaccelerated con- refusedto be redeemed.One of the earliest and best
tacts between all varieties of the culture of Europe known of such cases was Eunice Williams, the daugh-
and all other culturesof the modern world, neither ter of a Deerfield pastor, who was "captivated" in
acculturationnor transculturalization has been limited 1704 when she was seven. In an Indian raid her
to this period. The historicalsettingfor acculturation motherwas killed and her fatherand brothershared
is provided wheneverpeoples of differentsocio-cul- the fate of Eunice. The latter were redeemeda year
tural systemscome into contact,and transculturaliza- later,but Eunice, formallyadopted by a Caughnawa-
tion is possible wheneverconditionsarisewhichpermit ga woman, refused to leave her fosterparents. She
ai individual to become detached from one cultural had forgottenhow to speak English by the time she
group and temporarilyor permanentlyto become was seventeen;she marriedan Indian and lived to be
affiliatedwith another. In principlethis also applies ninetyyears old. Althoughwe shall never know how
at the sub-culturallevel, for example,betweennations many captive children remained with the Indians,
or between religiousor caste groups.At this level we Barbeau (1950:529) refersto the fact that:
have many instances of transculturalization.I will
In his investigations amongtheWyandotsof Oklahoma,
only give one of themhere. in 1911, 1912, [he] heardthat the familiarnamesamong
A distinctivefeatureof the Ottoman state,perfected themof Dawson,Walker,Brown,McKee,Boone,Johnson,
by Murad I (1359-89) and continuedby successive Young,Armstrong, Clarke,etc.,had originated amongthem
Sultans for three centuries,was the systematictrans- through captivechildrenof Virginia.Aftertheyhad grown
culturalizationof Christian childrendrawn from de- up, theyweregiventhechoiceof returning to theirwhite
pendentprovinces.The aim of this high policy, based parentsor of stayingwiththeiradoptedkinsmen. And they
upon a form of human tribute,was to insure the preferred to stay.
active cooperation of the vast Christian population On the other hand, it would be hard to imagine
over which the Turks were politically dominant. the captured Mrs. Mary Rowlandson becoming In-
Thousands of boys were taken regularlyfrom their dianized under any circumstances.She was too firmly
native villages and trained for the Sultan's service. entrenchedin Puritan beliefs.Her seventeenthcentury
Every threeor four years agentswere sent to subject editor concluded,"None can imaginewhat it is to be
villages where lists of all youths of adolescent age captivated, and enslaved to such atheistical,proud,
were obtained fromthe priests.These boys were per- wild, cruel, barbarous,brutish(in a word) diabolical
sonally examined, and the handsomestand strongest creaturesas these,the worst of the heathen" (quoted
selected.They were removed fromtheirvillages, and by Pearce 1952:205).
indoctrinatedwith Moslem values by being rigorously Even more astonishingto many "civilized" Ameri-
trainedin special schools or in Turkish familiesof the cans and Europeans were the cases where individuals
highest status, even in the Sultan's seraglio itself. Indianized by choice. It was particularlyshockingto
"Their early duties as pages were connectedwith all the Puritans,convinced as they were that the Indians
branches of the palace service, four favored ones were indeed Satan's children,that the religionof the
being designated to keep watch with dagger and aborigines was literally Devil worship, and that
torchesin the Sultan's chamber."Particularlyinterest- "whereverthe Indian opposed the Puritan thereSatan
ing is the fact that for all these transculturites
"possibilitiesof advancement,based on merit, were
almost unlimited.Here was a democraticpractice of 10 In the seventeenthcenturychanges were occurring which,
promotion where it would be least expected... a according to the French observer Deshayes, were weakening the
simple page mightbecome grand vizier throughsheer Ottoman Empire. Turkish children in larger numberswere being
ability.. ." Indeed, transculturalization was so effec- substituted for transculturalizedChristian boys and the merit
was being corruptedby graft.In the opinion of this observer
tive that many of the formerChristianboys became system "native Turks can never have the singlenessof interestand loyalty
fanatical membersof the Turkishelite corps,the Yeni to the Sultan that the trained renegades had" (1624:247-48).
524 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

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opposed God" (Pearce 1952:204)." To the Puritan Hallowell : AMERICAN INDIANS: TRANSCULTURALIZATION
mind it was only rightin the cosmic schemeof things
that the Indian should become civilized and Christian- To appreciate fully the phenomenonof Indianiza-
ized or perish. No wonder, then, that to Indianize tion in America it needs to be set withinthe historical
voluntarily was tantamount to a crime. Yet there contextof an expandingfrontierand basic contempo-
were such cases among the Puritans. In 1677, two rary Americanvalues and attitudes,on the one hand,
years following the capture of Mary Rowlandson, and of the values and characteristicinstitutionsof the
William Hubbard denounceda man who, duringKing Indians with whom social interaction was taking
Philip's War, "renounced his religion, nation, and place, on the other. For one thing, the implicit, if
natural parents, all at once fightingagainst them." not always explicit,moral evaluation of Indianization
This man had gone off with an Indian woman. Cap- on the part of the whites directlyreflectedthe in-
tured later he was subjectedto examinationand con- creasing consciousness of the eighteenth century
demned to die. (Pearce 1952:209). European of the meaning of "civilization" which
In the less constrictedculturaloutlook of the eight- arose along with the termitself(cf. Smith1950:218 ff.
eenth century cases of voluntary Indianization ap- and Cohen 1947:231). The values inherentin "white"
parently became more common, although they were culture were necessarily"higher" than those which
still considereda puzzling phenomenon.'2Particularly prevailed in any aboriginal culturebecause they em-
perplexing was the fact that transculturalization bodied the consequencesof a progressiveimprovement
seemed to operate in only one direction.We find the in the life of mankind which "led up to" the con-
repeated commentthat whites who had been brought temporary "civilization" of the European peoples
up among the Indians, or lived with them,choose to (Pearce 1953:155-59). In the New World this was
remain,whereas the reversewas true in the case of all a contemporaryreality."Looking at the Indian in
Indians who had sampled a "civilized" existence. his relation to the whole of their society,Americans
Crevecoeur (1957:208-9) in his famousLettersfrom could see manifest the law of civilized progress"
an American farmerwrote: (Ibid.:155). More than this, the graded steps of pro-
gress did not have to be abstractlyconceived; they
By whatpowerdoes it cometo pass, thatchildrenwho were geographicallyvisible. In his later
have been adoptedwhen youngamongthesepeople, can years, Jeffer-
neverbe prevailedon to readoptEuropeanmanners? Many son wrote in a letter to a friend (quoted in Smith
an anxiousparentI have seen afterthe last war, who at 1950:219):
the returnof peace, went to the Indian villages where Let a philosophicobservercommencea journeyfromthe
theyknew theirchildrenhad been carriedin captivity; savagesof the Rocky Mountains,eastwardly towards
when to theirinexpressible sorrow,they foundthemso seacoast.These he would observein the earlieststageour of
perfectly Indianised,thatmanyknewthemno longer,and associationlivingunderno law but that of nature,sub-
thosewhose moreadvancedages permittedthemto rec- sistingand coveringthemselves withthe fleshand skinof
ollecttheirfathersand mothers, absolutelyrefusedto fol- wild beasts.He would nextfindthoseon our frontiers in
low them,and ran to theiradoptedparentsforprotection the pastoralstate,raisingdomesticanimalsto supplythe
againsttheeffusions of love theirunhappyrealparentslav- defectsof hunting.Then succeedour own semi-barbarous
ishedon them!Incredibleas thismayappear,I havehearld it citizens,thepioneersof theadvanceof civilization,
and so
assertedin a thousandinstances, amongpersonsof credit in his progresshe would meetthe gradualshadesof im-
. . . It cannotbe, therefore, so bad as we generally conceive provingman untilhe would reach his, as yet,mostim-
it to be; theremustbe in (the Indians)social bond some- provedstatein our seaporttowns.This,in fact,is equiva-
thingsingularly captivating, and far superiorto anything lentto a survey,in time,of theprogressof man fromthe
to be boastedof amongus; forthousandsof Europeansare infancyof creationto thepresentday.
Indians,and we have no examplesof even one of those
AborigineshavingfromchoicebecomeEuropeans!13 "The theoryof the progressivestages of history,"
says Pearce, "and of the relationshipof characterto
Dorson points out, "If the English accepted a personal Devil circumstanceexplained the savage's essentialinferiori-
and his human consorts,they could not very well deny practice ty, the final inferiorityof even his savage virtues"
in the black art to the red heathen, especially ones so gifted in (1953:95). Thus, regardless of individual needs or
necromancy"(1950:5). motives, and despite the romantic treatmentof the
12 Crevecoeur,referringto the period of the Revolution when
loyalty to the English or to the "Rebel" governmentcame up,
Indian in literature,for a white person to become
wrote (1925:23): Indianized was necessarilya retrogradestep. If the
"Many of those who found themselvesstripped of their prop- frontierfarmerwas "a rebelliousfugitivefrom soci-
erty took refuge among the Indians. Where else could they go? ety" (Smith 1950:218), the squaw man was doubly
Many others,tired of that perpetual tumult in which the whole
settlementwas involved, voluntarilytook the same course; and
indictable. Wissler (1938:185-86) writing of early
I am told that great numbers from the extended frontiersof the twentiethcenturysquaw men on westernreservations,
middle provinces have taken the same steps,-some reduced to says:
despair, some fearingthe incursionswith which they were treat-
ened. What a strangeidea this joining with the savages seems to Almostwithoutexception... if I called at thehomeof
convey to the imagination; this uniting with a people which a whiteman withan Indianwife,myhostsooneror later
Nature has distinguishedby so many national marks! Yet this is offeredapologies... The squaw man was aware of the
what the Europeanshave oftendone throughchoice and inclination, contemptin whichhe was held by thoseof his kindmar-
whereas we never hear of any Indians becoming civilized Euro- riedto whitewomen.One onlyneededto sensethe "emo-
peans. This uncommon emigration,however, has thrown among
thema greaternumberof whitesthan ever has been known before."
13 The same point of contrastis made by Peter Kalm (Kerk- who had followed is, and were later returnedto their own white
konen 1959:184) and by Colden (1922:203-4). Voluntary In- inheritance,often heard the shaking of the Indian rattle and the
dianization is referredto by Lawson (1860:302). In his chapter voices of Indian ghosts.I rememberthe man fromWells who all
on "The American Captives" Henry Beston observes (1942:47), his life long sat on the floor like an Indian and maintainedthat
"The Indian path had its own gods; it was strongmedicine.Those theywere 'betterpeople than the whites.'"
Vol. 4 * No. 5 * December 1963 525

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 tionalslant" of the termas used in speechto understand questions,however,whicha reexamination of cases
the social positionof thesewhite derelicts... of transculturalized
whitesand Negroessuggest.
They
The special opprobriumattachedto the white rene- are not primarilywhat theirmotiveswere, nor a
gade-those who not only became identifiedwith In- moralevaluationof theirchoices,but rather:What
dians, but actively opposed "civilized" white men in culturalfactorswerepresentin Indian societiesthat
trade, politics or war-is easily understood.Such in- made it possiblefor alien individuals-sooftenene-
dividuals had plunged into the deepest pit of social mies-to becomefunctioning members of them?Why
degradation. were the Indians motivatedto accept them?What
An evaluation somewhat similar to the accorded socialmechanisms and valuesin Indiansocietiesmed-
transculturites was also applied to frontiercommuni- iated the acceptanceand assimilation of thesestran
ties in the iate nineteenthand early twentiethcenturies gers?What roles did whitesand Negroesplay in
by scholarswho fully recognizedthe directimpact of Indiancultures? Conversely, whatvaluesand attitudes
Indian cultureon these marginal segmentsof Ameri- prevailedin Americanculturethat limitedthe roles
can civilization, and sought to fit the events into a whichit was possibleforIndiansto play amongus?
unilinearsequence of cultural development.Frederick Fromtheverybeginning whiteintruders in North
JacksonTurner conceptualizedthe frontierexperience Americarepeatedlycommented upon the hospitality
as "the meetingpoint between savagery and civiliza- of theIndians.Manyyearsago, JamesMooneypoint-
tion.... [It] stripsoffthe garmentsof civilizationand ed out, "The narrativesof manypioneerexplorers
arrays [the frontiersman]in the hunting shirt and and settlers,
fromDeSoto and Coronado,Amidasand
the moccasin" (1920:2-3). It is a culturalstep down- Barlow,JohnSmithand the Pilgrims,down to the
ward which, although necessary for survival, must mostrecentperiod,are fullof instancesof wholesale
always be transcended.14 A. G. Keller (1915:276-77) hospitalitytowardwhitestrangers, sometimes at con-
in his Societal evolution took a similar position. siderablecostto thehosts"(Hodge,1907,1910 Hand-
book 1:571). In the seventeenth centurysomeof the
[The frontier group,or colony,]is a reversion.
But that Jesuitswere verymuchsurprised by the hospitality
meansno morethan that it is an adaptationto a set of withwhichtheywerereceived.FatherLe Jeune,for
conditionsout of whose rangeold societieshave passed. example,wrote(Thwaites8:94-95):
Reversionis as muchadaptation as is progression...[The
frontiersocietysacrifices
much]of thecivilizationwhichit As soonas I wasperceived in thevillagesomeonecried
had, in favorof formsof adaptationwhich... are suc- out... and at onceeveryone cameoutto saluteand wel-
cessfullas theyresemble thoseof thenatives.Acculturation comeme... I lodgedwitha manwho was one of the
takes place, strangeto say, fromthe lower toward the riched oftheHurons.You canlodgewhereyouplease;for
higherrace; thusthe colonistsin New England... "In- thisNationaboveall others is exceedinglyhospitable
to-
dianized." 15 wardsall sortof persons, even towardstrangers; and
youmayremain
Both Turner and Keller were writingat a timewhen treated as longas youplease,beingalwayswell
according
to thefashion ofthecountry.
anthropologistswere beginningto question and reject
unilineartheoriesof culturalevolution,but more than Amongthe Indians,moreover, therewas thewell-
a decade beforeintensivestudiesof acculturationwere knowncustom,antedating whitecontact,of adopting
undertaken.With the abandonmentof the theoryof personscapturedin war. Therewerespecialritesin-
regular progressivestages in the cultural historyof volved. Indians formallyadopted in this manner
all peoples, we are now free to examine processesof could not returnto theirown tribal group. This
acculturationand transculturalization more objective- custom, then,musthaveled to thetransculturalization
ly and without moral prejudice. We do not have to of Indiansby Indians.The samepracticewas carried
ask whethertransculturalization is a "reversion"to a on in the periodof whitecontact,but therewas a
more "primitive"level, or an "escape" from"civiliza- modification. The Indians foundthey could profit
tion." Like other non-literatepeoples of the world, materiallyin many cases. Whetheradopted or not,
the aborigines of America lived in societies which whitecaptivescould returnto theirown societyif
were as regularlypatterned in terms of their own theywere ransomed.(Handbook 1: "Captives"; 2:
value systemsas the cultureof the European intruders. "Slavery.")
Whether there was "in their social bond something In sometribesadoptionwas specifically motivated
singularlycaptivating, and far superior to anything by thedesireto replacea dead childor otherrelative.
boasted of among us" that lured and held so many This involvedthebuildingup of all theaffective ties
whites,is a psychologicalquestionto which we cannot of Indian familylife, the social integration of the
give a final answer.'6 There are other and related individualintothekinshipsystem, and hisorientation
to all the values and social sanctionsof the group.
14 Mood (1943) points out that the
theoryof social evolution Functionally,it was equivalentto thenormalprocesses
was the "fundamentalunifyingconcept" of Turner's earlywritings. of socializationin all societies,
on whichthepsycho-
15 Keller, op. cit., 276-77. This author's use of the term
accultu'ration in 1915 is worth noting. Indianized is used correla-
logical structuralizationand personaladjustmentof
tively for the general influenceexerted.
16 When Crevecoeurreferring to the Indians says: necessary qualifications for happiness?" (1957:210), he reflects
"Without temples, without priest, without kings, and without the literarytraditionof the Noble Savage, ratherthan any precise,
laws, they are in many instancessuperior to us. And the proofs ethnographicknowledge of Indian life. Fairchild (1928:103-4)
of what I advance are, that they live without care, sleep without has pointed out that later Crevecoeurreversedhis earlier attitude
inquietude, take life as it comes, bearing all its asperities with towards the Indians expressed in the Letters.The evidence is to
unparalleled patience, and die without any kind of apprehension be found in Voyage dans La Haute Peunsylvanie... published in
for what they have done, or for what they expect to meet with 1801, but never translatedinto English. In this book the author
hereafter," says he has been an eye-witnessof such brutalitiesas devastating
and then asks: "What systemof philosophycan give us so many war parties,tortures,and scenes of drunkennessamong the Indians.

526 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

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 thehumanindividualdepends.No wonder,then,that Hallowell : AMERICAN INDIANS: TRANSCULTURALIZATION
manywhitechildrenwho had been subjectedto this
processfoundit impossible to leave the Indians.The socializationof the whitechild.It preparedhim for
resultis predictable.Not that in everycase the old all thevariousroleswhichwereopento himin Indian
whitepersonality quicklyfaded intothe new Indian society.I have already mentionedseveralcases of
one. Writerslike ConradRichterin The lightxn the whitesand NegroesbecomingIndian chiefs;in their
forestand Lewis B. Pattenin Whitewarrior(rather reviewof cases of Indianizationboth Ackerknecht
thansocial psychologistsor anthropologists)have at- and Swantoncite a numberof otherinstances.Old
temptedto depictforus the conflictsthatmay also WhiteBoy, who was capturedin 1760 whenhe was
arise. aboutfouryearsold, couldneverremember his name.
In contrastto theinstitutionalized patternof adop- "Not only he himselfbut all his sons... became
tionin Indiancultures, considerthepicturepresented famousSeneca chiefs.When his youngestson was
in the societyof the whiteEuropeansettlers. There electedchief,he fearedthatthejealousyof theIndians
was no comparableinstitution of adoption.The few mightbe arousedby his continuedsuccessand there-
Indianswho becameassociatedwiththe whitesmust forehe wantedto leave; buttheybeggedhimto stay,
have foundthemselves confronted witha socialsitua- so he did" (Ackerknecht 1944:17).Of thethirtycases
tionin whichintimate personalcontactswerenarrow- of captivity, fifteen male and fifteen female,examin-
ly restricted. They mightbe offereda formaleduca- ed by Swanton(1926:501),threeor fourof the men
tion,but not acceptanceas fullyfledgedmembers of becamechiefsand a similarnumberof the women
a familygroup.The socialisolationof theIndianboy becamechiefs'wives.'8The factthatwhiteor Negro
in Cooper'sThe weptof Wish-ton-Wish, livingamong men could becomechiefsin Indian societiesis one
whitesin a householdrigidlymolded by Puritan indicationof thecompletereceptiveness of thesecul-
values,is a fictionalexamplewhichis close to the turesto transculturites. This basic receptiveness was
reality.It was notthattheIndiancouldnotbe raised mediatedto a large degreeby the natureof their
"up" to thelevelof civilization butrather, thelack of socialorganization and kinshipstructures. It explains
an equivalentdesireon thepartof whitesto welcome why it was thatadult whitesand Negroescould by
and assimilatethe Indian, and the absenceof any choice,and withrelativeease, becomeassimilatedto
establishedculturalmeans that would mediatethe an Indian mannerof life. Squaw men,for example,
transition fromone cultureto the otherin a manner did not all becometransculturalized in equal degree;
thatwas psychologically sound.Swantonquotesfrom nevertheless marriage withan Indianwoman,residence
a reportwrittenby someNew Englandmissionarieswith her people, and the acquisitionof an Indian
whichdocuments this(1926:502):'7 tonguemediatedthe social rolesof theseindividuals
in sucha mannerthattheyinevitably weredrawninto
An Indianyouthhas beentakenfromhis friends and the web of interrelations of the society.Indeed,the
conducted to a newpeople,whosemodesof thinking and of
living, whose and
pleasures pursuits totallyare dissimilaruse kinship terms alone prescribedpatterns of con-
to thoseofhisownnation.His newfriends profess loveto duct as well as rights and obligationsin daily social
him,anda desire forhisimprovement inhuman anddivine interaction thatwereinescapable.This is undoubtedly
knowledge, and forhiseternal salvation; butat thesame the reasonfor the oftenheard complaintof squaw
timeendeavour to makehimsensible of hisinferiority to menthat"whenyou marryan Indiangirlyou marry
themselves. To treathimas an equalwouldmortify their a wholedamntribe!"
ownpride,and degradethemselves in theviewof their On the otherhand, what roles were open to an
neighbours. He is put to school;buthis fellowstudentsIndian in whitesociety?Even if educated,the pre-
lookon himas a beingof an inferior species. He acquires sumptionwas thathe would returnto his people as
someknowledge, and is taughtsomeornamental, and
perhaps usefulaccomplishments; butthedegrading memo- a missionary. SamsonOccum (1723-92), "the pious
rialsof his inferiority, whichare continually beforehis Mohegan," is a case in point.He becametranscultur-
eyes,remind himof themanners and habitsof his own alized,achievinggreatfameas a preacherin America
country, where hewasoncefreeandequaltohisassociates. and England.Clad in a blacksuitand kneebreeches,
He sighsto return to hisfriends; butthesehe meetswith an Indianclergyman "withthegarb,mannerisms, and
themostbittermortification. He is neither a whiteman habitsof thoughtof thePuritandivine,"Occam was
noran Indian;as hehadno character withus,hehasnone a noveltyin England(C. T. Foreman1943:87). Most
withthem. of Occam's life, however,was spentin missionary
There is a further point to be made. The Indian workamongIndiansin thiscountry.He spokefrom
institution of adoptionentailedthe fullestkind of manypulpits,but he receivedno call to occupya
pulpitin America.Despitehis education,his personal
17 In het short story "Back to the
talents,themoneyhe had helpedraiseforDartmouth
Blanket," Alice Marriott College,and the evidentsuccesswith whichhe had
dramatizes the situation (1945;247, 250). Leah, a Kiowa child
had been sent east to school at nine. Leah thought it would be adoptedthe way of life of his Christiancontempo-
easy to go home, "go to the mission, work to uplift her people. raries,the missionary role was the only one open to
Then she would marrysome good young man, not an Indian, a him."9
missionary,and go away and do good all her life." But when she
got home it was not so easy. "Here was her own sistercalling her
Indian." And when the local missionariescalled and wanted her 18 Simon Girty, the famous "white savage"
renegade of the
to go live with them she refused. Revolutionaryperiod told Oliver Spencer, a white captive, that
"What good would it do to live at the mission? There was no although he would never see home, if he turnedout to be a good
warmnessfor her to Mr. and Mrs. Gaines. There was respect,that hunter and a brave warrior,he might someday be a chief (Boyd
was all. Here there was warmnesstowards the people around her 1928:211-12).
and towards her, anyway.Yes, and there was the beginnings of 19 There are, of course, a few individual exceptions.As early
respect." as 1504 a Brazilian Indian was taken to France by Captain de
Vol. 4 * No. 5 * December1963 527

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 In thecase of the Negroes,certainotherconditions of theSeminoleCouncil.TherewereevenSeminoleNegroes
were added to theirtransculturalization. Once the connectedwiththe "Crazy SnakeRebellion."
sounthernIndians had borrowedthe institution of Whatever choices were involved in the course of
slaveryfromEuropeans,theywantedNegro slaves. theirpersonal readjustmentas transculturites, thereis
The systembeingless rigidthan amongwhites,it is no reason to suppose that these Negroes weighed in
intelligiblewhy someNegroesran away to join the any abstract fashion the values of "savagery" versus
Indians.It mightbe thoughtthathavingan African "civilization."
backgroundin the firstplace, theywere seekingto Turning to the South Pacific, even a superficial
escape the morerigorousdemandsof "civilization," examination of a few cases of transculturalization
but thisis moreironicthan illuminating. Under the illuminatesthe motivationsof chiefs as well as the
circumstances, theywere inexorablycaughtin a role institutionalbasis of the process. The Tonga chief,
fromwhich therewas no immediateescape; they Finau II, found Mariner and other white seamen of
simplychoseto play it underbetterconditions. The particular use in enhancing his political ambitions
Seminoles, forexample,"heldtheirvassalsin a form through the conquest of additional islands. Furnas
of benevolentbondage,exactingonly their fealty (1947:215) says that in the fortiesof the last century,
and a small amountof corn,stockor peltries"(G.
Foreman1932:315). Speck writesof the Creeksin Wilkesfoundwell-fedbeachcombers, on severalislands
general(1908:107): in the Gilberts,treatedwithrespectand long marriedto
youngwomenof standing;theyusuallywantedto go home,
It is said amongthedescendants of theseslavestoday but had littleto complainof. In the early days many
thattheIndianswereeasymasters, and thattheservitudeFijian chiefshad suchtamewhitemen,regardingthemas
to theNegrowasmorelikea formofhiredservice, where mannerless but useful;to have one was part of a chief's
theyweresupported andprotected bytheIndianstowhom prestige.
in return theytendered theiraid in agricultureandhouse-
hold labor. [AddingfromColonelBenjaminHawkin's
observations in 1798-99] WheretheNegroeswerethere CONCLUSION
was moreindustry and thefarmswerebetter...During
theSeminole War,Negroslavesandtheirmixedoffspring From thisbriefsurveyof Indianization in America,
playedan important partin theranksoftheIndians. Even
Osceola,theSeminole leader, tohavehadNegro it is obvious that not all socio-culturalsystemsare
is believed
bloodin hisveins. equally receptiveto the assimilationof alien individu-
als, and that the degree of receptivityof a culture
Furthermore, thosewho weretransculturalized and depends,not primarilyon individual good or ill-will,
remainedwith the southernIndians until afterthe but on social values and attitudes,and on institutions
Civil War wereable to transcend theirearlierformal to mediate the inductionof alien individuals into it.
statusas slaves.Fostersays (1935:65-66): In studiesof diffusionand acculturationit has always
Seminole Negroes continuedto liveamongtheirSeminole been assumed that selective factors were at work
friends
relatives, andformer masters.TheIndiansadopted which were a functionof the organizationor pattern-
theirformer slavesand also theNegrofreedmen among ing of the culture.The same seems to be true of the
them,makingthemcitizensof theircountry. Theywere receptionof transculturites. In some societies,such as
givenequalrights to landandannuities. Thosenowliving these Indian ones highly receptive to transculturites,
[1929-30] whoremcmber thesetimeshaveinformed the it is difficultfor an alien individual to remainperif-
authorthattheyscarcelyknewthe difference between eral except as a guest,or visitor,or trader.To live in
beingfreeand beingin slavery.Theymaintain thatthe themhe mustin a sensebe "reborn"into them.On the
Seminole Negroescontinued to livean "Indianlife,"and other hand, aware of their "advanced" European
thatmanyoftheolderoneswere"Indian"in theirreligion
as wellas in theirsocialandeconomic Instances heritage,the small communitiesof Europeans in Amer-
practices.
havebeencited... of threeSeminole Negroeswhowere ica erected a defensivewall of heightenedconscious-
religious
leadersamongtheSeminoles. The Seminolesand ness of superiorityagainst the surroundingIndians.
theNegroes continued to intermarry,as theyhad donein To condescend to "raise up" the Indians was the
former years.The Negroescontinued also to forma part greatest magnanimity.In the case of the Puritans'
religious communities,their fierce opposition to In-
Gonneville and became completely transculturalized.He was dianization was only an extensionof theirantagonism
convertedto the Catholic faith, married the captain's daughter, to all of differentbelief-witness theirpersecutionof
foundeda familywhich long flourishedin France (Lee 1929:242).
Since many Elizabethan voyagershad made it a practice to bring the Quakers. Their sombernessand rigidityof outlook
a few American Indians back to England, it was thoughtby some was also the antithesisof that of the Indians who, for
that the number should be increased, with the aim of making the most part, must have been repelled by it. An
such individuals "into civilizing instrumentsamong their OWD Indian transculturitein such circumstances, even if he
people." This idea came to a head in 1620 when
"a serious proposal was ventilated to extend the practice by had loyal friendsamong them,remainedan alien. At
importinginto England a large number of Indian lads to be edu- a level of social organizationtranscendingthe tribal
cated on English lines. It never reachedfruition,however,the chief or familygroup,such as a political communitywhere
argument against it being that the Indian who had lived in an alien can become a citizen with legal rights,his
England awhile tended to assimilate the vices rather than the
virtues of civilized life (Lee 1929:242; see also C. T. Foreman assimilationin the societymay be extensiveor limited,
1943:28)." dependingon the nature of this legal rights,on cir-
The most famous Indian to undergo transculturalization in the cumstances,and on the individual. The trader may
seventeenthcenturywas the world-renounedPocahontas. And her be permitteda limited role; special groups may be
son, Thomas Rolfe, returningto America, became the progenitor
of distinguisheddescendants.Yet all these cases were exceptional permittedto live in restrictedareas, but not be mem-
and incomparable in numbers with the whites and Negroes on bers of the community. If all such factors were
the other side of the Atlanticwho became Indianized. known in particular cases, they might explain the
528 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
varyingdegreesof assimilation it is possibleforalien Hallowell : AMERICAN INDIANS: TRANSCULTURALIZATION
individualsto achievein different cultures, and to
ratecultureson a scaleof receptivity. Swanton (1926:512) in his examination of thirty
The role of transculturites in the promotionof cases of white captives concluded his essay by saying:
culturechangein the groupwithwhichtheybecome
affiliatedis anotherquestionthatmightbe investigat- The numbershouldbe verymuchincreased, [and] similar
ed. So faras Americais concerned, it is clearthat,in studies of white captives among other peoples of theworld
of the case,abducted children who became should be made, and thewholecheckedby reciprocalcases
thenature of captivesfromthevariousprimitive racesheldby white.
transculturalized did notplay sucha role.Old White
Boy,forinstance, becameconverted to Christianity in This task still remainsto be done. Our perspective
the same acculturation processthatled to the Chris- might be furtherexpanded by including a careful
tianizationof his fellowSeneca. In the South Seas, examinationof the consequencesof the policy adopted
on the otherhand, althoughI have not examined by the Ottoman Turks, or other comparable cases,
thesecases in detail,my impression is that some of and by collecting and analyzing cases of voluntary
thecapturedseamendid play a rolein acculturation.transculturalization of various kinds.The comparative
Hypothetically, theroleof transculturites as agentsin investigation of transculturalizationas a human
the acculturation processmay be a functionof the phenomenon,the conditions under which such cases
degreeto whichtheyexplicitlyrejectthe cultureof have occurred,the motivationof the individuals con-
theirnatal groupand becomeidentified withthecen- cerned and the relationof differentialcultural values
tralvaluesof theiradoptedculture.The Baptistmis- and patternsto their readjustmentwould greatlyen-
sionary,Isaac McCoy,writingin the nineteenth cen- rich our knowledge of crucial psychologicaland cul-
tury,thoughtthe squaw men were obstaclesto "or- tural factors underlying the functioningof group
ganizingan Indian territory and of renderingthe identification and alienation, as well as culture
Indianssecurein theirposessions.[These whitemen] change.
who identifythemselves with the Indians as much
as possible.. . [and] who have preferred savage to
of Indian culture(conceived
of the civilizationand sunk to the lower level to
civilizedsocietydo not desiretheimprovement corruptthe latter rather
as practicallyanarchical), were likely
former"(1840:529). Psychological and culturaliden- than to improve it (1813:385). "White men will still be found"
tification,however,does not excludethe influence of he says,"so low in naturalinstincts,or so alienated by misfortunes
transculturites on culturechange.Many years ago and wrongs,as to be willing to abandon civilizationand hide them-
Speck (1908:109) was convincedthat selves in a conditionof life where no artificialwants are known,
sentimentmakesno demandupon
and in communitieswhere public
... inmythologytheculture any member for aught in the way of achievementor self-advance-
oftheCreeksandothersouth- ment. Here such men, even now to be found among the more
easterntribeshas been to
subjected modification
by the remoteand hostile tribes,will, unless the savage customsof adop-
Negroes[who]beingmoreamenableto whiteinfluencetion are severelydiscountenancedby law, find their revengeupon
thantheIndians... havebeentheenteringwedgein the humanity,or escape the tyrannyof social observanceand require-
pastcentury formanynewideasand newinterpretation ment. Half-breeds bearing the names of French, English, and
of old ones.20 American employeesof fur and trading companies,or of refugees
from criminal justice, 'in the settlements,'are to be found in
almost every tribe and band, however distant. Many of them
20 Some Americans, debating "the Indian question" in the grown to man's estate,are among the most daring, adventurous,
second half of the nineteenthcentury,thoughtthe problem could and influentialmembersof the warlike tribes,seldom wholly free
be solved by a very strictsegregationof the Indians on Reserva- from suspicion on account of their relation on one side to the
tions. In the opinion of one writer,F. A. Walker, whose statements whites,yet by the versatilityof their talents and the recklessness
undoubtedlyreflectmore widely held views, the abiding presence of their courage, commanding the respect and the fear of the
of Indians in our midst was complicated by the evil influence pure-bloods, and, however incapable of leading the savages in
of white transculturiteswho, backsliders as they were from bettercourses,powerful in a high degree for mischief."

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CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY
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OUR READERS WRITE
(Continued from page 478)
Mr. Pearson's resolutely starry-eyed
blueprint for Utopia (CA 4:130)
would at least provide a paradise
for psychiatrists.It seems to be based
on the assumption that putting
people of all kinds together will
necessarily bring out all the best
and none of the worst in them; but
he should ponder Bernard Shaw's
famous rejoinder to Ellen Terry
when she proposed that they should
have a child which should combine
his brains with her beauty. In situa-
tions of cultural fluidity,Gresham's
Law tends to operate on the value
system-at least in the field of art,
as I know too well from Africa.
Among Mr. Pearson's pious and
woolly platitudes are many debat-
able preconceptions, but I do not
think that CA is the place to debate
them, at least until someone has
produced a more down-to-earth
main proposition. WILLIAM FAGG
London, England
I disagreestronglywith Underwood's
objection to listing the contents of
other journals. For those of us who
do not have ready access to a wide
variety of journals, "Journal Con-
tents" alerts us to papers we would
otherwise miss, until they begin to
appear in bibliographies after long
delay. WILLIAM A. SMALLEY
Nyack, N. Y.
The section titled, "Journal Con-
tents,"is very interestingand worth-
while. However, could it not be im-
proved by giving the address of the
author so that reprintscould be re-
quested. I expect to be in the field
next year and will not haye the
journals at hand. I rarely read
Vol. 4 N 5 * December 1963
No.
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Hallowell :
VOLTAIRE, F. M. A. DE. 1926. "The
simple soul [L'ingenu ," in Zadig and
other romances of Voltaire. Translated
by H. I. Woolf and Wilfred S. Jack-
son. New York: Dodd, Mead & Com-
pany (First ed. of L'inge6nu,1769).
WALKER, F. A. 1873. The Indian question.
North American Review 116:329-88.
WASHBURN, WILCOMB. E. A moral history
of Indian-white relations: Needs and
opportunities for study. Ethnohistory
4:47-61.
Sovetskaya Etnografiya; in fact, it
is not in our library,but the "Jour-
nal Contents" section listed an ar-
ticle I would like to read. Now 1
have to send off for that volume,
then get the address from it, then
write for the reprint.Your listingof
author's addresses would greatly
simplify and speed up this process.
EDWARD I. FRY
Lincoln, Nebraska
[Editor's note: Most articles listed
are written by Associates in CA,
whose addresses are found in our
List of Associates each year. "Jour-
nal Contents" also includes the ad-
dress of the journal; an author who
is not an Associate can be addressed
care of the journal.]
I find CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY a
very interestingand useful journal.
Services like "Journal Contents" are
worthwhile for me. Don't drop this
section. I would like to see further
samples of the multilingual glossary.
ALEXANDER HXUSLER
Leipzig, Germany
May I informyou that I have gotten
all numbers of CURRENT ANTHRO-
POLOGY in time. I found the content
of most of the publishedarticlesvery
interesting; I think the publication
of review articles and CA* treat-
ment the most important part of
the Journal and thereforethe stress
should remain on this part. As
keeper of the African section of our
Museum fur V6lkerkunde I heartily
welcome the introductionof the new
department "Identifications Want-
ed." I hope I can contribute and
profit from this department. I also
will give you information for the
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
AMERICAN INDIANS: TRANSCULTURALIZATION
WEBBER, CHARLES. 1848. Old Hicks the
guide. New York.
WHITTAKER, FREDERICK. 1872. The ja
guar queen, or The outlaws of the Sier-
ra Madre. Beadle's New Dime Novels,
number 389.
WISSLER, CLARK. 1938. The enigma of
the squaw man. Natural History
41:185-89.
WRIGHT,Louis B. and MARYISABEL FRY.
1936. Puritans in the South Seas. New
York: Holt.
new department"Exhibits,"whichI
thinkmost usefulfor museologists.
DIETRICH DROST
Leipzig, Germany
I protest.On page 155 of Volume
IV, No. 2 (April 1963) you say of
an articleand commentaryfollow-
ing it, "The commentswrittenfor
publicationare printedin full after
the author'stext and are followed
by a reply from the author." My
commentswere not printedin full
as last presentedto me in edited
form.Alterationwas made without
informing me in advanceor follow-
ing publication.I had no opportuni-
ty to approveor disapproveof the
editinginvolved,nor did I have the
opportunityof withdrawingmy
comments.Had I knownthis to be
the acceptableprocedurefor your
journal,I would not have been will-
ing to contribute.The editingin-
volved may be trivial;the principle
is not. MARION J. LEVY, JR.
Princeton,New Jersey
[Editor'snote: At the last minute
changesmust sometimesbe made
for technical reasons; sometimes
without time even to tell the
authorin advance.In this case we
neglectedto tell him at all, and
apologize.]
One small request:I wonderif the
convenienceof glue-on-the-flap-of-
the-reply-envelope forthosewho live
in a dry climatereallybalancesthe
inconvenienceof losing-a-page-of-
CA-stuck-to-the-glue-on-the-flap-of-
the-reply-envelope for those of us
receiving CA at the equator in
rainyseason?I'd vote for a glueless
flap if I were asked!
SARAH C. GUDSCHINSKY
Rio de Janeiro,Brazil
[Editor'snote: We are investigating
the possibilityof a glue that will
not stickto the page.]
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