ch18-142 Pps

Aljalal-Phys102- 142-Ch18-page 1
Chapter 18
Temperature, Heat, and
the First Law of Thermodynamics
Objective
18-1 Temperature
18-2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
18-3 Thermal expansion
18-4 Absorption of heat
18-5 The First Law of Thermodynamics
18-6 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
18-1 Temperature
What is thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics
is the study of thermal energy (internal energy) of systems.
Temperature is one of the central concept of thermodynamics.

18-1 Temperature
Thermal equilibrium and temperature
The zeroth law of thermodynamics
Every body has a property called temperature.

When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, their
temperatures are equal. And vice versa.
18-1 Temperature
Illustration Insulator
Long enough
time to reach
equilibrium A B
If temperature
= 300 K
A B
Temperature
should be
A B 300 K
18-1 Temperature
Measuring temperature
Temperature can change some prosperities of an object

Examples:
Volume of liquids
Length of rods
Electrical resistance of wires
Pressure of gases
Thermoscope Thermometer
tube 90
80
60
50
40
30
20
liquid 10
Low High Not calibrated Calibrated

temperature temperature

Kelvin scale
Celsius Kelvin
scale scale
Kelvin Celsius
Temperature Temperature
0 0C 273.15 K Water Freezing temperature
Note we do not
Absolute zero use 0 for K
-273.150C 0K Lowest attainable temperature
6 0C 279.15 K
The Celsius degree has the same size as the Kelvin.
5 0C 278.15 K

Formula
Celsius Fahrenheit
scale scale
1000C 2120F Water boiling temperature
0 0C 320F Water Freezing temperature
Fahrenheit Celsius
Temperature Temperature

Degree size in Celsius and Fahrenheit scales 5 0C 410F
0 0C 320F
Difference Note 0 is after F and C to indicate difference.
5 C0 = 9 F 0
The temperature difference of 5 Celsius degrees is equivalent
to a temperature difference of 9 Fahrenheit degrees.
Equivalence
5 0C = 41 0F
Zero on Celsius scale is equivalent to 32
degrees on Fahrenheit scale.

Degree size in Celsius and Kelvin scales
1 0C 274.15 K
0 0C 273.15 K
Difference Note no 0 sign is used for the Kelvin scale.
1 C0 = 1 K
Equivalence
1 0C = 274.15 K

Checkpoint 1
700X 1200W 900Y Boiling Point
Solution
0 0 0
-20 X 30 W 0Y Freezing Point
Rank according to the size of the degrees on All scales have the
each scale, greatest first. same degree size.
Rank the following temperatures, highest first
50 0X 1
50 0W 3
50 0Y 2

Example 1
Solution
Consider a scale which we will
call Z scale.
Z scale Fahrenheit scale
650Z 2120F
-140Z 320F
-980Z ? 0F
What temperature of Fahrenheit

scale corresponds to T = - 98.0 0Z?

Linear Expansion
Linear Expansion
Rod of length L at
temperature T
T
L
If the temperature is
increased by ΔT, the
T+ΔT length of the rod
L+ ΔL increases by ΔL.
α is pronounced alpha
Coefficient of linear expansion 
A 1-m aluminum rod elongates by 23 μm if its temperature is raised by 1

degree Celsius.

Volume expansion
Volume Expansion
Change in volume
Original volume  
ΔV = Vβ ΔT
Coefficient of
volume expansion Change in temperature
β =3 α β is pronounced beta
Coefficient of linear expansion varies with temperature,

but for most practical purposes you may assume it constant.
In phys102, we will assume that α is constant.

Water thermal expansion
α
Special case: water
Below 40C, water has negative
coefficient of linear expansion α.
Below 40C, water expands when
its temperature is reduced.
0
0C 4C0 T
Ice is formed on the surface of water
120C 20C Ice
100C 40C 30C

Above 40C, Below 40C,
higher temperature means higher temperature means
bigger volume or lower density smaller volume or higher density

Checkpoint 2
L 2L
Length
L
Width
3L
2L
2L
L Solution
(1) (2) (3) (4) (a)

2 and 3
All plates are made from the same material
1
and their temperature is increased by the
4
same amount.
(b)
Rank the plates according to the increase
3
a) in their lengths, and
2
b) in their areas,
1 and 4
greatest first.

Example 2
A truck loaded with 37,000 L of diesel moves from a hot to a
cold area. The change in temperature is 23 K. How many
liters are remaining in the truck?
The coefficient of volume expansion for diesel is 9.5x10-4/C0.
Solution
ΔT=Tf - Ti
ΔV = V β ΔT
ΔV = (37,000) (9.5x10-4) (-23)
= - 808 L
ΔV = Vf – Vi 🡪 Vf = Vi + ΔV
Liters remaining in the truck = 37,000+(- 808) = 36,180 L

Cold cola can
Room Room
at 260C at 260C
Cola Cola
at 30C Wait for long time
at 260C
Initial Final
Change in temperature is due to the transfer of energy between the

thermal energy of the cola can and the thermal energy of the room.

Hot tea cup
Room Room
at 260C at 260C
Tea Tea
Wait for long time
at 910C at 260C
Initial Final
Change in temperature is due to the transfer of energy between the

thermal energy of the cup of tea and the thermal energy of the room.

System and environment
Environment
TE Room
Room
at 260C at 260C
System
TS
Cola Tea
at 30C at 910C

Positive and negative heat
Cola Tea
at 30C at 910C
TS<TE TS>TE
Q (Heat) Q (Heat)
Heat absorbed Heat released
Q>0 Q<0

Heat
Heat is the energy that is transferred between a system

and its environment because of a temperature difference
that exists between them.
SI unit for heat is joule (J)

Heat is also measured in calorie (cal)
Heat is also measured in British thermal unit (Btu)
1 cal = 3.969 x 10-3 Btu = 4.1860 J


Heat capacity
Q=?
Heat
Heat Change in temperature

(J)  Heat Capacity (K) 
(J/K)  

Specific heat
Copper Copper
1 kg 2 kg
Heat capacity = 386 J/K Heat capacity = 772 J/K

Specific heat = 386 J/Kg K Specific heat = 386 J/Kg K
We want to define a quantity
that is independent of the
mass of the material.
Specific Heat mass

(J/kg.K) (kg)

Checkpoint 3
Material Material
A B
Which material has greater specific heat ?
Solution
Material A

Molar specific heat
Molar specific heat

Heat capacity = (Specific heat) (Mass)
Sometimes the amount of material is specified in
number of moles instead of mass. 
Heat capacity = (Molar specific heat) (Number of moles)

Heat of transformation
Matter can exist in three states (phases): solid, liquid, and gas.
Energy is needed to change the state of a matter from solid to
liquid and from liquid to gas.
Solid
Liquid energy
Gas
Transformation
Q Heat
At the same
temperature
State 1 State 2

Melting and freezing
Same magnitude
Melting (Fusing)
Q Energy
absorbed At the same
Solid Liquid temperature
(ice) (water)
Freezing
Q Energy
released At the same
Liquid Solid temperature
(water) (ice)

Vaporization and condensation
Same magnitude
Vaporization
Q Energy
absorbed At the same
Liquid Gas temperature
(water) (steam)
Condensation
Q Energy
released At the same
Gas Liquid temperature
(steam) (water)

Formula - Heat of transformation
Heat of transformation is the heat per unit mass required to

change a substance from one state to another
Q=Lm
mass
Heat (kg)  
(J)  Heat of transformation
(J/Kg)
State 1 State 2 L = Heat of Transformation 
Liquid Gas LV = Heat of vaporization 
Solid Liquid LF = Heat of fusion


Water heat of transformations
To convert ice at -10 0C to steam at 100 0C,
T = -10 0C T = 0 0C
Q = cice m
Ice Ice ΔT
c = 2.22 kJ/kg K
ice
T = 0 0C T = 0 0C
Q = LF m
Ice Water
LF = 333 kJ/kg
T = 0 0C T = 100 0C
Q = cwater m
Water Water cwater = 4.19 kJ/Kg K
ΔT
T = 100 0C T = 100 0C
Q = LV m
Water Steam LV = 2256 kJ/kg 

Example 3
Ice Heat? Water

m = 720 g T= -100C T= 150C
Solution
Ice Q1 Ice Q2 Water Q3 Water

T= -100C T= 00C T= 00C T= 150C
Q1=cicem(Tf-Ti) =(2220)(.72)(0-(-10))
Q2=LFm = (333X103) (.72)
Q3=cwaterm(Tf-Ti) = (4190) (.72) (15-0)
Q = Q1+Q2+Q3 = 300 kJ.


Example 4
Ice Absorbed State = ?
m = 720 g T= -100C T= ?
Q = 210 kJ
What is the final state and temperature of water?
Solution
Ice Q1 Ice Q2 Water
T= -100C T= 00C T= 00C
Q1=cicem(Tf-Ti) =15.98 kJ Q2=LFm = 239.8 kJ
Since Q1 < Q, ice absorbs heat to become ice at T = 00C
After ice absorbs Q1, the remaining heat is Qrem= Q - Q1 = 194 kJ
Since Qrem < Q2, ice is not totally converted into water at T = 00C
Quantity of ice melted =  

Quantity of ice remaining = 720 – 580 = 140 g
We have 580 g water and 140 g ice at 00C


Example 5
mc=75 g
copper
T = 3120C
Beaker
Water
Cb = 45 Cal/K
Tf=?
mw = 220 g copper
Ti=120C
Ti=120C
Insulation
Initial Final
Solution
Since the system is isolated,
the total energy of the system does not change
Heat transfer to copper + Heat transfer to water + Heat transfer to beaker =0
Qc + Qw + Qb =0
ccmc(Tf-T) + cwmw(Tf-Ti) + Cb(Tf-Ti) = 0
Solve for Tf
= 19.60C

Work
How energy can be transferred as heat and work between

a system and its environment?
Work done by the gas

for a small change in
Weight Piston
volume (Lead shot) Force Cross Section
A
dW = F ds
dW = P A ds ds
Insulating
dW = P dV Gas cylinder
Thermal
Pressure Change Reservoir
in Volume at T

Formula - Work
Initial State Final State

Pressure Pi Pressure Pf
Volume Vi Volume Vf
Temperature Ti Gas Temperature Tf
Gas
Thermal Thermal
Reservoir Reservoir
Thermodynamic process
Work done by the
system (gas)

Work is the area under the curve in the P-V diagram
To find the work, we need to know P as a function of V

Pressure
i Area under the curve

=
f Work done by the system
Volume

Positive and negative work
i Positive f negative
work work
Pressure
Pressure
f i
Volume Volume
Work is negative,
when the final volume is smaller than the initial volume.
Compression.

Thermodynamics cycles
Thermodynamic cycles
Work = area Work = area

i of the loop i of the loop
positive negative
Pressure
Pressure
f f
Volume Volume

Work depends on the path
i larger
i
work
Pressure
Pressure
smaller
work
f f
Volume Volume
Work depends on the path


Illustration
i to a Fix the
Fix pressure piston
Increase T
Heat flows to the system
W=area under the curve
Gas
i a
Pressure
Thermal
Reservoir
a to f
f Fix volume
Decrease T
Heat flows out of the system
W=0
Volume
Work done by the system is path dependent.
Heat flow to the system is path dependent.

Checkpoint 4
a Which two paths should be part

of a closed cycle if the net work
Pressure
b
c done by the gas is maximum?
d
e
f
Volume
Solution
c and e enclose the largest clockwise cycle.


Formula
W is path dependent. i
Q is path dependent.
Pressure
A
From experiments, Q-W is independent of the path.
Q-W is related to some property of the system

B f
called internal energy.
Volume
First law of thermodynamics
ΔEint = Q - W
ΔEint = Eint,f-Eint,i
Change in the internal energy of a system =

Heat transferred to the system – Work done by it

Conservation of energy
First law of thermodynamics

ΔEint = Q - W
The internal energy of a system
tends to increase if energy is added as heat Q to the system
and tends to decrease if energy is lost as work W done by the system
The first law of thermodynamics

is the same as the principle of
conservation of energy.
In the above form of the first law of thermodynamics, we assume that

the kinetic and potential energies of the system do not change.

Checkpoint 5
A gas can go from initial state to final state.

i 4 Rank the paths according to
(a) the change in ΔEint,
Pressure
3 (b) the work W done by the gas, and

2 (c) the magnitude of energy transferred as heat Q,
greatest first.
f
1
Volume
Solution
(a) All the same, since ΔEint, does not depend on the path.
(b) 4, then 3, then 2, then 1, since the work done by the system is the area
under the curve in the PV diagram.
(c) 4, then 3, then 2, then 1, since ΔEint = Q – W.

Special cases of the first law of thermodynamics
ΔEint = Q - W
Adiabatic processes
No heat transferred to the system Q = 0
either system is well insulated,
ΔEint = - W
or process occurs so rapidly.
Constant-volume processes
ΔEint = Q
Cyclical processes
Final state = Initial state
ΔEint= 0
Q=W
Free expansion processes

Q=0 ΔEint = 0
W=0

Free expansions
Free expansion
Valve Valve
Gas Vacuum Gas Gas

P=0
Initial Final
Insulation
System is insulated 🡪 Q = 0
ΔEint = 0

Checkpoint 6
Pressure
For the one complete cycle shown, are

(a) ΔEint for the gas, and
(b) The net energy transferred as heat
Q,
positive, negative or zero?
Volume
Solution
(a) ΔEint, = 0.
(b) Q is negative since the work done is negative.
ΔEint = Q -
W

Example 6
Final State
Initial State Pf= 1 Atm
Pi= 1 Atm Movable
Vf = 1.671 m3
Vi = 1 X10-3 m3 piston Tf=1000C
Ti=1000C Constant Steam m=1kg
m=1kg pressure
Water
Thermal Thermal
Reservoir Reservoir
Work done by the system?

We ignore the weight of
Solution the piston
Energy transferred as heat to the system?

Solution Q = Lvm = (2256kJ/kg) (1kg) = 2256 kJ
Change in the system’s internal energy?
Solution ΔEint = Q-W = 2256 kJ - 169kJ = 2090 kJ

Mechanisms
How does heat transfer take place?

There are three transfer mechanisms
1- Conduction
2- Convection
3- Radiation

Conduction
Conduction
At high temperatures,
atoms and electrons have
larger vibration amplitudes
Rod of metal
Collisions between adjacent

atoms cause the larger vibration
Flame
amplitudes to move from one
region to another, and thus heat
is transferred along the material.

Formula - Single slab
Conduction Thickness
L
Face Area
A
Hot Cold
Reservoir Slab Reservoir
k
At TH At TC
Q
Conduction rate Heat Hot Reservoir Cold Reservoir
(the amount of energy temperature temperature
transferred per unit time)
Time Thermal conductivity


Thermal resistance
Conduction
Substance k (W/m.K)
copper 401.
Thermal conductivity
Air 0.026
constant
Glass 1.0 depends on the material only
A material with low thermal conductivity is a good thermal insulator
Thermal Resistance
(R-Value)
A slab of a high R-value is a good thermal insulator


Formula - Two slabs
Conduction L1 L2
Composite slab Hot Cold

Reservoir k1 k2 Reservoir
At TH At TC
In the steady state, the

Q
TX
conduction rates through the Temperature between the two
two materials are equal. slabs
Eliminate TX, we get


Formula - Many slabs
Conduction
Hot Cold
Reservoir k1 k2 Reservoir
At TH At TC
Q
For a slab made of two materials
Hot Cold
Reservoir Reservoir
At TH At TC
Q
For a slab made of number n of materials

Checkpoint 7
250C 150C 100C -5.00C -100C
a b c d
The slabs have the same thickness and the heat transfer is steady.
Rank the materials according to their thermal conductivities, greatest first
Solution
In the steady state, the conduction rates through the slabs are equal.
Since the slabs have the same length and cross sectional area, kΔT must
be the same for the slabs.
The smaller the difference between the temperatures of the two faces of a
slab, the greater its thermal conductivity.
b and d tie, then a, then c.


Convection
Convection
Colder
Fluid
Hotter
Expansion
Lower density
Buoyant forces
cause it to rise
Flame

Radiation
Radiation
Sun Earth
Thermal radiation
(Electromagnetic waves)
No medium required
(Travel through vacuum)

Formula
Rate at which an object Emissivity of the The object’s

emits thermal radiation object’s surface surface area
Object
At T
Temperature of the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant object’s surface
5.67x10-8 W/m2.K4 in Kelvins
Rate at which an object absorbs

thermal radiation from its environment
Object
At T
Environment Temperature of the
At Tenv environment in Kelvins

Net energy transfer rate
Radiation
emission
Object Environment
at T Tenv
absorption
Any object emits and absorbs thermal radiation
Net rate Pnet of energy exchange due thermal radiation


Emissivity
Radiation
Emissivity
Value from 0 to 1
Object
Depends on the composition
of the surface At T
ε
0 1
White Black body
Shiny radiator
(ideal)

Example 7 Solution
In the steady state, the
T3 conduction rates through all
0
T2=200C T4=? the layers are the same.
T1=25 C T5=-100C
Indoor Outdoor
ka kb = kc kd = 5 ka
La Lb= Lc Ld = 2 La
Four-Layer wall
At the steady state.

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Aljalal-Phys102- 142-Ch18-page 1

Temperature is one of the central concept of thermodynamics.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics

Every body has a property called temperature.

Temperature can change some prosperities of an object

Low High Not calibrated Calibrated

18-2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

0 0C 273.15 K Water Freezing temperature

-273.150C 0K Lowest attainable temperature

18-2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

1000C 2120F Water boiling temperature

0 0C 320F Water Freezing temperature

18-2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

Difference Note 0 is after F and C to indicate difference.

18-2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

Difference Note no 0 sign is used for the Kelvin scale.

18-2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

700X 1200W 900Y Boiling Point

18-2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

What temperature of Fahrenheit

18-3 Thermal expansion

Coefficient of linear expansion

A 1-m aluminum rod elongates by 23 μm if its temperature is raised by 1

18-3 Thermal expansion

Coefficient of linear expansion varies with temperature,

18-3 Thermal expansion

Ice is formed on the surface of water

120C 20C Ice

100C 40C 30C

18-3 Thermal expansion

(1) (2) (3) (4) (a)

18-3 Thermal expansion

18-4 Absorption of heat

Change in temperature is due to the transfer of energy between the

18-4 Absorption of heat

Change in temperature is due to the transfer of energy between the

18-4 Absorption of heat

18-4 Absorption of heat

18-4 Absorption of heat

Heat is the energy that is transferred between a system

SI unit for heat is joule (J)

1 cal = 3.969 x 10-3 Btu = 4.1860 J

18-4 Absorption of heat

Heat Change in temperature

18-4 Absorption of heat

Heat capacity = 386 J/K Heat capacity = 772 J/K

Specific Heat mass

18-4 Absorption of heat

Which material has greater specific heat ?

18-4 Absorption of heat

Molar specific heat

18-4 Absorption of heat

18-4 Absorption of heat

18-4 Absorption of heat

18-4 Absorption of heat

Heat of transformation is the heat per unit mass required to

State 1 State 2 L = Heat of Transformation

Liquid Gas LV = Heat of vaporization

Solid Liquid LF = Heat of fusion

18-4 Absorption of heat

18-4 Absorption of heat

Ice Heat? Water

Ice Q1 Ice Q2 Water Q3 Water

Coefficient of linear expansion 

State 1 State 2 L = Heat of Transformation 

Liquid Gas LV = Heat of vaporization 

Quantity of ice melted =  