Environmental Science Notes Renewable Resources

Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.
Unit 3: Natural Resources: Renewable and Non-renewable Resources
• Land Resources and land use change; Land degradation, soil erosion and desertification.
• Deforestation: Causes and impacts due to mining, dam building on environment, forests, biodiversity
and tribal populations.
• Water: Use and over-exploitation of surface and ground water, floods, droughts, conflicts over water
(international & inter-state).
• Heating of earth and circulation of air; air mass formation and precipitation.
• Energy resources: Renewable and non-renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources,
growing energy needs case studies.
1 ykadam130@gmail.com
Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
Natural Resources
In simple term, natural resources are material and constituent formed within environment or any matter or
energy that are resulting from environment, used by living things that humans use for food, fuel, clothing,
and shelter. These comprise of water, soil, minerals, vegetation, animals, air, and sunlight.
Types of natural resources
I. Renewable resources
 Renewable is resource or source of energy that is replaced naturally or controlled carefully and
can therefore be used without the risk of finishing it all (Oxford dictionary).
 Another way to define is a resource that is able to be renewed and be capable of being begun or
done again.
 Renewable resources are usually living resources such as plants and animals and they also include
air and water. These resources are termed as 'renewable' because they can usually reproduce or
restock themselves.
 The natural environment, with soil, water, forests, plants and animals are all renewable resource.
In the case of air and water, they are renewable elements because they exist as part of a cycle
which allows them to be reused.
II. Non-renewable resources
 Non-renewable resources cannot be re-produced or re-grown and are, therefore, they are available
in limited supply.
 Scholars affirmed that Non-renewable resource is a natural resource that does not renew itself at a
sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human timeframes.
 Non-renewable resources are resources for which there is a limited supply. The supply comes
from the Earth itself and, as it typically takes millions of years to develop, is finite.
Biotic and abiotic Natural Resources
Examples of biotic Biotic Resources in the Ocean Abiotic Natural Resources

natural resources
 Birds  Barites
 Ferns  Bauxite
 Flowering plants  Crustaceans and lobsters  Chromite
 Fruits  Fish  Coal
 Fungi  Octopi  Copper
 Insects  Seaweed and kelp  Diamond
 Lichens  Shrimp  Gravel
 Mammals  Whales and dolphins  Gold
 Microbes  Iron Ore
 Mosses  Lead
 Natural gas  Marble
 Petroleum  Limestone
 Reptiles  Nickel
 Shrubs  Platinum
 Trees  Pumice
 Worms  Salt
 Sand
 Silver
 Sulfur
 Talc
 Vanadium
 Zinc
Natural Energy Resources ( Use of alternate energy resources)
 Biofuels - Fuels made from plants and animals

 Geothermal energy - Energy generated from and stored in the earth
 Hydroelectric power - Water drives the turbines that produce electricity either in dams or tides
 Natural gas - This is a fossil fuel
 Nuclear energy - Created by splitting the atom
 Solar energy - The sun's rays heat solar cells that make electricity
 Wind power - The wind turn the turbines that make electricity
Deforestation
Deforestation refers to the cutting, clearing, and removal of rainforest or related ecosystems into less
bio-diverse ecosystems such as pasture, cropland, or plantations (Kricher, 1997).
What are the causes of deforestation?
 I. Logging
 II. Mining
 III. Oil and gas extraction
 IV. Cattle ranching
 V. Agriculture: Cash crops
 VI. Local, National, and International factors: development, land titles, government subsidies to
attract corporations into developing countries, trade agreements (NAFTA, CAFTA), civil wars,
debt, lack of resources, and lack of law enforcement.
Largest rainforests worldwide listed in descending order (from largest to smallest).
I. Amazon basin of South America

II. Congo river basin of Central Africa
III. S.E. Asia
IV. New Guinea
V. Madagascar
Facts:
 Did you know that tropical rainforests, which cover 6-7% of the earth's surface, contain
over half of all the plant and animal species in the world!
 Did you know that 57% of all rainforests remaining are located in the Neotropics, with 30%
located in Brazil.
Overview of deforestation around the world:
Between 1960 and 1990, most of the deforestation occurred globally, with an increasing trend every
decade.
 Brazil has the highest annual rate of deforestation today.

 Atlantic coast of Brazil has lost 90-95% of its rainforest.
 Central America has 50% of its rainforests.
 South America has 70% of its rainforests.
 The Philippines have lost 90% of its rainforests!
 Madagascar has lost 95% of its rainforests!
 El Salvador has lost 70-85% of its rainforest due to heavy bombing during the civil war 1984-
1985.
 Sumatra has 15% of its rainforests left.
 Only 6% of Central Africa's forests are protected by law.
 Statistics on Global Rates of Rainforest Destruction:

 2.4 acres (1 hectare) per second: equivalent to two U.S. football fields
 149 acres (60 hectares) per minute
 214,000 acres (86,000 hectares) per day: an area larger than New York City
 78 million acres (31 million hectares) per year: an area larger than Poland
 On average, 137 species become extinct everyday; or 50,000 each year!
 *If the current rate of deforestation continues, the world's rain forests will vanish within 100
years- causing unknown effects on global climate and eliminating the majority of plant and
animal species on the planet*
What are the consequences of deforestation?
Environmental:
1. Extinctions (loss of biodiversity of microbes (bacteria), plants, insects, animals, indigenous peoples,
etc.
2. Habitat fragmentation. This disturbs the animals' habitat and may force them to enter habitats which are
already occupied. This can pose many problems such as territorial conflicts, homelessness (loss of
habitat), lack of food availability, migration disturbances, etc.
3. Soil erosion occurs when trees and plants are removed; the rain water washes the nutrients in the top
soil away.
4. Changes in watershed geomorphology.
5. Desertification (dry, hot, arid conditions).
6. Edge effects can change microclimates (small climates) which affect endemic species (native species
which can only live in specific environmental and habitat conditions).
7. Climate change (more carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, thus increasing the effects of
global warming).
8. Pollution (ground, water and air pollution from oil extraction and mining chemicals).
Social impacts:
1. Loss of culture (indigenous peoples subsistence living in the rainforest). People who live in the
rainforest depend on the natural environment for food, shelter, materials for cooking, clothing, etc. If the
forest is cut down or if their environment becomes polluted from oil extraction and mining, they are
forced to move or risk starvation and sickness.
2. Displacement of people (loss of farmland, forest resources, etc).
3. Social conflicts and struggles over land and natural resources.
4. Conflicts over racial and ethnic rights.
5. Poisoning from oil and mining waste.
6. Economic uncertainty (price fluctuations and high interest rates on outstanding international loans with
The World Bank and International Monetary Fund.
What can we do to STOP or at least lessen the amount of deforestation and conserve our own use of
natural resources such as wood, oil and gas, electricity, minerals and elements, and water?
Brainstorm...here's a start:
 Always use both sides of paper when writing, drawing, photo-copying, faxing, etc.
 Recycle paper, cans, glass, and plastic.
 Read the newspaper on-line.
 Buy paper products made from recycled paper: notebook paper, paper towels, toilet paper, books,
etc.
 Use pencils until they are stubs! Think of pencils as gold (you'll never lose them if you do).
 Encourage your parents, relatives, and friends to buy furniture and wood that is Certified. That
means the wood was legally cut-down.
 If you buy a product and you notice they use wood chips to package it, write to the company and
suggest they use another packaging material.
 Trees get cut down for cattle to graze. Instead of eating meat, think of eating other sources of
protein such as fish, soy, beans, whole-wheat, and nuts.
 Buy organic fruits and vegetables. That means there are no insecticides or pesticides (poisonous
chemicals) sprayed on the food. If these chemicals kill insects and pests that try and eat the
vegetables, think about how harmful they can be to you and the environment.
 Instead of buying gold or diamonds, which are mined and cause environmental damage, consider
jewelry that is made from materials that are not mined...such as glass.
 Encourage your parents, relatives, and friends to drive fuel efficient cars that get good gas
mileage. Hybrid and bio-diesel cars get great mileage and use less or no gasoline.
 Even better, whenever possible, walk, bike, carpool or use mass transit (bus or train).
 Save electricity by turning off lights, t.v., radio, computer, etc when you are not using them.
 Save water by NOT taking baths; instead take quick showers (turning off the water while you soap
up) and then turning it back on to rinse quickly.
 While washing your hands and brushing your teeth, turn off the water. You'll save gallons if you
do.
 When washing the dishes or your parent's car, turn off the water while washing it with soap. Rinse
quickly after washing.
 Hmmm, can you think of other ways to conserve wood, oil and gas, electricity, minerals and
elements, and water, etc...? Brainstorm with your pen pal or a family member.
What is mining?
Mining is the extraction (removal) of minerals and metals from earth. Manganese, tantalum, cassiterite,
copper, tin, nickel, bauxite (aluminum ore), iron ore, gold, silver, and diamonds are just some examples of
what is mined.
There are four main mining methods: underground, open surface (pit), placer, and
in-situ mining.
 Underground mines are more expensive and are often used to reach deeper deposits.
 Surface mines are typically used for more shallow and less valuable deposits.
 Placer mining is used to sift out valuable metals from sediments in river channels, beach sands,
or other environments.
 In-situ mining, which is primarily used in mining uranium, involves dissolving the mineral
resource in place then processing it at the surface without moving rock from the ground.
 Rat hole mining
Challenges/Concerns Faced by Mining Sector in India
 Displacement and rehabilitation issues

 Large scale displacement of local people leads to grievances and improper rehabilitation
measures, thereby, leading to people’s alienation and develop distrust over the government
machinery.
 It's not just a loss of land for the local population rather the loss of a tribal way of life and their
rich cultural heritage.
 It has given space to left-wing extremism in the resource-rich areas like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Odisha, etc.
 Mining also puts the lives of miners at risk due to the rudimentary ways adopted and the absence
of adequate safety gear and protocols. For instance, mine-related accidents at Ksan coal mine in
Meghalaya- Jaintia Hills (2018), Chasnala near Dhanbad in 1975.
 Human Rights violations have taken place in forms of mine-related deaths, inadequate
rehabilitation, and developmental steps, etc. Massive local protests have taken place against
mining in Niyamgiri Hills of Odisha, POSCO in Odisha, Sterlite protest in T.N.
 Rathole mining: This is a form of illegal mining, especially practised in North eastern areas like
Meghalaya (Ksan coal mine incident). It involves digging of very small tunnels [only of 3-4 feet
high], done both vertically and horizontally. The NGT banned it in 2015 on the grounds of it being
unscientific and unsafe for workers.
 The coal seam is extremely thin in Meghalaya; no other methods would not be economically
viable. Removal of rocks from the hilly terrain and putting up pillars inside the mine to prevent
collapse would be costlier. In Meghalaya, this is the locally developed technique and the most
commonly used one.
 Environmental/Health issues
 Environmental pollution has been caused by the Makrana marble mines in Rajasthan, the
Granite mines of Karnataka have left a large hole on earth, Damodar river has been severely
polluted by coal mining.
 Loss of biodiversity and local heritage due to mining activities.

 The prevalence of mining in an area causes various diseases like fibrosis, Pneumoconiosis, and
silicosis in workers as well as locals.
 Water Pollution – water from streams and rivers in mining areas have become acidic and unfit
for drinking. Eg: Meghalaya’s Kopili river, Damodar river etc.
 Contaminated air with high particulate matters is also a major problem in mining rich regions.
Water resources:
Constitutional Provisions
 Entry 17 of State List deals with water i.e. water supply, irrigation, canal, drainage,
embankments, water storage and water power.
 Entry 56 of Union List empowers the Union Government for the regulation and development of
inter-state rivers and river valleys to the extent declared by Parliament to be expedient in the
public interest.
 According to Article 262, in case of disputes relating to waters:
a. Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with
respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any inter-State river or
river valley.
b. Parliament may, by law provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court
shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint as mentioned
above.
Major Inter-State River Disputes
River (s) States
Ravi and Beas Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
Narmada Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Krishna Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Telangana
Vamsadhara Andhra Pradesh & Odisha
Cauvery Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry
Godavari Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya

Pradesh, Odisha
Mahanadi Chhattisgarh, Odisha
Mahadayi Goa, Maharashtra, Karnataka
Periyar Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Active River Water Dispute Tribunals in India
 Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal II (2004) – Karnataka, Telangana, Andra Pradesh, Maharashtra
 Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal (2018) – Odisha & Chattisgarh
 Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal (2010) – Goa,Karnataka, Maharashtra
 Ravi & Beas Water Tribunal (1986) – Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
 Vansadhara Water Disputes Tribunal (2010) – Andra Pradesh & Odisha.
Distribution of Natural Resources:
 Natural resources are not evenly distributed all over the world. Some places are more endowed
that others — for instance, some regions have lots of water (and access to ocean and seas). Others
have lots of minerals and forestlands. Others have metallic rocks, wildlife, fossil fuels and so on.
 For example, The US has the world's largest coal reserves with 491 billion short tons accounting
for 27% of the world's total. Australia is the world's largest net exporter of coal accounting for
29% of global coal exports China remains the largest producer of gold with a 14% share of the
global production.
 The United States, Russia, and Canada are the leading producers of timber and pulp. Annual
exports of primary and secondary wood products from tropical forests have exceeded US$ 20
billion in recent years and further increases are anticipated.
 Many countries have developed their economies by using their natural resources. Some also get a
lot of income from their resources in the form of tourism and recreation. Brazil and Peru for
example, make a lot of money from The Amazon Forests, which is super diverse in trees and
animals.
 Crude oil is another important natural resource. From Crude oil, we get many petroleum products
such as petrol, diesel and gas.
 We use these to fuel our cars and provide energy to warm and cool our homes. But Crude oil is
not evenly distributed all over the world. Below is an illustration of how much each region of the
world produces.
 International and local trade has its roots in the fact that resources are not evenly distributed on
the earth’s surface.
 Regions with crude oil can drill oil and sell to regions without oil, and also buy resources such
as timber and precious metals (gold, diamonds and silver) from other regions that have them in
abundance.
 The uneven distribution is also the root of power and greed in many regions. Some countries
use their wealth in resources to control and manipulate regions with fewer resources. Some
countries and regions have even gone to war over the management, ownership, allocation, use
and protection of natural resources and related ecosystems.
What is Biomass?
 Biomass fuels come from things that once lived: wood products, dried vegetation, crop residues,
aquatic plants and even garbage. It is known as 'Natural Material'.
 Plants used up a lot of the sun's energy to make their own food (photosynthesis). They stored the
foods in the plants in the form of chemical energy. As the plants died, the energy is trapped in the
residue. This trapped energy is usually released by burning and can be converted into biomass
energy.
 Wood is a biomass fuel. It is renewable. As long as we continue to plant new trees to replace those
that were cut down, we will always have wood to burn. Just as with the fossil fuels, the energy
stored in biomass fuels came originally from the Sun.
 It is such a widely utilized source of energy, probably due to its low cost and indigenous nature,
that it accounts for almost 15% of the world's total energy supply and as much as 35% in
developing countries, mostly for cooking and heating. (More reading on Bioenergy or Biofuel
here)
How is biomass converted into energy?
Burning
 This is a very common way of converting organic matter into energy.

 Burning stuff like wood, waste and other plant matter releases stored chemical energy in the form
of heat, which can be used to turn shafts to produce electricity. Let's see this simple illustration of
how biomass is used to generate electricity.
Energy from the sun is transferred and stored in plants.
1.When the plants are cut or die, wood chips, straw and other plant matter is delivered to the bunker
2. This is burned to heat water in a boiler to release heat energy (steam).
3. The energy/power from the steam is directed to turbines with pipes
4. The steam turns a number of blades in the turbine and generators, which are made of coils and
magnets.
5. The charged magnetic fields produce electricity, which is sent to homes by cables.
Other ways in which organic matter can be converted into energy include:
Decomposition:
Things that can rot, like garbage, human and animal waste, dead animals and the like can be left to rot,
releasing a gas called biogas (also known as methane gas or landfill gas). Methane can be captured by a
machine called Microturbine and converted into electricity. Sometimes, animal waste (poop) can also be
converted into methane by a machine called 'Anaerobic Digester'
Fermentation: Ethanol can be produced from crop
Temperature Distribution on Earth
 Sun is the ultimate source of heat. And the differential heat received from sun by different regions on
earth is the ultimate reason behind all climatic features. So understanding the patterns of distribution
of temperature in different seasons is important for understanding various climatic features like wind
systems, pressure systems, precipitation etc..
Insolation
 Earth intercepts only one in two billion parts of solar radiation. This intercepted radiation is called
Insolation.
 Insolation == Proportion of Solar energy received or intercepted by earth.
 Some heat within the core and mantle is transferred to the surface and ocean bottoms through
volcanoes, springs and geysers. But this heat received at the surface form interiors of the earth is
negligible compared to that received from sun.
 Earth receives Sun’s radiation (heat) in the form of short waves (visible light + wavelengths below
visible light – most of it is ultraviolet radiation) which are of electromagnetic nature. The earth
absorbs short wave radiation during daytime and reflects back the heat received into space as long-
wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation) during night.
Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy
 The heat energy from the solar radiation is received by the earth through three mechanisms—
 Radiation == Heat transfer from one body to another without actual contact or movement.
It is possible in relatively emptier space, for instance, from the sun to the earth through space
 Conduction == Heat transfer through matter by molecular activity. Heat transfer in iron and
other metals is by conduction. Generally, denser materials like water are good conductors and
a lighter medium like air is a bad conductor of heat.
 Convection == Transfer of heat energy by actual transfer of matter or substance from one
place to another. (heat transfer by convection cycles in atmosphere as well as oceans)
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution
1. Duration of Sunshine
 Heat received depends on day or night; clear sky or overcast, summer or winter etc..
2. Transparency of Atmosphere
 Aerosols (smoke, sooth), dust, water vopour, clouds etc. effect transparency.
 If the wavelength (X) of the radiation is more than the radius of the obstructing particle (such
as a gas), then scattering of radiation takes place.
 If the wavelength is less than the obstructing particle (such as a dust particle), then
total reflection takes place.
 Absorption of solar radiation takes place if the obstructing particles happen to be water
vapour, ozone molecules, carbon dioxide molecules or clouds.
 Most of the light received by earth is scattered light.
3. Land-Sea Differential
 Albedo of land is much greater than albedo of oceans and water bodies. Especially snow
covered areas reflect up to 70%-90% of insolation.
 Average penetration of sunlight is more in water – up to 20 metres, than in land – where it is
up to 1 metre only. Therefore, land cools or becomes hot more rapidly compared to oceans.
In oceans, continuous convection cycle helps in heat exchange between layers keeping
diurnal and annual temperature ranges low. (more while studying salinity and temperature
distribution of oceans)
 The specific heat of water is 2.5 times higher than landmass, therefore water takes longer to
get heated up and to cool down.
4. Prevailing Winds
 Winds transfer heat from one latitude to another. They also help in exchange of heat
between land and water bodies.
 The oceanic winds have the capacity to take the moderating influence of the sea to coastal
areas – reflected in cool summers and mild winters. This effect is pronounced only on the
windward side (the side facing the ocean).
 The leeward side or the interiors do not get the moderating effect of the sea, and therefore
experience extremes of temperature.
5. Aspects of Slope
 The direction of the slope and its angle control the amount of solar radiation received locally.
Slopes more exposed to the sun receive more solar radiation than those away from the sun’s
direct rays.
 Slopes that receive direct Sun’s rays are dry due to loss of moisture through excess
evaporation. These slopes remain barren if irrigational facilities are absent. But slopes with
good irrigational facilities are good for agriculture due to abundant sunlight available. They
are occupied by dense human settlements.
 Slopes that are devoid of direct sunlight are usually well forested.
6. Ocean Currents
 Ocean currents influence the temperature of adjacent land areas considerably. (more while
studying ocean currents).
7. Altitude
 With increase in height, pressure falls, the effect of greenhouse gases decreases and hence
temperature decreases (applicable only to troposphere).
 The normal lapse rate is roughly 1⁰ C for every 165 metres of ascent.
8. Earth’s Distance form Sun
 During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km on
4th July). This position of the earth is called
 On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This position is called
 Therefore, the annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the
amount received on 4th July.
 However, the effect of this variation in the solar output is masked by other factors like the
distribution of land and sea and the atmospheric circulation.
 Hence, this variation in the solar output does not have great effect on daily weather changes
on the surface of the earth.
Latitudinal Heat Balance
 The amount of insolation received varies from latitude to latitude.

 Regions within the equator and 40° N and S latitudes receive abundant sunlight and hence
more heat will be gained than lost. Hence they are energy surplus regions.
 Regions beyond 40° N and S latitudes lose more heat than that gained from sunlight. Hence
they are energy deficit regions (This is because of slant sunlight and high albedo of polar
regions).
 Going by this logic, the tropics should have been getting progressively hotter and the poles
getting progressively cooler. And the planet would have been inhospitable except for few
regions near mid-latitudes. But, in reality, this does not happen.
 The atmosphere (planetary winds) and the oceans (ocean currents) transfer excess heat
from the tropics (energy surplus region) towards the poles (energy deficit regions) making up
for heat loss at higher latitudes.
 And most of the heat transfer takes place across the mid-latitudes (30° to 50°)[more while
studding jet streams and cyclones], and hence much of the stormy weather is associated
with this region.
 Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from the lower latitudes to the deficit energy zone of the
higher latitudes maintains an overall balance over the earth’s surface.
Earth’s energy budget

The earth receives a certain amount of Insolation (short waves) and gives back heat into space by
terrestrial radiation (longwave radiation). Through this give and take, or the heat budget, the earth
maintains a constant temperature.
accounts for the balance between the energy Earth receives from the Sun, the energy Earth radiates back
into outer space after having been distributed throughout the five components of Earth’s climate system
and having thus powered the so-called Earth’s heat engine.
 The annual balance between incoming and outgoing radiation is the global energy budget, which
can be illustrated by using 100 “units” of energy to represent total insolation (100 percent of
insolation) received at the outer edge of the atmosphere and tracing its dispersal.
 Keep in mind that the values shown here are approximate annual averages for the entire
globe and do not apply to any specific location.
1. Radiation Loss from Reflection
Most of the incoming solar radiation that arrives at the upper atmosphere does not warm it directly.
 About 31 units of total insolation are reflected (or scattered) back into space by the atmosphere
and the surface.
 The albedo of Earth, therefore, is about 31 percent.
2. Direct Absorption of Solar Radiation

 Only 24 units of incoming solar radiation warm the atmosphere directly.
 About 3 units of radiation (in the ultraviolet portion of the spectrum) are absorbed by ozone and
so warm the ozone layer.
 Another 21 units are absorbed by gases and clouds as incoming radiation passes through the rest
of the atmosphere.
3. Surface-to-Atmosphere Energy Transfer
 About 45 units of insolation – nearly half of the total – simply transmit through the atmosphere
to Earth’s surface where it is absorbed, warming the surface. The warmed surface of Earth then in
turn transfers energy to the atmosphere above in a number of ways.
 About 4 units of energy are conducted from Earth’s surface back into the atmosphere, where it is
dispersed by convection. Energy is also transferred from the surface to the atmosphere through the
transport of latent heat in water vapor.
 About three-fourths of all sunshine falls on a water surface when it reaches Earth. Much of this
energy is utilized in evaporating water from oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water.
 About 19 units of energy pass into the atmosphere as latent heat stored in water vapor, eventually
released when condensation takes place.
 Greenhouse gases absorb large amounts of longwave radiation emitted by the surface, and in
turn radiate much of this energy back to the surface where it may be absorbed – and then
reemitted as longwave radiation again. Through the absorption of terrestrial radiation by
greenhouse gases, the atmosphere receives a net gain of 14 units of energy.
 A portion of the longwave radiation emitted by Earth’s surface, however, is transmitted

directly through the atmosphere without being absorbed by the greenhouse gases.
 Approximately 8 units of energy – in the form of longwave radiation with wavelengths between
about 8 and 12 micrometers – transmit through what is called the atmospheric window, a range
of wavelengths of infrared radiation that is not strongly absorbed by any atmospheric component.
For the most part, then, the atmosphere is warmed indirectly by the Sun: the Sun warms the
surface, and the surface, in turn, warms the air above.
The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution
 Isotherm == An imaginary line joining places having equal temperatures.

 The horizontal or latitudinal distribution of temperature is shown with the help of a map with
isotherms.
 Effects of altitude is not considered while drawing an isotherm. All the temperatures are
reduced to sea levels.
General characteristics of isotherms.
 Generally follow the parallels: Isotherms have close correspondence with the latitude
parallels mainly because the same amount of insolation is received by all the points located
on the same latitude.
 Sudden bends at ocean – continent boundaries: Due to differential heating of land and
water, temperatures above the oceans and landmasses vary even on the same latitude. (we
have seen how land sea differential effects temperature distribution)
 Narrow spacing between isotherms indicate rapid change in temperature (high thermal
gradient).
 Wide spacing between isotherms indicate small or slow change in temperatures (low
thermal gradient).
General Temperature Distribution
 The highest temperatures occur over tropics and sub-tropics (high insolation). The lowest
temperatures occur in polar and sub polar regions. in continents due to the effect of continentiality.
 Diurnal and annual range of temperatures are highest in the interiors of continents due to the effect
of continentiality (in continental interiors these will no moderating effect of oceans).
 Diurnal and annual range of temperatures are least in oceans. [high specific heat of water and mixing
of water keep the range low]
 Low temperature gradients are observed over tropics (sun is almost overhead the entire year) and
high temperature gradients over middle and higher latitudes (sun’s apparent path varies significantly
from season to season).
 Temperature gradients are usually low over the eastern margins of continents. (This is because
of warm ocean currents)
 Temperature gradients are usually high over the western margins of continents. (This is because
of cold ocean currents)
 The isotherms are irregular over the northern hemisphere due to an enhanced land-sea
contrast. Because of predominance of land over water in the north, the northern hemisphere is
warmer. The thermal equator (ITCZ) lies generally to the north of geographical equator.
 While passing through an area with warm ocean currents, the isotherms show a poleward shift.
(North Atlantic Drift and Gulf Stream combined with westerlies in Northern Atlantic; Kurishino
Current and North Pacific current combined with westerlies in Northern Pacific) (we will see about
ocean currents in detail later.)
 Mountains also affect the horizontal distribution of temperature. For instance, the Rockies and the
Andes stop the oceanic influence from going inwards into North and South America .
Seasonal Temperature Distribution
 The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the temperature
distribution in January and July.
 The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map with the help of isotherms. The
Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.
 In general the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map, as the isotherms
are generally parallel to the latitude. The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in
January than in July, especially in the northern hemisphere.
 In the northern hemisphere the land surface area is much larger than in the southern hemisphere.
Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced.
Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January
 During January, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern hemisphere.
 The western margins of continents are warmer than their eastern counterparts, since the
Westerlies are able to carry high temperature into the landmasses.
 The temperature gradient is close to the eastern margins of continents. The isotherms exhibit a more
regular behavior in the southern hemisphere.
Northern Hemisphere
 The isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent. This
can be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean.
 The presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift, make the
Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms show a poleward shift indicating that the
oceans are warmer and are able to carry high temperatures poleward.
 An equator ward bend of the isotherms over the northern continents shows that the
landmasses are overcooled and that polar cold winds are able to penetrate southwards, even
in the interiors. It is much pronounced in the Siberian plain.
 Lowest temperatures are recorded over northern Siberia and Greenland.
Southern Hemisphere
 The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms are more
or less parallel to the latitudes and the variation in temperature is more gradual than in the northern
hemisphere.
 The high temperature belt runs in the southern hemisphere, somewhere along 30°S latitude.
 The thermal equator lies to the south of geographical equator (because the Intertropical Convergence
Zone or ITCZ has shifted southwards with the apparent southward movement of the sun).
Seasonal Temperature Distribution – July
 During July, it is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere. The
isothermal behavior is the opposite of what it is in January.
 In July the isotherms generally run parallel to the latitudes. The equatorial oceans record warmer
temperature, more than 27°C. Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in the subtropical continental
region of Asia, along the 30° N latitude.
Northern Hemisphere
 The highest range of temperature is more than 60° C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian
continent. This is due to continentiality. The least range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20° S
and 15° N.
 Over the northern continents, a poleward bend of the isotherms indicates that the landmasses are
overheated and the hot tropical winds are able to go far into the northern interiors.
 The isotherms over the northern oceans show an equator ward shift indicating that the oceans are
cooler and are able to carry the moderating effect into tropical interiors. The lowest temperatures are
experienced over Greenland.
 The highest temperature belt runs through northern Africa, west Asia, north-west India arid
southeastern USA. The temperature gradient is irregular and follows a zig-zag path over the northern
hemisphere.
Southern Hemisphere
 The gradient becomes regular over the southern hemisphere but shows a slight bend towards the
equator at the edges of continents. Thermal equator now lies to the north of the geographical equator.

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Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.

Unit 3: Natural Resources: Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Types of natural resources

Biotic and abiotic Natural Resources

Examples of biotic Biotic Resources in the Ocean Abiotic Natural Resources

Natural Energy Resources ( Use of alternate energy resources)

 Biofuels - Fuels made from plants and animals

What are the causes of deforestation?

Largest rainforests worldwide listed in descending order (from largest to smallest).

I. Amazon basin of South America

Overview of deforestation around the world:

 Brazil has the highest annual rate of deforestation today.

 Statistics on Global Rates of Rainforest Destruction:

What are the consequences of deforestation?

4. Changes in watershed geomorphology.

5. Desertification (dry, hot, arid conditions).

2. Displacement of people (loss of farmland, forest resources, etc).

3. Social conflicts and struggles over land and natural resources.

4. Conflicts over racial and ethnic rights.

5. Poisoning from oil and mining waste.

Challenges/Concerns Faced by Mining Sector in India

 Displacement and rehabilitation issues

 Loss of biodiversity and local heritage due to mining activities.

Major Inter-State River Disputes

River (s) States

Ravi and Beas Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan

Narmada Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan

Krishna Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Vamsadhara Andhra Pradesh & Odisha

Cauvery Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry

Godavari Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya

Mahanadi Chhattisgarh, Odisha

Mahadayi Goa, Maharashtra, Karnataka

Periyar Tamil Nadu, Kerala

Active River Water Dispute Tribunals in India

 Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal (2018) – Odisha & Chattisgarh

 Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal (2010) – Goa,Karnataka, Maharashtra

 Ravi & Beas Water Tribunal (1986) – Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan

 Vansadhara Water Disputes Tribunal (2010) – Andra Pradesh & Odisha.

Distribution of Natural Resources:

How is biomass converted into energy?

 This is a very common way of converting organic matter into energy.

Energy from the sun is transferred and stored in plants.

2. This is burned to heat water in a boiler to release heat energy (steam).

3. The energy/power from the steam is directed to turbines with pipes

Fermentation: Ethanol can be produced from crop

Temperature Distribution on Earth

Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

8. Earth’s Distance form Sun

Latitudinal Heat Balance

 The amount of insolation received varies from latitude to latitude.

Earth’s energy budget

1. Radiation Loss from Reflection

 The albedo of Earth, therefore, is about 31 percent.

2. Direct Absorption of Solar Radiation

3. Surface-to-Atmosphere Energy Transfer

 A portion of the longwave radiation emitted by Earth’s surface, however, is transmitted

The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution

 Isotherm == An imaginary line joining places having equal temperatures.

General characteristics of isotherms.

General Temperature Distribution