Eutrophication

Eutrophication (from Greek eutrophos, "well-nourished"),[1] or hypertrophication, is when

a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients which induce excessive
growth of algae.[2] This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.

One example is an "algal bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a

response to increased levels of nutrients. Eutrophication is often induced by the discharge of
nitrate or phosphate-containing detergents, fertilizers, or sewage into an aquatic system.

Mechanism of eutrophication[edit]
Eutrophication most commonly arises from the oversupply of nutrients, most commonly as
nitrogen or phosphorus, which leads to overgrowth of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems.
After such organisms die, bacterial degradation of their biomass results in oxygen
consumption, thereby creating the state of hypoxia.
According to Ullmann's Encyclopedia, "the primary limiting factor for eutrophication is
phosphate." The availability of phosphorus generally promotes excessive plant growth and
decay, favouring simple algae and plankton over other more complicated plants, and causes a
severe reduction in water quality. Phosphorus is a necessary nutrient for plants to live, and is
the limiting factor for plant growth in many freshwater ecosystems. Phosphate adheres tightly
to soil, so it is mainly transported by erosion. Once translocated to lakes, the extraction of
phosphate into water is slow, hence the difficulty of reversing the effects of eutrophication.
[4]
 However, numerous literature report that nitrogen is the primary limiting nutrient for the
accumulation of algal biomass.[5]
The sources of these excess phosphates are phosphates in detergent, industrial/domestic run-
offs, and fertilizers. With the phasing out of phosphate-containing detergents in the 1970s,
industrial/domestic run-off and agriculture have emerged as the dominant contributors to
eutrophication.
Cultural eutrophication[edit]
Main article: Cultural eutrophication

Cultural eutrophication is the process that speeds up natural eutrophication because of human
activity.[7] Due to clearing of land and building of towns and cities, land runoff is accelerated
and more nutrients such as phosphates and nitrate are supplied to lakes and rivers, and then to
coastal estuaries and bays. Extra nutrients are also supplied by treatment plants, golf courses,
fertilizers, farms (including fish farms), as well as untreated sewage in many countries.

Effects
The disturbance of aquatic equilibria may be more or less evident according to the
enrichment of water by nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen). An aquatic environment with a
limited availability of phosphorus and nitrogen is described as “oligotrophic” while one with
high availability of these elements is called “eutrophic”; a lake with intermediate availability
is called “mesotrophic”.When the eutrophication phenomenon becomes particularly intense,
undesirable effects and environmental imbalances are generated. The two most acute
phenomena of eutrophication are hypoxia in the deep part of the lake (or lack of oxygen) and
algal blooms that produce harmful toxins, processes that can destroy aquatic life in the
affected areas (www.unep.or.jp).
The main effects caused by eutrophication can be summarised as follows (N. Sechi, 1986):

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  abundance of particulate substances (phytoplankton, zooplankton, bacteria, fungi and
debris) that determine the turbidity and colouration of the water;
 abundance of inorganic chemicals such ammonia, nitrites, hydrogen sulphide etc. that
in the drinking water treatment plants induce the formation of harmful substances
such as nitrosamines suspected of mutagenicity;
 abundance of organic substances that give the water disagreeable odours or tastes,
barely masked by chlorination in the case of drinking water. These substances,
moreover, form complex chemical compounds that prevent normal purification
processes and are deposited on the walls of the water purifier inlet tubes, accelerating
corrosion and limiting the flow rate;
 the water acquires disagreeable odours or tastes (of earth, of rotten fish, of cloves, of
watermelon, etc.) due to the presence of particular algae;
 disappearance or significant reduction of quality fish with very negative effects on
fishing (instead of quality species such as trout undesirable ones such as carp become
established);
 possible affirmation of toxic algae with potential damage to the population and
animals drinking the affected water;
 prohibition of touristic use of the lake and bathing, due to both the foul odour on the
shores caused by the presence of certain algae, as well as the turbidity and anything
but clean and attractive appearance of the water; bathing is dangerous because certain
algae cause skin irritation;
 reduction of oxygen concentration, especially in the deeper layers of the lake at the
end of summer and in autumn.

In the light of these significant repercussions and serious consequent economic and
naturalistic damage, there is a clear need to curb the progress of eutrophication, avoiding the
collapse of the affected ecosystems.

Control

In the past, the traditional eutrophication reduction strategies, including the alteration of
excess nutrients, physical mixing of the water, application of powerful herbicides and
algaecides, have proven ineffective, expensive and impractical for large ecosystems (Michael
F. Chislock, 2013). Today, the main control mechanism of the eutrophic process is based on
prevention techniques, namely removal of the nutrients that are introduced into water bodies
from the water.It would be sufficient to reduce the concentrations of one of the two main
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), in particular phosphorus which is considered to be the
limiting factor for the growth of algae, acting on localised loads (loads associated with waste
water) and widespread loads (phosphorus loads determined by diffuse sources such as land
and rain). The load is the quantity (milligrams, kilograms, tons, etc.) of nutrients introduced
into the environment due to human activity.
The possible activities to be undertaken to prevent the introduction of nutrients and to limit
phosphorus loads can be summarised as follows (www3.uninsubria.it):

 improvement of the purifying performance of waste water treatment plants, installing

tertiary treatment systems to reduce nutrient concentrations;
 implementation of effective filter ecosystems to remove nitrogen and phosphorus
present in the run-off water (such as phyto-purification plants);
 reduction of phosphorous in detergents;

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  rationalisation of agricultural techniques through proper planning of fertilisation and
use of slow release fertilisers;
 use of alternative practices in animal husbandry to limit the production of waste
water.

In cases where water quality is already so compromised as to render any preventive initiative
ineffective, “curative” procedures can be implemented, such as:

 removal and treatment of hypolimnetic water (deep water in contact with the
sediments) rich in nutrients since in direct contact with the release source;
 drainage of the first 10-20 cm of sediment subject to biological reactions and with
high phosphorus concentrations;
 oxygenation of water for restore the ecological conditions, reducing the negative
effects of the eutrophic process, such as scarcity of oxygen and formation of toxic
compounds deriving from the anaerobic metabolism;
 chemical precipitation of phosphorous by the addition of iron or aluminium salts or
calcium carbonate to the water, which give rise to the precipitation of the respective
iron, aluminium or calcium orthophosphates, thereby reducing the negative effects
related to the excessive presence of phosphorus in the sediments.

Conclusions
Water is not a commercial product like any other but rather a heritage which must be
defended and protected, especially in the presence of a global decline in the availability of
drinking water and increase in its demand.
Despite the considerable efforts made to improve the water quality by limiting nutrient
enrichment, cultural eutrophication and the resulting algal blooms continue to be the main
cause of water pollution. The prevention and protection action that countries must adopt to
safeguard the quality of surface water as requested not only by the scientific community and
other experts, but to an increasing extent also by citizens and environmental organisations, is
therefore increasingly important (ec.europa.eu).
Management of the eutrophic process is a complex issue that will require the collective
efforts of scientists, policy makers and citizens.

Detergent

A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleaning properties

in dilute solutions.[1] These substances are usually alkylbenzenesulfonates, a family of
compounds that are similar to soap but are more soluble in hard water, because the
polar sulfonate (of detergents) is less likely than the polar carboxylate (of soap) to bind to
calcium and other ions found in hard water. OR

Cleaning agent that helps to remove dirt and grease from porous surfaces (such as fabrics,
clothes, non-treated wood) and/or non-porous surfaces (such as metals, plastics, treated
wood). All detergents are made principally of soaps or surfactants.

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Phosphate

Definition - What does Phosphate mean?

A phosphate (or, organophosphate) is a salt or ester of a phosphoric acid. It is also an

inorganic mineral that is mined from deposits of clay. In gardening, mined phosphates are
commonly used to create phosphate fertilizers that are used to enhance a plant’s overall
health.
There are different types of phosphate fertilizers on the market but the most popular is rock
phosphate, which provides the optimal amount of nutrients to ensure that the plants remain
healthy and strong. OR
Inorganic compounds containing phosphorous. Used in fertilizers (as plant nutrient) and in
detergents (as 'builders' or water softeners), phosphates are a major source of water pollution.
There presence in lakes and ponds encourages explosive algae growth which depletes water-
dissolved oxygen, resulting in elimination of other forms of aquatic life.

Detergents And Phosphates In Water

Phosphates in detergent refers to the use of phosphates as an ingredient in
a detergent product. The advantage of using phosphates in a consumer laundry
detergent or dishwashing detergent is that they make detergents more efficient
by chelating calcium and magnesium ions.[1] The disadvantage of using phosphates is that
they remain in wastewater and eventually make their way to a natural body of water.[1] While
phosphates are low toxicity, they instead cause nutrient pollution and feed the algae. This
leads to eutrophication and harmful algal bloom.
Many countries have banned the use of phosphates in detergent, including the European
Union and the United States
Independent product testing noted that manufacturers reformulated their products after bans.
[4][5]
 Those reports indicated that the new products without phosphates were satisfactory.

Environmental impact
Phosphates have low toxicity in the environment but causes nutrient pollution, a major water
quality problem in many watersheds.[19] Phosphates in water
cause eutrophication of algae which creates conditions favorable to formation of harmful
algal blooms. These blooms prevent light and oxygen from getting into the water, leading to
the death of organisms in the ecosystem.[1]
Studies have revisited the question of whether existing household phosphate bans are
effective in reducing phosphorus concentration in waterways, and subsequent algal blooms.
A 2014 case study of Vermont phosphate policies around Lake Champlain showed that while
the bans reduced the phosphate contribution by treated wastewater from households to five
percent of the total contribution, algal blooms have still continued to worsen for other
reasons.[20]
Most dishwasher detergent contains complex phosphates, as they have several properties that
aid in effective cleaning. However, the same chemicals have been removed from laundry
detergents in many countries as a result of concerns raised about the increase in algal
blooms in waterways caused by increasing phosphate levels (see eutrophication).

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Phosphorus that runs into freshwater lakes and rivers can cause algal blooms.[18][21] Phosphate-
free detergent reduces the amount of phosphate wastewater treatment plants must clean up.[18]
From the 1960s-2010s the standard way to determine the amount of phosphate in water is
using colorimetry.[22] It is possible to use optical sensors for measurements, which could be
easier and cheaper, but this is not a common practice.
What happens when detergents get into freshwater ecosystems?

What are detergents?

Detergents are organic compounds, which have both polar and non-polar characteristics.
They tend to exist at phase boundaries, where they are associated with both polar and
non-polar media. Detergents are of three types: anionic, cationic, and non-ionic. Anionic
and cationic have permanent negative or positive charges, attached to non-polar
(hydrophobic) C-C chains. Non-ionic detergents have no such permanent charge; instead,
they have a number of atoms which are weakly electropositive and electronegative. This
is due to the electron-attracting power of oxygen atoms.

There are two kinds of detergents with different characteristics: phosphate detergents
and surfactant detergents. Detergents that contain phosphates are highly caustic, and
surfactant detergents are very toxic. The differences are that surfactant detergents are used
to enhance the wetting, foaming, dispersing and emulsifying properties of detergents.
Phosphate detergents are used in detergents to soften hard water and help suspend dirt in
water.
What do we use them for?
Detergents are very widely used in both industrial and domestic premises like soaps and
detergents to wash vehicles. The major entry point into water is via sewage works into
surface water. They are also used in pesticide formulations and for dispersing oil spills at
sea. The degradation of alkylphenol polyethoxylates (non-ionic) can lead to the formation
of alkylphenols (particularly nonylphenols), which act as endocrine disruptors.
High phosphate detergents such as tri-sodium phosphate (TSP) can be purchased at some
paint and hardware stores. Regular cleaning with high phosphate detergents has proven to
be effective in reducing lead dust. Lead dust accumulates in window wells and around doors
or any other high friction surfaces.

What occurs if detergents show up in freshwaters?

Detergents can have poisonous effects in all types of aquatic life if they are present in
sufficient quantities, and this includes the biodegradable detergents. All detergents destroy
the external mucus layers that protect the fish from bacteria and parasites; plus they can
cause severe damage to the gills. Most fish will die when detergent concentrations approach
15 parts per million. Detergent concentrations as low as 5 ppm will kill fish eggs. Surfactant
detergents are implicated in decreasing the breeding ability of aquatic organisms.
Detergents also add another problem for aquatic life by lowering the surface tension of the
water. Organic chemicals such as pesticides and phenols are then much more easily
absorbed by the fish. A detergent concentration of only 2 ppm can cause fish to absorb
double the amount of chemicals they would normally absorb, although that concentration
itself is not high enough to affect fish directly.
Phosphates in detergents can lead to freshwater algal blooms that releases toxins and
deplete oxygen in waterways. When the algae decompose, they use up the oxygen available
for aquatic life.

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The main contributors to the toxicity of detergents were the sodium silicate solution and the
surfactants-with the remainder of the components contributing very little to detergent
toxicity. The potential for acute aquatic toxic effects due to the release of secondary or
tertiary sewage effluents containing the breakdown products of laundry detergents may
frequently be low. However, untreated or primary treated effluents containing detergents
may pose a problem. Chronic and/or other sublethal effects that were not examined in this
study may also pose a problem.

How Do Phosphates Affect Water Quality?

Phosphates are chemicals containing the element phosphorous, and they affect water
quality by causing excessive growth of algae. About 3 1/2 pounds of phosphates per person
enter the environment in the United States annually from farms, yards, waste water and
factory waste. Phosphates in water feed algae, which grow out of control in water
ecosystems and create imbalances, which destroy other life forms and produce harmful
toxins.

Excess Phosphates in Water

Excess phosphates create water that's cloudy and low in oxygen. All plants need phosphates
to grow, but phosphorous is normally present in surface water at a rate of only 0.02 parts
per million. Introducing additional phosphates in water results in a massive growth of
algae, which are aquatic plants including many single-celled, free-floating plants. Excessive
amounts of algae cloud the water in an effect called an algal bloom, which reduces the
sunlight available to other plants and sometimes kills them. When the algae die, the bacteria
that break them down use up dissolved oxygen in the water, depriving and sometimes
suffocating other aquatic life.

Over-Fertilization

Fertilizers containing phosphates pollute surface water. Phosphates enter water systems
naturally by dissolving out of rock, but phosphates are also mined and made into chemical
fertilizers to grow crops. Crops feed farm animals, which excrete phosphate-rich manure.
Applying chemical fertilizers to soil already saturated with phosphates and spreading
excessive amounts of manure on land causes phosphates to run off during heavy rainfall
and pollute nearby water sources. When the amount of total phosphorous exceeds 100 parts
per billion (ppb) in streams or 50 ppb in lakes, eutrophication -- the effect of algal blooms
-- is a danger. Excessive phosphate levels also affect the processes in drinking water
treatment plants.

Phosphate Sources

Phosphates in water come from a range of sources. Runoff from fertilizer on lawns and
gardens is one contributor, and others include human and pet sewage, chemical
manufacturing, vegetable and fruit processing and the pulp and paper industry. Soil erosion
in areas lacking sufficient vegetation to hold the soil in place during strong winds and
heavy rain is another source of phosphate pollution. Most household detergents once

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contained phosphates because of their effectiveness at removing dirt, but now legislation
prohibits their use in most products except specialized detergents and industrial cleaners.

Phosphate Reduction
Farmers and homeowners can help prevent phosphates from affecting water quality. Soil
tests indicate the amount of plant nutrients required in fields, lawns and garden borders, and
help avoid over-fertilization. Planting native vegetation and avoiding removing vegetation
reduces soil erosion. You can create a garden compost of leaves, plant debris and lawn
clippings for a slow-release, low-phosphate plant nutrient source and soil conditioner.
Clean up after your dog when you take him for a walk by picking up his feces in a plastic
bag and putting it in the trash.

Phosphates in detergent
Phosphates in detergent refers to the use of phosphates as an ingredient in
a detergent product. The advantage of using phosphates in a consumer laundry
detergent or dishwashing detergent is that they make detergents more efficient
by chelating calcium and magnesium ions.[1] The disadvantage of using phosphates is that
they remain in wastewater and eventually make their way to a natural body of water.
[1] While phosphates are low toxicity, they instead cause nutrient pollution and feed
the algae. This leads to eutrophication and harmful algal bloom.
Many countries have banned the use of phosphates in detergent, including the European
Union and the United States.
Independent product testing noted that manufacturers reformulated their products after
bans. Those reports indicated that the new products without phosphates were satisfactory.