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Emotional
Emotional capacity in the public capacity in the
sector – an Australian review public sector
Charmaine Belfanti
Sydney Business School, Sydney, Australia
429
Abstract
Purpose – This paper presents a review examining an Australian public sector competency framework
through the lens of emotional intelligence (EQ) to answer the question “To what extent is the concept
of EQ used to facilitate NSW public sector reform?” The purpose of this paper is to accentuate the
importance of emotional capacity as an important capability to achieve reform goals, recognising the
public sector’s deep organisational history and accepting that change is an emotional event, and that people
achieve change.
Design/methodology/approach – A literature review drawing relationships between culture, change
and emotion is applied to a capability framework for the public sector in the State of NSW. This review
serves two purposes. First, it examines interacting factors that define the public sector context – a culture
developed over generations, identity, the impact of culture on change and the relationship between change
and emotions. The second examines a concept for its ability to transform this culture in a comparatively
short time compared to its evolutionary history. Emotional capacity is framed by the EQ literature and is
explored as a competency with particular focus in the NSW public sector. A ProQuest search using
keywords Emotional intelligence and Public Sector or Civil Service; and Emotional intelligence and Public
Administration located 22 studies across 14 countries looking at EQ in the public sector. These are
supplemented by additional studies on EQ. The capability framework is examined against the elements of
the only recognised standardised test for EQ (Fiori and Antonakis, 2011), the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso
Emotional Intelligence Test.
Findings – The examination concludes that emotional capacity is implicit, if not overlooked within the
framework, with continued emphasis on technical and managerial competencies, evident of public sector
management still encased in traditional paradigms. The discussion positions the development of emotional
capacity as a high-order competency in a challenging reform environment.
Research limitations/implications – The literature review may suffer from publication bias in both the
literature cited in this review as well as those studies that have been published, particularly given the small
amount of studies available within the public sector environment. The theoretical nature of the matching
assessment is subjective and allows potential for variation in interpretation in both the meaning of the
competencies and the matching to the four branches of EQ.
Practical implications – Empirical research in EQ is limited in the public sector domain. The public sector
has an embedded culture weighed with assumptions steeped in history. A public sector organisation is
valuable for longitudinal studies as many employees stay for considerable years if not their whole career.
Further empirical research within this sector in examining the impact of emotional capacity on cultural
reform would enhance the knowledge in this field.
Originality/value – The paper contributes to the limited literature examining the optimal competencies in
particular emotional capacity for reform in the public sector.
Keywords Competencies, Emotional intelligence, Organizational change, Public sector reform, Emotion,
Emotional capacity
Paper type General review

The essence of high performing leaders lies in the core emotional preparedness to search for the
common emotional ground with courage and commitment toward connectedness (Leithwood and
Beatty in Blackmore, 2011).

Introduction
Capability frameworks are vehicles used to enhance leadership competencies, promote
International Journal of Public
public sector competencies and effect cultural change (Bhatta, 2001; Hondeghem and Sector Management
Vandermeulen, 2000; Horton, 2000; Podger, 2004). Public sectors across many nations have Vol. 30 No. 5, 2017
pp. 429-446
adopted competency development as a key strategy of public sector reform. The NSW © Emerald Publishing Limited
0951-3558
Public Service Commission (PSC), in Australia, developed a capability framework DOI 10.1108/IJPSM-10-2016-0182
IJPSM implemented across all agencies, to drive the cultural change necessary to ensure its
30,5 workforce effectively adapts to the changing future context.
Changing agendas encompassing complex information with high uncertainty underlie
public sector reform, penetrating the established cultural boundaries and structures
requiring a transformational cultural change of organisations with deeply embedded
traditions and assumptions. A key challenge is to maintain continuity of services and
430 preserve the legitimacy of public services whilst undertaking the change process.
The trade-off in continuity and change is maintaining the emotional balance of individuals
to maintain productivity (Huy, 2002). Culture provides a sense of identity, defines values and
informs behaviour and feelings. Change is an emotional event and changes contrary to one’s
culture create anxiety (Schein, 2010). This fusion requires the skills of change agents to
recognise their own emotions and effectively manage the emotions of others around them.
Huy (1999) argues that emotional capability is a necessary condition to realise radical change
recognising emotion as both relational and contextual. Emotional intelligence (EQ) is the
concept adopted to determine emotional capacity in this case study. EQ is based on three
difficult to refute premises that emotions are important in daily life, people differ in their ability
to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions and these differences influence individual
adaptation in varying contexts (McCleskey, 2014). Accordingly, high levels of organisational
emotional capacity will facilitate organisational reform.

Methodology
A literature review provides the case highlighting emotional capacity as a fundamental
capability in achieving organisational change. The scene of the reform context is established
informed by a synthesis of literature retrieved through search terms including public sector,
public administration, organisational culture, organisational change, change and emotion.
A specific search was conducted to explore EQ as the concept defining emotional capacity
with particular focus in the public sector. A ProQuest search using keywords:
• Emotional intelligence and Public Sector or Civil Service.
• Emotional intelligence and Public Administration.
Located 22 studies across 14 countries.
EQ is a contested concept and the argument for both sides is acknowledged and
presented. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is adopted to
assess the components of the NSW capability framework. MSCEIT was chosen as the most
widely recognised tool in the EQ literature and for its focus on observable behaviours.
This enabled a matching comparison against behavioural indicators described in the NSW
public sector capability framework.
MSCEIT integrates the components of EQ into four branches. These branches are used
to categorise the behavioural components articulated within the capability framework in
question. The results lead to a conclusion on the adequacy of the NSW capability
framework, which has been designed to transform the culture across the breadth of agencies
and regions within the NSW public sector, to enable the sector to adapt and survive its
changing and competitive context.

Literature review
The case for emotion at the heart of public sector change
Public sectors across the world have embarked upon reform programs to build the capacity
of public organisations through adaptation to meet the challenges of the current and future
contexts. The challenges dealt are tightly woven to their histories, as are the strategies that
will underlie the success of transforming these powerful institutions to be agile enough to
find and maintain relevance in a new realm.
 Applying Schein’s (2010) concept of organisational culture, public sector values and Emotional
beliefs have been validated over time, confirmed through a process of social validation and capacity in the
are emotion laden. Individuals have inherited, modified and utilised the traditions, beliefs public sector
and theories to interpret their world and inform their behaviours in that world. NSW
Government is the largest employer in Australia supporting the country’s oldest parliament
(Governance Institute of Australia, 2014). Assumptions have been ingrained through
generations of public servants, many given their entire career to public service, trained, 431
nurtured and promoted. The “ground rules” governing actions, automatically sense the
norms and adjust behaviour accordingly (Goleman et al., 2002). These shared assumptions
represent the emotional intensity of the organisational culture, and any change in practice is
a reinterpretation of these beliefs in response to new ideas and facts (Hall, 2014).
As a political organisation informed by tradition, Marsh et al.’s (2014) theory of path
dependencies created by political tradition helps explain the challenges within. The theory
recognises relationships between structure and agency, ideas and institutions, and the material
world and ideation. Applying this theory, the public sector has sown discursive, institutional
and political-economic path dependencies that will constrain change. Thus, change enactment
will be a function of evoking dialectical relationships that influence behaviour.
Transformational change challenges the existing identity of an organisation, triggering
strong emotional responses from its stakeholders. According to Huy (1999), these collective
emotions amount to an organisation’s emotional capability and play a significant role in
determining the organisation’s effectiveness in realising radical change. Huy’s model of
emotional dynamics highlights the positive relationship between emotional capability and
capacity to change.
The body of literature on the impact of change on emotions illuminates that emotions are at
the heart of organisational change. Bovey and Hede (2001) assert that organisational change can
trigger fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust and contempt. Schein (2010) contends that
cultural change requires the unlearning of embedded routines, which can be psychologically
painful, maintaining that leaders need the emotional strength to absorb the anxiety that change
brings, as well as remaining supportive during the change process. Not only are leaders
managing their own emotions, concurrently they must manage and adapt to the emotions of the
people they need to motivate. Leadership can exacerbate or remediate emotional disruption
(Blackmore, 2011). Strong emotional self-management is necessary in those who are responsible
for changing organisations and managing difficult circumstances (Humphrey, 2002). Boyatzis
(2006) highlights self-awareness, stating that the change process can be a smooth transition for
individuals with high levels of self-awareness, in both themself and their context.
Huy (1999) describes three processes enlisted during radical change; processes that
originate at an individual level and then translate to the organisational level. The processes
in order are: receptivity to change, mobilisation in the form of action and learning to embed
the new practices. Receptivity to change is driven by an attitudinal state that is both
cognitive and emotional. Emotions generate change readiness. Emotions inform cognitive
capability, judgements, decision making and effective communication (George, 2000).
An organisation’s emotional capability is reflected in its ability to attend to employees’
emotions. Huy (1999) posits that the emotional interactions between individuals and the
organisation are integral to the success or failure of radical change.
It is in the capacity of leaders to evoke the cognitive and emotional processes and
influence others towards the redefined organisational state. This influence causes
individuals to consider intentional change, initiating emotional commitment that leads to the
adoption of new assumptions (Boyatzis, 2006; Huy, 1999). Van Oosten (2006) explains that a
bond is formed when individuals connect to a shared destiny and envision a new future
together sharing confidence, energy and hope. New bonds need to pave the way to the new
reality. These bonds contain elements of emotion.
IJPSM According to Humphrey (2002), the emotional climate of a working environment is a factor
30,5 of the leader’s ability to influence. The influencing process is the common element in the
numerous definitions and concepts of leadership effectiveness throughout the literature
(Alvesson, 2002). Effective leaders will examine the group’s emotional reality. They recognise
the emotional state of others and attempt to evoke emotions in order to manage the emotional
state whilst maintaining meaningful organisational identity. Conformity results from a
432 commitment to the organisational vision (Cockcroft, 2014), and resisting behaviours,
according to Carr (2001), reflect a dislodgement of identity.

EQ – the research
EQ involves the ability to reason about emotions and the use of emotion to enhance
thought (Mayer et al., 2008). It encompasses emotional, social and relational skills, it
involves understanding oneself as well as others, regulating emotions, empathy and
effectively joining emotions and reasoning (George, 2000). There is on-going debate
regarding the definition of EQ including the clarity and agreement on the EQ components,
the nature of relationships and suitable measurement tools that stand up to scientific
rigour (Bratton et al., 2011). In particular, measurement validity draws strong criticism
(Antonakis, 2003; Matthews et al., 2012).
Withstanding the significant debate, there exists general agreement on the involvement
of emotion in non-cognitive capabilities and desirable interpersonal characteristics from
supporters and dissenters alike. The debate rests with the empirical evidence rather than
with the theoretical concept per se, backed by a steady call for more empirical research.
The pro-research has implied relationships between culture and EQ, EQ and
performance, EQ and leadership effectiveness, leader EQ and team performance. Guy
and Lee (2015) study an additional but related concept that being emotional labour.
They ascertain that emotional labour results from the execution of thee emotive skills in
order to achieve an outcome. The dissenters question the empirical evidence in the EQ
literature, the validity of measurement and adequate control of variables. Both sides of the
debate are presented.
EQ is defined as:
[…] the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the
abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to
understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to
promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer and Salovey, 1997 in Mayer et al., 2004, p. 197).

The advocates
A persuasive accumulation of literature is emerging, suggesting a positive correlation
between EQ and leadership effectiveness, transformational leader behaviours, influencing
others, performance, successful change as well as other work-related elements such as job
satisfaction, engagement and commitment (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000; Gardner and
Stough, 2002; George, 2000; Kerr et al., 2006). EQ, it is claimed, can facilitate a climate of
change, which in turn modifies the organisational culture to become more adaptive to
change transformation (Chrusciel, 2006).
A literature search was conducted through ProQuest Central to identify studies on EQ
carried out in public sector environments. A total of 22 studies across 14 countries were
found (Table I).
Of the 22 studies found, only one reported no relationship between EQ and the
variables under study (Grunes et al., 2013). The remaining 21 concluded that EQ played a
role in the workplace, significant enough to urge organisations to take notice
(Abdullah et al., 2013; Al-Ghazawi and Awad, 2014; Anand, 2010; Brunetto et al., 2012;
Authors Tool Sample size Country Findings
Emotional
capacity in the
Brunetto et al. WLEISa 193 Australia Positive path between EQ led and job public sector
(2012) satisfaction to engagement and commitment
Grunes et al. MSCEIT 144 Australia EQ not a predictor of leadership style or
(2013) MLQ perceived leader outcomes in higher education
Rosete and MSCEIT (3600) 41 Australia EQ associated with higher leader effectiveness
Ciarrochi WASI 433
(2005)
Fu (2014) WLEIS 507 China EQ’s significant effect on ethical behaviour
Al-Ghazawi Questionnaire 314 Egypt EQ positively correlated with job satisfaction
and Awad
(2014)
Anand (2010) EQ-ib 256 India Significant relationship between EQ and
Leadership practices leadership practices
Inventory
Danaeefard Survey 369 Iran Direct positive relationship between EQ and
et al. (2012) the learning organisation
Naghdi and Shering’s EQ 329 Iran Positive relationship between EQ and
Shatalebi questionnaire organisational citizenship behaviour
(2013)
Shaemi et al. Validated 217 Iran Talent management strategy has a positive
(2011) questionnaire impact on EQ
Vigoda-Gadot WLEIS 380 Israel Direct relationship between EQ and job
and Meisler satisfaction. Indirect role in explaining work
(2010) outcomes and moderating role in
commitment and absenteeism
Abdullah Self-administered 120 Malaysia Effective emotional management contributes
et al. (2013) questionnaire to a positive and harmonious workplace
Johar and EI Self-description 196 Malaysia EQ had a direct impact on commitment
Shah (2014) Inventory
RSES
ELS
Olannye 25-item questionnaire 130 Nigeria Self-awareness had strongest effect on
(2014) leaders performance
b
Hawkins and LDQ (3600) 120 Scotland Positive relationship between EQ and
Dulewicz performance
(2007)
Kotzé and EQ-i 114 leaders South Effective leaders had significantly higher EQ
Venter (2011) LBId 456 reports Africa
Ramchunder Assessing emotions 107 South Positive relationship between EQ and self-
and Martins scale Africa efficacy and leadership
(2014) Self-efficacy Scale
MLQ
Hur et al. WLEIS 859 South EQ positively related to transformational
(2011) MLQ Korea leadership
Transformation leadership positively
associated with leader effectiveness and
service climate
Erkutlu and EQ-i 910 Turkey EQ influences the relationship between team
Chafra (2012) empowerment and team proactivity
Dulewicz et al. LDQ self-report 261 UK EQ contributed greatest to performance than
(2005) IQ or MQ
Barbuto and Self-report instrument 80 leaders USA Found a relationship between EQ and
Burbach MLQe 388 reports transformational leadership Table I.
(2006) Emotional intelligence
empirical research
found in the
(continued ) public sector
IJPSM Authors Tool Sample size Country Findings
30,5
Benson et al. MSCEITf 109 leaders USA Positive relationship between EQ and five
(2012) Leader action profile 520 reports specific leader behaviours and EQ and
employee satisfaction
Berman and 275-item survey 212 USA Feedback and mentoring associated with
West (2008) increased perceptions of EQ
434 Notes: The table contains 22 studies across 14 countries located in ProQuest searching for Emotional
intelligence and Public Sector or Civil Service; and Emotional intelligence and Public Administration. aWong
and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale; bBar-On Emotional Intelligence; cLeadership Dimensions Questionnaire;
d
Leadership Behaviour Inventory; eMultifactor Leadership Questionnaire; fMayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional
Table I. Intelligence Test

Danaeefard et al., 2012; Dulewicz et al., 2005; Erkutlu and Chafra, 2012; Fu, 2014; Hawkins
and Dulewicz, 2007; Hur et al., 2011; Johar and Shah, 2014; Kotzé and Venter, 2011;
Naghdi and Shatalebi, 2013; Olannye, 2014; Ramchunder and Martins, 2014; Rosete and
Ciarrochi, 2005; Shaemi et al., 2011; Vigoda-Gadot and Meisler, 2010).
Some recommend integrating the knowledge of EQ into public management reforms and
including EQ as a selection and promotion criterion for public sector leaders (Kotzé and
Venter, 2011; Vigoda-Gadot and Meisler, 2010). In a further study also in the public sector,
Guy and Lee (2015) examine the relationship between EQ and emotional labour. They found
a positive correlation between the ability to regulate one’s emotions and emotional labour,
that is, understanding the emotions of self, of others and choosing the best emotion to
express in the specific context.
Research also highlights the importance of managing group emotions by successfully
interpreting emotional responses, modelling appropriate emotions and creating shared
experiences resulting in positive emotional contagion. EQ can harness collective emotions to
achieve organisational outcomes and facilitate adaptation and agility in a changing
environment. It enhances organisational learning, an essential factor in achieving a changed
organisational state. EQ is claimed to be an essential component that facilitates effective
management of difficult situations including the reduction of stress and effective team
management (Humphrey, 2002; Law et al., 2004; Rajah et al., 2011; Yusof et al., 2014). EQ can
serve as a motivator towards team efforts and facilitate team empowerment and supportive
relationships (Erkutlu and Chafra, 2012).
Huy’s (2002) emotional balancing model illustrates the binary actions of middle
managers in managing their own emotions in relation to change as well as attending to the
emotions of the frontline staff that need to ensure business continuity. This portrays the
abilities of emotional awareness and emotional management in action. His research showed
that these two elements combined facilitated beneficial adaptation and learning. Guy and
Lee’s (2015) study of EQ and emotional labour also parallels this. In studying change in
government organisations in Australia, Bovey and Hede (2001) reinforced the need to
address the emotional as well as technical elements and recommended the implementation
of strategies specifically focused on increasing self-awareness in individuals.

The critics
The major critique of the argument focuses on the validity of measurement and empirical
evidence of EQ as a scientifically based construct (Antonakis, 2003; Fambrough and Hart,
2008; Fiori et al., 2014; Matthews et al., 2012).
Matthews et al. (2012) concluded that the difficulty of measuring EQ is a key problem and
it is this that obstructs the development of a strong scientific base for EQ. They allege, as
yet, there is no test that can assess the multiple constructs of EQ, which are according to Emotional
them, temperament, emotional regulation, information processing and emotional knowledge capacity in the
and skills. Fiori and Antonakis (2011) posit that the MSCEIT is the only established public sector
standardised test and falls short on discriminant and incremental validity. Antonakis (2003)
argues that the studies on EQ have not adequately controlled general intelligence and
personality variables such as agreeableness, to convincingly demonstrate the validity of EQ
as a construct. 435
Some results of empirical studies have not supported relationships with EQ.
Weinberger (2009) found no relationship between EQ and perceived leadership
effectiveness. Grunes et al. (2013) failed to detect EQ as a predictor of style or perceived
leader outcomes in an Australian higher education sample. Cavazotte et al. (2012)
concluded that the relationship between EQ and transformational leadership was not
significant when controlling for ability and personality factors. Brown et al. (2006)
concluded similarly, suggesting methodology as a potential cause. A range of literature
reviews of the research have also criticised the weak empirical evidence between EQ and
leadership effectiveness. Some, whilst recognising the failures in empirical evidence, are
not ready to throw the baby out with the bathwater. Walter et al. (2012), whilst
acknowledging the weak evidence, confirm that there is enough evidence to suggest EQ as
an important driver in leadership effectiveness. McCleskey’s (2014) review of the construct
contends that the study of EQ borders on theoretical pluralism, although he does concede
that there is value in improving an understanding of the field. Fambrough and Hart (2008)
highlight the lack of alignment amongst EQ experts and measurement as issues to be
progressed. Similarly, Orazi et al. (2013) conclude that the impact of EQ lacks solid
empirical evidence. However, their review of public sector leadership highlighted the
importance of emotions and spirituality, defined as the ability to recognise the variety of
emotions, beliefs, skills, abilities and knowledge in others and the need to direct everyone
towards a common vision and higher end.
Despite these limitations, the studies acknowledge that emotions play a role in daily life,
due to the inherent interpersonal exchanges, and that people vary in their ability to manage
and perceive emotions. Whilst they do not support current definitions and measurement of
EQ there is support for further research suggesting that emotions are an important
factor and cannot be easily discarded (Fambrough and Hart, 2008; McCleskey, 2014;
Orazi et al., 2013; Walter et al., 2012).
Taking into account the literature across the domains of culture, change, emotion and
EQ, the literature presents a strong argument for prioritising the development of emotional
capability recognising the impact of emotions in the change process and their integral
nature in creating and adopting new values and assumptions that transform the
organisational culture (Figure 1).
Dulewicz and Higgs (2000) cite specific frameworks aligning high performing
competencies to elements of EQ. Given the reform context and the associated emotional
impact of change, the author posits that the components of EQ are valuable in order to build
organisational emotional capability, and a worthy capability to include in a capability
framework, a key organisational artefact, to drive reform goals in the public sector.

Cultural change in the public sector

The NSW Government sanctioned its administrative leaders to drive culture change in
order to meet the goals of its reform programme (NSW Public Service Commission (PSC),
2013a). Leadership was adopted as a strategic priority to drive the necessary cultural
change throughout all agencies (NSW Public Service Commission, 2013b). The unique
leadership challenges facing this sector are evident where traditional leadership
strategies are no longer an appropriate fit to the highly complex environment and
IJPSM
30,5
CHANGE New
Old
Values
Values
436 Assumptions
Assumptions

Figure 1.
Influence of E m o t i o n Redefined State
emotions in realising
the redefined
organisational state
Source: Original work

the sector’s transforming nature (Gallop, 2011; Kakabadse et al., 2003; Parry and
Proctor-Thomson, 2003). Change requires organisational and environmental adaptation
(Chrusciel, 2006; Parry and Proctor-Thomson, 2003; Yukl, 1999). Chaston (2012)
recapitulates Schein’s argument specifically in reference to the public sector, explaining
that the culture influences the behaviours of senior managers and the embedded values
reflect their influence.
Leadership is being redefined from its embedded culture of hierarchical and positional
power, towards the devolution of responsibility throughout organisational layers.
Devolution nurtures leadership at the core of what everyone does, a group process where
teams can balance the full complementary range of competencies, reliant on combined
competencies, rather than individuals (Beinecke, 2009; Chemers, 2001 in Kavanagh and
Ashkanasy, 2006). Reshaping cognitive structures to develop a new understanding of the
public sector is essential (Kavanagh and Ashkanasy, 2006).
Public leaders have multiple masters and must play a variety of roles, adapting as
situations and audiences change, switching between transactional and transformational
behaviours (Kavanagh and Ashkanasy, 2006; Müller and Turner, 2010; Romzek, 2000)
whilst maintaining a positive balance between two worlds, one of authorisation and the
other of collaboration (‘t Hart, 2011). Focusing judgements on both strategic and
organisational issues, leaders need to nurture, empower and persuade their workforce
through effective relationship building (Burgoyne et al., 2004; Podger, 2004). Tensions have
been noted in organisations, an impact of public sector reform (Virtanen, 2000; James, 2005;
Parry and Proctor-Thomson, 2003). Applying the constructs of culture, change and emotion
previously discussed, it could be surmised that these emotionally charged tensions and
conflicts result from the challenges to the basic embedded assumptions, assumptions that
need to be realigned by breaking existing emotional ties.
Social relations are at the core of leadership responsibility (Blackmore, 2011) and
accordingly, a leader’s primal task involves working with people’s emotions (Goleman et al.,
2002). The combined components of EQ determine the quality and effectiveness of social
interactions (House and Aditya, 1996 in Kerr et al., 2006). Leaders need to be adept at
initiating emotional conversations to co-construct a new meaning, to help people find their
new roles and facilitate development of newly required capabilities. The NSW Commission
of Audit’s (2012) Interim Report on examining the NSW public sector noted poor
performance management, in particular, the inability to have difficult conversations with
staff. These conversations are highly emotional requiring a high level of emotional
competence to achieve an effective outcome.
Competencies Emotional
Reform agendas have commonly commenced with defining the relevant competency capacity in the
profile through a structured framework. Capability frameworks are vehicles used to public sector
enhance competencies, promote public sector competencies and effect cultural change
(Bhatta, 2001; Hondeghem and Vandermeulen, 2000; Horton, 2000; Podger, 2004).
The NSW Commission of Audit Report recommended defining the capabilities that could
contribute to cultural change (NSW Public Service Commission, 2013c). In response to the 437
“State of the NSW Public Sector Report 2013” (NSW PSC, 2013a), the PSC developed a
capability framework to improve the capability of its workforce. The framework
encompasses all staff from entrants to leaders.
According to Gallop (2011), public leaders require interpersonal skills, management
expertise, political savvy and the capacity to adapt. Pettigrew et al. (1992) observed
that, in change contexts, personalities can be more important than formal rank and the
informal networks the most effective. Shared leadership is a concept applicable to the new
public sector. It concerns shared leadership practices by individuals at all levels of
the organisation, enacting a social process that focuses on relational interactions
(Fernandez et al., 2010).
Research suggests that EQ has a greater impact on leader effectiveness than the
cognitive or managerial categories (Dulewicz et al., 2005; Hawkins and Dulewicz, 2007).
Goleman (1998) asserts that regardless of how highly developed the technical and cognitive
skills, a person will not be an effective leader if he/she is lacking in EQ.
Smollan and Parry’s (2011) research suggests that, in the context of organisational
change, the need for leaders to be perceived as exhibiting EQ is heightened. Public sector
models have emerged that place emotions at the centre of leader behaviour and outcomes
(Wijewardena et al., 2014) indicating a demand for improved interpersonal and emotional
skills in public sector managers.

NSW public sector context

An assessment of executive capability in the NSW public sector identified four gaps to focus
improvement including:
(1) high-level ICT management;
(2) strategic financial management;
(3) high-level contract management; and
(4) strategic human resource leadership.
The emphasis on the technical and cognitive components is already evident. Newman et al.
(2009) concluded for public officials, it is more important for work to be humane and
caring than more efficient. As previously noted, poor performance management and the
inability to have difficult conversations with staff was identified across this sector.
The fact that managers avoid these situations and conversations hints at a deficiency in
emotional competence.

NSW public sector capability framework

The NSW public sector capability framework comprises five groups and 20 core
capabilities as shown in the following list. Each capability has five levels reflecting
adaptability to different situational contexts. The levels are foundational, intermediate,
adept, advanced and highly advanced. Each includes a set of behavioural indicators
depicting the degree of knowledge, skills and abilities required to achieve effective
performance. The 34-page document, publicly available on the PSC website, provides a
IJPSM description of the five groups and relevant competencies with examples of behaviours
30,5 described under each of the five levels:
(1) Personal attributes:
• display resilience and courage: be open and honest, prepared to express your
views, and willing to accept and commit to change;
438 • act with integrity: be ethical and professional, and adhere to the public
sector values;
• manage self: show drive and motivation, a measured approach and a
commitment to learning; and
• value diversity: show respect for diverse backgrounds, experiences and
perspectives.
(2) Relationships:
• communicate effectively: communicate clearly, actively listen to others and
respond with respect;
• commit to customer service: provide customer centric services in line with public
service and organisational objectives;
• work collaboratively: collaborate with others and value their contribution;
and
• influence and negotiate: gain consensus and commitment from others and
resolve issues and conflicts.
(3) Results:
• deliver results: achieve results through efficient use of resources and a
commitment to quality outcomes;
• plan and prioritise: plan to achieve priority outcomes and respond flexibly to
changing circumstances;
• think and solve problems: think, analyse and consider the broader context to
develop practical solutions; and
• demonstrate accountability: be responsible for own actions, adhere to legislation
and policy and be proactive to address risk.
(4) Business enablers:
• finance: understand and apply financial processes to achieve value for money
and minimise financial risk;
• technology: understand and use available technologies to maximise efficiencies
and effectiveness;
• procurement and contract management: understand and apply procurement
processes to ensure effective purchasing and contract performance; and
• project management: understand and apply effective planning, coordination and
control methods.
(5) People management – only applicable to those managing staff:
• manage and develop people: engage and motivate staff and develop capability
and potential in others;
 • inspire direction and purpose: communicate goals, priorities and vision and Emotional
recognise achievements; capacity in the
• optimise business outcomes: manage resources effectively and apply sound public sector
workforce planning principles; and
• manage reform and change: support, promote and champion change, and assist
others to engage with change.
439
Source: NSW Public Service Commission (2013d).
To assess the emphasis on emotional capability in the framework, the competencies were
compared to the MSCEIT, one of the most well-known and most widely used EQ ability tests
(Chrusciel, 2006; Fiori et al., 2014; Grunes et al., 2013). It is the most frequently adopted
ability model identifiable in the research and aligns to the definition and concept of EQ
stated above.
The MSCEIT assesses an individual’s overall EQ as well as ability levels in relation to
four branches, measuring personal qualities that relate to a variety of emotion-related
outcomes (Matthews et al., 2012). The four branches represent a developmental progression
of skills from perception to management representing the degree to which the ability is
integrated within the individual (Mayer et al., 2004). The model integrates all elements of EQ,
namely self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, empathy and handling
relationships (Brunetto et al., 2012). The model is used in this review as a benchmark to
identify the extent of emotional components evident in the NSW capability framework.
The purpose is not to produce a score or even suggest that an EQ score be determined but
rather to acknowledge the importance of emotional competencies weighted above the
technical within this environmental context.
The four branches comprise:
(1) perceive emotion: capacity to recognise emotion in others including non-verbal
perception and expression;
(2) use emotion to facilitate thought: capacity of emotion to assist thinking and facilitate
cognitive activities, drawing on knowledge of feelings;
(3) understand emotions: capacity to analyse emotions and understand their
outcomes; and
(4) management of emotion: capacity to manage and regulate emotions, positive and
negative, within the context of self-knowledge and social awareness to attain
specific goals.
MSCEIT focuses on observable behaviours enabling a matching comparison against the
behavioural indicators described in the NSW capability framework. Only indicators with an
explicit emotional component were chosen. Table II shows this comparison.

Results and discussion

A review of the 490 behavioural indicators described in the framework revealed that
only six explicitly indicate emotional components in three of the 20 competencies.
Emotional capacity is not explicitly evident in the framework as a backbone capability
that drives the effectiveness of these competencies. The review highlights a focus on
the technical and managerial areas, reinforcing the “what” rather than the “how”. This is
possibly a legacy of public sector management still encased in traditional paradigms.
Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005) examining the Australian public service noted that leaders
can have the “what” but lack the “how” skills. The how skills are significantly important
in interpersonal interactions.
IJPSM Four branches NSW capability framework
30,5
Perceive emotion: capacity to recognise emotion in Communicate effectively – Intermediate, adept
others including non-verbal perception and Monitor own and others’ non-verbal cues and adapt
expression where necessary
Display resilience and courage – Advanced, highly
Use emotion to facilitate thought: capacity of emotion
to assist thinking and facilitate cognitive activities,
advanced
440 drawing on knowledge of feelings Develop effective strategies and show decisiveness in
dealing with emotionally charged situations, difficult
and controversial issues
Consistently use a range of strategies to keep control
of own emotions and act as a stabilising influence
even in the most challenging situations
Understand emotions: capacity to analyse emotions Influence and negotiate – Adept, advanced
and understand their outcomes Show sensitivity and understanding in resolving
conflicts
Management of emotion: capacity to manage and Display resilience and courage – Adept, highly
regulate emotions, positive and negative, within the advanced
context of self-knowledge and social awareness to Keep control of own emotions and stay calm under
attain specific goals pressure and in challenging situations
Table II.
Four branches of Consistently use a range of strategies to keep control
MSCEIT applied to of own emotions and act as a stabilising influence
the NSW capability even in the most challenging situations
framework Sources: NSW Public Service Commission (2013d), Mayer et al. (2004)

On a particular note, people management is targeted specifically for those with direct
reports, implying that these competencies are not considered important in day-to-day
interpersonal interactions or in project teams where no formal authority exists.
The performance of an organisation is dependent upon cooperation and coordination of
interdependent leaders (Yukl, 2012). The impact of informal leadership on interpersonal
relationships and influence provides organisations with an asset, which can be leveraged
to harness these powers to improve morale and productivity (Miner, 2013). This strongly
suggests that the people management competencies can be beneficial to all individuals.
Collectively, they contribute to the complementary range of combined competencies
further enhancing the overall performance of the organisation.
As previously noted, the PSC identified gaps in developing performance, managing
performance and engaging employees. Emotions are integral to the nature of these
areas, in particular, empathy, motivation and handling relationships. Emotions are
implicitly at the core of human interactions and directly impact employee behaviour and
productivity (Dasborough and Ashkanasy, 2002). Influence through relationships occurs
at all levels in many directions, formally and informally. The core capability “Manage
and Develop People” has greater emphasis on performance issues, performance
development and performance frameworks rather than the capacity to motivate, engage
and gain commitment.
Acknowledged already, cultural change results from new sets of assumptions.
Capability frameworks are artefacts that serve to reinforce desired assumptions.
Applying Schein’s (2010) cultural model, the NSW sector’s capability framework is a
secondary reinforcement mechanism that reinforces the underlying assumptions that
drive attitudes and behaviours. The competencies, highlighted through systematic
measurement and control are the primary embedding mechanisms that influence culture.
As such, the emphasis on the technical and managerial components will continue to be
reinforced. The EQ literature, both theoretical and empirical, indicates the value of
emotional capability, in all its components, to engage and obtain commitment
from employees. This commitment will facilitate the realisation of cultural change and Emotional
enhance the relevant competencies to enable the agility and adaptation necessary for this capacity in the
continually evolving sector. public sector
Conclusion
The focus of the PSC to build capability, improve performance management and enhance
recruitment and selection processes is commended. At the heart of managing this change is 441
influence and leadership, present and active across all levels of the organisation, formally
and informally. Managerial and technical ability is not enough (Dreyfus, 2008), as leaders
need to successfully re-negotiate the psychological contract with their colleagues to engage
and obtain commitment from the workforce to collectively arrive at the redefined state.
Cultural change evokes emotional responses that can lead to stress and anxiety,
impacting individual, group and organisational performance. Encompassing EQ
components explicitly in the framework that informs performance development,
performance management, recruitment and selection will facilitate the development of
emotional awareness and competence. Emotional competence will enable effective
management of the associated stresses and harness the organisation’s collective emotions
to generate motivation, engagement and commitment to shape the newly desired values and
assumptions. The subsequent enhancement of organisational emotional capability will
sensitively sculpt a refreshed and sustainable organisational culture.
Examining the NSW capability framework through the lenses of culture, change and EQ
strongly suggests that an explicit emphasis on developing each of the components of
EQ throughout the organisation, across all agencies and levels, will enhance the capacity of
the organisation to achieve its vision, and leverage the circles of influence created through
both informal and formal leader networks.

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Corresponding author
Charmaine Belfanti can be contacted at: cbelfanti16@gmail.com

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