4.

2 Geological Setting

The Western Ethiopian shield geotectonically evolved through different processes beginning
from early rifting and associated sedimentation followed by subduction and island arc
formation, arc-accretion and, finally, continent-continent collision (Kazmin et al., 1978).
Almost all the basement rocks of western Ethiopia are between 850 and 500 million years old.
The very few ages that are older than this have been measured on tiny crystals of zircon which
are scattered through the rock (Frances 2016).

The Precambrian Geology of western Ethiopia is the largest Precambrian block in the country
which consists of N-trending belt of low-grade meta volcano sedimentary rocks and associated
intrusive rocks bounded to the east and west by high grade gneiss and migmatites (Tadesse
Alemu, 2013). The lithological, structural and metamorphic similarities of the gneissic rocks
of WES with the basement exposed in further south (in Kenya, Uganda and SE Sudan) infer
that the gneissic rocks of western Ethiopia are a northwards continuation of the Mozambique
Belt (Kazmin et al., 1978; Seife Michael Berhe, 1991; Samuel Gichile and Fyson, 1993).
Based on field, lithologic, geochemical and geochronological evidence the low-grade volcano-
sedimentary rock with associated mafic to felsic intrusive of western Ethiopia were correlated
to the juvenile Pan-African assemblage of northern Ethiopia, Eritrea and the south-eastern
Sudan and referred to be south continuation of ANS.

The contact between low-grade meta volcano-sedimentary rocks and associated intrusive with
high grade gneiss and migmatites is not exposed, Usually the contact is tectonic, represented
by tightly folded and strike-slip shear zones. Part of the contact is also marked by SE-dipping
and NW-verging thrust faults and folds (Alemu and Abebe, 2000, 2002). At places the
interleaving contact relationships, the difference in metamorphic grade without noticeable
tectonic break, and moreover the occurrence of early east-west structure for some of the
gneissic rocks (Davidson, 1983; Tefera and Berhe, 1987) may suggest a basement-cover
relationship.

The mafic and ultramafic occurrences in the Precambrian basement of western Ethiopia were
initially thought to be intrusive into the meta volcano-sedimentary rocks (UNDP, 1972), but
were subsequently interpreted by Kazmin (1976, 1978) and de Wit and Aguma (1977) to be
part of an ophiolitic sequences. However, Mogessie et al., 2000 and Braathen et al., 2001
argued against the ophiolitic origin of these mafic-ultramafic rocks and they interpret them as
intrusions in meta volcano-sediments and show concentric zoning typical of Alaskan type
intrusion. The belt of mafic ultramafic rock and major shear zone bounding the two contrasting
stratigraphic complexes are potential target for gold, base metal, nickel, platinum and other
mineralization. The ultramafic intrusion in western Ethiopian map all occur within the shear
zones (Frances 2016). The volcanic cover over western Ethiopian basement might be the
erosion remnant of Trap series Volcanic which cover most of Ethiopian high land (Frances
2016).

Different author classifies rock of western Ethiopian in to different group, for example based
on grade of metamorphism and lithological similarities They broadly fall into three groups of
lithotectonic units; the Birbir Domain (assemblage of mafic to felsic intrusive and extrusive
rocks and mainly volcanogenic sedimentary rocks), Geba domain (quartzo feldspathic
gneisses) and Baro domain (ortho-gneissic biotite gneiss and hornblende gneiss, para-gneisses)
(Teklewold Ayalew and Peccerillo, 1998; Mengesha Tefera and Seife Michael Berhe, 1987 as
cited in Teklewold Ayalew and Johnson, 2002).

According to Allen and Gebremedhin (2003) the rocks in the western Ethiopia are classified in
to five domains, from east to west, the Didesa, Kemashi, Dengi, Sirkole and Daka domains.
The Kemashi, Dengi and Sirkole Domains, forming the core of the belt, contain volcano-
sedimentary successions, whilst the Didesa and Daka Domains are gneiss terranes, interpreted
to represent the eastern and western forelands of the Tuludimtu Belt.

The Kemashi Domain: consists of an ophiolitic sequence of ultramafic and mafic volcanic and
plutonic rocks together with sedimentary rocks of oceanic affinity, is interpreted as oceanic
crust and is considered to represent an arc-continent suture zone.

The Dengi Domain, composed of mafic to felsic volcanic and plutonic rocks, and a sequence
of volcanoclastic, volcanogenic, and carbonate sediments, is interpreted as a volcanic arc.

The Shirkole Domain consists of alternating gneiss and volcano-sedimentary sequences,

interpreted as an imbricated basement-cover thrust-nappe complex. All the domains are
intruded by syn- and post-kinematic Neoproterozoic granitoids.

Mineralization within western green stone belt

A wide western domain, following the Sudanese border can be subdivided into four belts,
hosting primary gold deposits (e.g. Dul, Oda-Godere), the Yubdo platinum deposit, the iron
deposits of Bilikal, Chago, Gordana, and base metal prospects of volcanogenic–volcano
sedimentary type (Abetselo, Kata).

Zinc, Lead, as well as other commodities (e.g. Ag, As, Sb, Bi) are associated with Cu and Au
in polymetallic massive and disseminated sulphides of volcanogenic and volcano-sedimentary
deposits (Kata, Abetselo, Azale-Akendeyu), as well as occurring as pathfinders of gold in many
primary ‘‘lode’’ orogenic deposits.

Mercury (Hg)

Elemental mercury is volatile and can stay in the atmosphere for up to a year, being
transported and deposited around the world. Mercury negatively impacts both flora and fauna.

Human exposure to mercury typically results from direct contact with mercury vapors or eating
contaminated seafood. Mercury in both elemental and methylmercury forms is toxic to the
nervous system. Mercury vapors are known to cause tremors, memory loss, neuromuscular
effects, motor and cognitive dysfunction, and kidney, immune, digestive, and lung effects
(World Health Organization, 2007). Exposure to mercury in the womb is known to cause
mental retardation, seizures, delayed development, vision and hearing loss, and language
disorders (World Health Organization, 2007).

In ASGM, mercury is used to form an amalgam with gold, effectively separating gold from the
other materials. Mercury can be added to the whole ore (whole ore amalgamation) or to a
gravity ore concentrate. The amalgam is then heated, often using a heat source such as a blow
torch in open air, until the mercury is vaporized and released to the atmosphere and only the
gold remains. Mercury can off-gas throughout the gold recovery process; when mercury is
added to extract the gold, during the vaporization of mercury from the amalgam, and when the
gold product is melted to produced doré (Telmer and Veiga, 2008).

A comprehensive review of over 60 studies across 19 countries concerning the health impacts
due to mercury exposure from ASGM indicated that ASGM workers, their families, and
children who live nearby are exposed to dangerous levels of mercury vapor, as indicated in
urinary mercury concentrations (Gibb and O’Leary, 2014). Levels of mercury in those living
in ASGM communities were above World Health Organization health guidance values and
were high enough to where some residents experienced neurological, kidney, and autoimmune
effects (Gibb and O’Leary, 2014). Additionally, the study showed that populations not directly
involved in ASGM operations, specifically those that lived downstream of ASGM operations,
also showed signed of neurological effects due to mercury exposure, most likely due to the
consumption of contaminated fish (Gibb and O’Leary, 2014).