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Integration
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Mathematics
Integration
Contents
Integration 1
1 Indefinite Integrals RC 1
2 Preparing to Integrate RC 4
3 Differential Equations A 5
4 Definite Integrals RC 7
5 Geometric Interpretation of Integration A 8
6 Areas between Curves A 13
7 Integrating along the y-axis RC 18
8 Integrating sinx and cosx RC 19
9 A Special Integral RC 20
10 Integrating sin(ax + b) and cos(ax + b) RC 23
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Higher Mathematics Integration
Integration
1 Indefinite Integrals RC
In integration, our aim is to “undo” the process of differentiation. Later we
will see that integration is a useful tool for evaluating areas and solving a
special type of equation.
We have already seen how to differentiate polynomials, so we will now look
at how to undo this process. The basic technique is:
n x n +1
∫x =dx
n +1
+c n ≠ −1, c is the constant of integration.
Stated simply: raise the power (n) by one (giving n + 1 ), divide by the new
power ( n + 1 ), and add the constant of integration (c ) .
EXAMPLES
1. Find ∫ x 2 dx .
x3
∫ x dx =
2
+ c = 13 x 3 + c .
3
2. Find ∫ x −3 dx .
−3 x −2 1
∫x dx = + c =− 2 + c .
−2 2x
5
3. Find ∫ x 4 dx .
9
5 x4 9
4 x 4 + c.
∫ x dx =
4
9 + c = 9
4
differentiate
1 x3 + c x2
3
integrate
Stated simply: raise the power (n) by one (giving n + 1 ), divide by the new
power ( n + 1 ), and add on c.
EXAMPLES
4. Find ∫ 6 x 3 dx .
6x 4
∫ 6x = +c
3
dx
4
= 32 x 4 + c .
− 32
5. Find ∫ 4 x dx .
−1
− 32 4x 2
∫ 4 x =
dx
− 12
+c
−1
=
−8 x 2 + c
8
=
− + c.
x
Note
It can be easy to confuse integration and differentiation, so remember:
1 x2 + c
∫ x=
dx 2 ∫ k dx= kx + c .
Other variables
Just as with differentiation, we can integrate with respect to any variable.
EXAMPLES
6. Find ∫ 2 p −5 dp .
−52 p −4 Note
∫2 p =
dp
−4
+c
dp tells us to integrate
1 with respect to p.
=
− 4 + c.
2p
7. Find ∫ p dx .
∫ p dx Note
Since we are integrating
= px + c . with respect to x, we
treat p as a constant.
Integrating several terms
The following rule is used to integrate an expression with several terms:
∫ ( f ( x ) + g ( x ) ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ g ( x ) dx .
Stated simply: integrate each term separately.
EXAMPLES
8. Find ⌠ ( 1
3 x 2 − 2 x 2 dx .
⌡ )
3
⌠
⌡ (
3x − 2 x
2 1
2
) dx =
3x 3 2 x 2
3
− 3 +c
2
3
4x 2
=x − 3
+c
3
x 3 34 x 3 + c .
=−
9. Find ⌠
−5
(
4 x 8 + 3 x + 7 dx .
⌡ )
3
⌠
(
4x
⌡
− 58
)
+ 3 x + 7 dx =
4x 83x 2
3 + 2 + 7x + c
8
3
=83 × 4 x 8 + 23 x 2 + 7 x + c
3
= 32
3 x 8
+ 32 x 2 + 7 x + c .
2 Preparing to Integrate RC
As with differentiation, it is important that before integrating, all brackets are
multiplied out, and there are no fractions with an x term in the denominator
(bottom line), for example:
1 3 1 −1 1 5 5 x − 23 .
3
= x −3 2
= 3x −2 =x 2 5
= 14 x −5 2 = 4
x x x 4x 43 x
EXAMPLES
⌠ dx
1. Find for x ≠ 0 .
⌡ x2
⌠ dx ⌠ 1
2 is just a short way of writing 2 dx , so:
⌡x ⌡x
⌠ dx ⌠ 1 −2
=
2 =
⌡x ⌡ x2
dx ∫x dx
x −1
= +c
−1
1
=− + c.
x
⌠ dx
2. Find for x > 0 .
⌡ x
⌠ dx ⌠ 1 − 12
=
=
⌡ x ⌡ x2
1 dx ∫x dx
1
x2
= 1
+c
2
= 2 x + c.
⌠ 7
3. Find 2
dp where p ≠ 0 .
⌡ 2p
⌠ 7
2
dp = ∫ 72 p −2 dp
⌡ 2p
−1
7 p +c
=×
2 −1
7
=
− + c.
2p
⌠ 3 x − 5x
5
4. Find dx .
⌡ 4
⌠ 3 x − 5x
5
⌡ 4
= dx ⌠
⌡ 4 (
3 x 5 − 5 x dx
4 )
3x 6 5x 2
= − +c
4×6 4×2
3 x6 − 5 x2 + c
= 24 8
= 18 x 6 − 58 x 2 + c .
3 Differential Equations A
A differential equation is an equation
differentiate
dy 1 x3 + c
involving derivatives, e.g. = x2 . 3 x2
dx
integrate
A solution of a differential equation is an
expression for the original function; in this
case=y 13 x 3 + c is a solution.
In general, we obtain solutions using integration:
⌠ dy
y = dx or f ( x ) = ∫ f ′ ( x ) dx .
⌡ dx
This will result in a general solution since we can choose the value of c.
y
If we have additional information about the function (such as a point its graph
passes through), we can find the value of c and obtain a particular solution.
EXAMPLES
1. The graph of y = f ( x ) passes through the point ( 3, − 4 ) .
dy
If = x 2 − 5 , express y in terms of x.
dx
⌠ dy
y = dx
⌡ dx
= ∫ ( x 2 − 5 ) dx
= 13 x 3 − 5 x + c .
= 13 x 3 − x −1 + 23 x + c
1
= 13 x 3 − + 23 x + c .
x
We know that f (1) = 4 , so we can find c:
1
f ( x )= 13 x 3 − + 32 x + c
x
4 13 (1)3 − 11 + 23 (1) + c
=
4 = 13 − 1 + 23 + c
c = 4.
1
So f ( x )= 13 x 3 − + 32 x + 4 .
x
4 Definite Integrals RC
) dx [ F ( =
x )]a
b
F (b ) − F ( a )
b
∫a f ( x=
where a and b are called the limits of the integral.
Stated simply:
Work out the integral as normal, leaving out the constant of integration.
Evaluate the integral for x = b (the upper limit value).
Evaluate the integral for x = a (the lower limit value).
Subtract the lower limit value from the upper limit value.
∫0 ( x + 3 x 2 ) dx .
2 3
2. Find
2
x 4 3x 3
∫0 ( x + 3 x ) dx =
2
4 + 3
3 2
0
2
x4
= + x3
4 0
24 3 04
= + 2 − + 03
4 4
= 16
4
+8−0
= 4 + 8 = 12.
4
⌠ 4
3. Find 3 dx .
⌡−1 x
4
⌠ 4 4
3
dx = ∫−1 4 x −3 dx
⌡−1 x
4
4 x −2
=
−2 −1
4
2
= − 2
x −1
2 2
= − 2 − −
4 ( −1)2
2 +2=
=− 16 1 78 .
∫0 ( 4 − x ) dx =
2 2
Consider 2
4 x − 13 x 3
0
(
= 8 − 83 − 0 )
= 5 13 .
On the graph of y= 4 − x 2 :
y
y= 4 − x 2
∫0 ( 4 − x ) dx .
2 2
The shaded area is given by
In general, the area enclosed by the graph y = f ( x ) and the x-axis, between
x = a and x = b , is given by
b
∫a f ( x ) dx .
EXAMPLE
1. The graph of =
y x 2 − 4 x is shown below. Calculate the shaded area.
y =
y x 2 − 4x
O 4 5 x
5
x 3 4x 2
∫4 ( x − 4 x ) dx =
5
3 − 2
2
4
53 43 2
= − 2 ( 5 )2 − − 2 ( 4 )
3 3
= 125 64
3 − 50 − 3 + 32
= 61
3 − 18
= 2 13 .
So the shaded area is 2 13 square units.
1
43 2
O 4 x
3
(
= − 2 ( 4 ) − 13 − 2 )
1
= 64 1
3 − 32 − 3 + 2
63 − 30 =
= 21 − 30 =
−9.
3
In this case, the negative indicates that the area is below the x-axis, as can be
seen from the diagram. The area is therefore 9 square units.
We then found the total shaded area by adding the two areas together.
We must take care to do this whenever the area is split up in this way.
EXAMPLES
2. Calculate the shaded area shown in the diagram below.
y
y =3 − 2 x − x 2
2
–3 O 1 x
1
= 3 x − x 2 − 13 x 3
−3
= (3 ( 2 ) − ( 2 ) − 13 ( 2 ) ) − (3 (1) − (1)
2 3 2
− 13 (1)3 )
= ( 6 − 4 − 83 ) − (3 − 1 − 13 )
= 2 − 83 − 2 + 13
Remember
−2 13 . So the area is 2 13 square units. The negative sign just
=
indicates that the area
So the total shaded area is 10 23 + 2 13 =
13 square units . lies below the axis.
O 5 x
2
First, we need to calculate the root between x = 2 and x = 5 :
x 2 + 2 x − 24 =
0
( x − 4)( x + 6) =
0
x = 4 or x = −6.
So the root is x = 4
To calculate the area from x = 2 to x = 4 :
4
x 3 2x 2
∫2 ( x + 2 x − 24 ) dx = 3 + 2 − 24 x 2
4
2
4
= 13 x 3 + x 2 − 24 x
2
= ( 13 ( 4 ) + ( 4 ) − 24 ( 4 )) − ( 13 ( 2 )
3 2 3
+ ( 2 )2 − 24 ( 2 ) )
= ( 643 + 16 − 96 ) − ( 38 + 4 − 48)
= 56
3 − 36
−17 13
= So the area is 17 13 square units.
To calculate the area from x = 4 to x = 5 :
5
∫4 ( x + 2 x − 24 ) dx = 13 x + x − 24 x 4
5
2 3 2
a
The area is ∫ ( f ( x ) − g ( x ) ) dx square units.
a
O
x
y = g (x) b
When dealing with areas between curves, areas above and below the x-axis do
not need to be calculated separately.
However, care must be taken with more complicated curves, as these may give
rise to more than one closed area. These areas must be evaluated separately.
For example:
y
y = g (x)
c
O a x
b
y = f (x)
b
In this case we apply ∫ ( upper curve − lower curve ) dx
a
to each area.
So the shaded area is given by:
b c
∫a ( g ( x ) − f ( x ) ) dx + ∫b ( f ( x ) − g ( x ) ) dx .
EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the shaded area enclosed by the curves with equations
y= 6 − 3 x 2 and y =−3 − 2 x 2 .
y
y= 6 − 3 x 2
O x
y =−3 − 2 x 2
= ∫ ( ( 6 − 3 x ) − ( −3 − 2 x ) ) dx
3
2 2
−3
= ∫ ( 6 − 3 x + 3 + 2 x ) dx
3
2 2
−3
= ∫ ( 9 − x ) dx .
3
2
−3
−3
( 3 )3 ( −3 )3
= 9 (3) − − 9 ( −3 ) − 3
3
= ( 27 − 273 ) − ( −27 + 273 )
= 27 − 9 + 27 − 9
= 36.
Therefore the shaded area is 36 square units.
–1 O 2 6 x
Area from x = 2 to x = 6 :
6
∫ ( upper − lower ) dx
2
Note
= ∫ ( 4 x − 4 − ( x − 7 x + 8 x + 16 ) ) dx
6
3 2 The straight line is at the
2 top of this area.
= ∫ ( − x + 7 x − 4 x − 12 ) dx
6
3 2
2
6
x 4 7x 3 4x 2
=−
4 + 3 − 2 − 12 x
2
6 4
7×6 4×6
3 2
2 4 7 × 23 4 × 2 2
= − + − − 12 × 6 − − + − − 12 × 2
4 3 2 4 3 2
(
= ( −324 + 504 − 72 − 72 ) − −4 + 56
3 − 8 − 24 )
= 160
3
= 53 13 .
So the area is 53 13 square units.
y =2
O x
The cross-section is part of the parabola with equation y = x 2 − 4 x + 5 .
Find the volume of the trough.
To work out the points of intersection, equate the curve and the line:
x 2 − 4x + 5 =2
x 2 − 4x + 3 =0
( x − 1)( x − 3=
) 0 so =x 1 or = x 3.
Set up the integral and integrate:
∫1 ( upper − lower ) dx = ∫1 ( 2 − ( x − 4 x + 5) ) dx
3 3
2
∫ ( −x + 4 x − 3 ) dx
3
= 2
1
3
x 3 4x 2
=−
3 + 2 − 3x
1
( 3 )3 (1)3
= − + 2 (3) − 3 (3) − −
2
+ 2 (1)2 − 3 (1)
3 3
(
= ( −9 + 18 − 9 ) − − 13 + 2 − 3 )
= 0 + 13 − 2 + 3
= 34
= 1 13 .
Therefore the shaded area is 1 13 square units.
=Volume cross-sectional area × length
= 34 × 2
= 83= 2 32 .
y = 16
y=4
O x
x = ±3 y . x =3 y
∫4
3 y dy = ∫ 3 y 2 dy
4
O
y=4 y = 16
y
16
3 y 2
3
= 3
2 4
3 16
= 2 y
4
3 3
= 2 16 − 2 4
= 2 × 64 − 2 × 8
= 112.
Since this is half of the required area, the total shaded area is 224 square units.
∫ cos x=
dx sin x + c , ∫ sin x dx =
− cos x + c .
( ) ( )
= 4sin π4 − 2cos π4 − [ 4sin0 − 2cos0]
( 2 ) (
= 4 × 1 − 2 × 1 − [ −2 ]
2 ) Note
It is good practice to
= 4 − 2 +2 rationalise the
2 2
( )
denominator.
= 2 × 2 +2
2 2
= 2 + 2.
4
3. Find the value of ∫ 12 sin x dx .
0
4
1 sin x dx = − 1 cos x 4
∫2 2 0 Remember
0
We must use radians
=− 12 cos ( 4 ) + 12 cos ( 0 ) when integrating of
= 1 ( 0.654 + 1)
2
differentiating
trigonometric functions.
= 0.827 (to 3 d.p.)
9 A Special Integral RC
n
The method for integrating an expression of the form ( ax + b ) is:
n +1
n ( ax + b )
∫ ( ax + b ) =
dx
a ( n + 1)
+c , where a ≠ 0 and n ≠ −1 .
Stated simply: raise the power (n ) by one, divide by the new power and also
divide by the derivative of the bracket ( a ( n + 1)) , add c.
EXAMPLES
∫ ( x + 4)
7
1. Find dx .
( x + 4 )8
∫ ( x + 4)
7
+cdx =
8 ×1
( x + 4)
8
= + c.
8
2. Find ∫ ( 2 x + 3 )2 dx .
( 2 x + 3 )3
∫ ( 2x + 3)
2
+cdx=
3×2
(2x + 3)
3
= + c.
6
⌠ 1
3. Find dx where x ≠ − 95 .
⌡ 5x + 9
3
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
dx =
1 dx
5x + 9 ⌡( )3
3
⌡ 5 x + 9
− 1
= ∫ (5x + 9 ) 3 dx
2
(5x + 9 ) 3
= 2 ×5
+c
3
2
3
5x + 9
= 10
+c
3
2
3 3 5x + 9 + c .
= 10
3
4. Evaluate ∫ 3 x + 4 dx where x ≥ − 34 .
0
3 3 1
∫ 3 x + 4 dx = ∫ ( 3 x + 4 ) 2 dx
0 0
3
(3x + 4 )2
3
= 3
2 × 3 0
3
2 ( 3 x + 4 )
3
=
9 Note
0 Changing powers back
2
( 3 ( 3 ) + 4 ) 2 to roots here makes it
(3 (0) + 4 )
3 3
Warning
Make sure you don’t confuse differentiation and integration – this could lose
you a lot of marks in the exam.
Remember the following rules for differentiation and integrating expressions
n
of the form ( ax + b ) :
d ax + b )n = an ( ax + b ) n −1 ,
dx (
n ( ax + b )n+1
∫ ( ax + b ) =
dx
a ( n + 1)
+c .
5
5 ( 3 x − 1)
−4
(a)=y =
( 3 x − 1) 4
dy
= 5 × 3 × ( −4 )( 3 x − 1)
−5
dx
60
= − 5.
( 3 x − 1)
⌠ 60 5
(b) From part (a) we know − dx = + c . So:
⌡ ( 3 x − 1) ( 3 x − 1)4
5
⌠ 1 5
−60 5 dx = 4 + c
⌡ ( 3 x − 1) ( 3 x − 1) Note
⌠ 1 1
5 We could also have used
dx =
−
60 3 x − 1 4 + c the special integral to
⌡ ( 3 x − 1) ( )
5
obtain this answer.
1
=
− 4 + c1 where c1 is some constant.
12 ( 3 x − 1)
1
6. (a) Differentiate y = with respect to x.
(x − 1)
3 5
⌠ x2
(b) Hence, find dx .
(
x3 −1
)
6
⌡
1
(x − 1)
−5
(a) =
y = 3
( x 3 − 1)
5
dy
−5 ( x 3 − 1) × 3 x 2
−6
=
dx
15 x 2
= − 6 .
( x − 1)
3
⌠ 15 x 2 1
(b) From part (a) we know − 3 dx =3 5 + c . So:
( ) ( x − 1)
6
⌡ x −1
⌠ x2 1
−15 dx = 5 + c
(
x3 −1
) ( x 3 − 1)
6
⌡ Note
In this case, the special
⌠ x2
1 integral cannot be used.
dx = 1
− 15
5 +c
(
x3 −1
) ( x − 1)
6
⌡ 3
1
=
− 5 + c2 where c 2 is some constant.
15 ( x − 1)
3
∫ cos ( ax + b )=
dx 1 sin ( ax + b ) + c ,
a
∫ sin ( ax + b ) dx =
− 1a cos ( ax + b ) + c .
∫ sin ( 4 x + 1) dx =− 14 cos ( 4 x + 1) + c .
(
2. Find ∫ cos 32 x + π5 dx . )
∫ cos ( 2 x + π5=
) dx ( π
)
3 2 3
3 sin 2 x + 5 + c .
1
3. Find the value of ∫ cos ( 2 x − 5 ) dx .
0
1
1
∫ cos ( 2 x − 5) =
dx 12 sin ( 2 x − 5 )
0
0 Remember
= 12 sin ( −3 ) − 12 sin ( −5 ) . We must use radians
when integrating or
=1 ( −0.141 − 0.959 )
2 differentiating
trigonometric functions.
= −0.55 (to 2 d.p.).
(
of y sin 3 x + π6 , the x-axis, and
4. Find the area enclosed be the graph= )
the lines x = 0 and x = π6 .
y
=y sin 3 x + π6 ( )
O π
x
6
π
6 π
⌡ (
⌠ sin 3 x + π
6 ) (
− 1 cos 3 x + π 6
dx =
3 6 0 )
0
(( ) ) (
= − 13 cos 3 π6 + π6 − − 13 cos 3 ( 0 ) + π6
)
= − 13 cos ( 90 + 30 ) ° + 13 cos ( 30 ) °
( )
= − 13 × ( − 12 ) + 13 × 23
= 16 + 63
1+ 3
= .
6
1+ 3
So the area is square units.
6
5. Find ∫ 2cos ( 12 x − 3 ) dx .
∫ 2cos ( 12 x − 3=
) dx (
2 sin 1 x − 3 + c
1
2
2 )
= 4sin ( 12 x − 3 ) + c
∫ 5cos ( 2 x ) + sin ( x − 3 )=
dx 52 sin ( 2 x ) − cos ( x − 3 ) + c
1
7. (a) Differentiate with respect to x.
cos x
tan x
(b) Hence find ⌠ dx .
⌡ cos x
1
= ( cos x ) , and dxd ( cos x )−1 = −1( cos x )−2 × − sin x
−1
(a)
cos x
sin x
= .
cos 2 x
tan x sin x
sin x
(b) = = cos x
.
cos x cos x cos 2 x
sin x 1
From part (a) we know ⌠
2= dx +c .
⌡ cos x cos x
tan x 1
Therefore ⌠
= dx +c.
⌡ cos x cos x