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Distortion - Types and Causes - TWI
Distortion - Types and Causes - TWI
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4/7/22, 11:36 AM Distortion - Types and Causes - TWI
This article covers several key issues on distortion in arc welded fabrications, especially basic types
Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the material, non-uniform
stresses are set up in the component because of expansion and contraction of the heated material.
Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal when the weld pool
is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat affected zone) adjacent to the weld
pool. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling when the contraction of the weld metal and the
immediate heat affected zone is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal.
The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the volume change in
the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to room temperature. For example, when
welding CMn steel, the molten weld metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on
solidification and the volume of the solidified weld metal/heat affected zone (HAZ) will be reduced
by a further 7% as its temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room temperature.
If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent
metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation causes a permanent
Longitudinal shrinkage
Transverse shrinkage
Angular distortion
Buckling
Twisting
The principal features of the more common forms of distortion for butt and fillet welds are shown
below:
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4/7/22, 11:36 AM Distortion - Types and Causes - TWI
Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and longitudinal shrinkage.
For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse
shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the first weld deposit as a
fulcrum. Hence, balanced welding in a double side V butt joint can be used to produce uniform
Similarly, in a single side fillet weld, non-uniform contraction produces angular distortion of the
upstanding leg. Double side fillet welds can therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding
fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will
Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not coincident with the
neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage in the welds bends the section into a curved
shape. Clad plate tends to bow in two directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the
cladding; this produces a dished shape. Dishing is also produced in stiffened plating. Plates usually
dish inwards between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener attachment welds
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4/7/22, 11:36 AM Distortion - Types and Causes - TWI
In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in thin plates, resulting in
Distortion due to elastic buckling is unstable: if you attempt to flatten a buckled plate, it will probably
Twisting in a box section is caused by shear deformation at the corner joints. This is caused by
unequal longitudinal thermal expansion of the abutting edges. Increasing the number of tack welds
It is almost impossible to predict accurately the amount of shrinking. Nevertheless, a 'rule of thumb'
has been composed based on the size of the weld deposit. When welding steel, the following
Transverse shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60° V joint, depending on number of runs
Longitudinal shrinkage
If a metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no distortion. However, because the
material is locally heated and restrained by the surrounding cold metal, stresses are generated
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4/7/22, 11:36 AM Distortion - Types and Causes - TWI
higher than the material yield stress causing permanent distortion. The principal factors affecting the
Amount of restraint
Joint design
Part fit-up
Welding procedure
Parent material properties which influence distortion are coefficient of thermal expansion and
specific heat per unit volume. As distortion is determined by expansion and contraction of the
material, the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material plays a significant role in determining
the stresses generated during welding and, hence, the degree of distortion. For example, as
stainless steel has a higher coefficient of expansion than plain carbon steel, it is more likely to suffer
from distortion.
Restraint
If a component is welded without any external restraint, it distorts to relieve the welding stresses.
So, methods of restraint, such as 'strong-backs' in butt welds, can prevent movement and reduce
distortion. As restraint produces higher levels of residual stress in the material, there is a greater
Joint design
Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion. It can be minimised in butt joints by adopting a joint
type which balances the thermal stresses through the plate thickness. For example, a double-sided
in preference to a single-sided weld. Double-sided fillet welds should eliminate angular distortion of
the upstanding member, especially if the two welds are deposited at the same time.
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4/7/22, 11:36 AM Distortion - Types and Causes - TWI
Part fit-up
Fit-up should be uniform to produce predictable and consistent shrinkage. Excessive joint gap can
also increase the degree of distortion by increasing the amount of weld metal needed to fill the joint.
The joints should be adequately tacked to prevent relative movement between the parts during
welding.
Welding procedure
This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on the heat input. As welding
procedure is usually selected for reasons of quality and productivity, the welder has limited scope
for reducing distortion. As a general rule, weld volume should be kept to a minimum. Also, the
welding sequence and technique should aim to balance the thermally induced stresses around the
The article was prepared by Bill Lucas in collaboration with Geert Verhaeghe and Rick Leggatt.
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