Final Integral Docment

HIGH WAY ENGINEERING integral PROJECT February 19, 2019
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
An important concept in highway design is that every project is unique. The setting
and the character of the area, the value of the community, the needs of the highway
users, and the challenges and opportunities are unique factors that designers must
consider with each highway project. For each potential projectdesigner are faced with
the task of balancing the need for the high way improvement with the need safely to
integrated the design in to the surrounding natural and human environments.
In order to do this, designers need flexibility. There are a number of options
available to state and local high way agency officials to aid in achieving a balanced
road design and to resolve design issues, these include the following
✓ Use the flexibility within the standards adopted from ERA.
✓ Recognize that design exceptions may be optional where environmental consequences
are great.
✓ Be prepared to reevaluate decisions made in the planning phase.
✓ Lowe the design speed when appropriate.
✓ Recognize the safety and operational impact of various design features and
modifications.
Transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another.
Personal travel in search of food or work, travel for trade or commerce, travel for
exploration or conquest for personal fulfillment of one‘s status in life are a few of the
purposes of transportation.
In the world, there are various types of transportations like Road, Railway, Air, Water,
etc….From the previous listed transportation types, the trends are towards Road
transportation.
The reasons behind are,

✓ Roads provide a wide geographical coverage, particularly in hilly regions. And it
provides services for the communities from the start up to the end.
✓ Roads are constructed at relatively low initial cost than others and at the same time
stage construction is possible.
✓ Road construction gives a flexible service, i.e. free from a fixed program.
✓ It gives door to door services, personalized services, and creates higher employment
potential for the community.
✓ For the development of any nation, infrastructures like that of road are very important.
It is impossible to think of development without accessible roads in a given nation.
Roads are very important for many reasons. Some of them are,
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✓ Connecting nation to nation

✓ Reducing wastage of energy during travelling
✓ Connecting people to people living in different places
✓ Facilitating national and international trades
✓ Connecting the gap between producers and consumers and helping in
explorations of natural resources
✓ Enabling the governance of vast areas under control of a nation
Beside the advantages, there are some side effect these side effects should be reduced by
proper design and vehicle operation.
Some of the disadvantages are,

➢ Environmental pollution: like noise, vibration, etc…
➢ Safety: road accidents are of big concern in many countries.
➢ Parking: road transportation needs a space for parking lots, especially in
populated cities.
In general, when a road is designed the following considerations are done.

➢ Horizontal alignment
➢ Vertical alignment
➢ Sight distance requirements
➢ Cross-sectional elements
➢ Side drainage, etc…
1.1 Objective of the project
The main objective of this work is to:-
 To develop integration and communication skills in a group project working.

 To develop problem solving ability on real life project.
 To integrate and use the courses covered in civil engineering through the five year
learning process and exercise engineering software‘s like Eagle point, AutoCAD,
etc….
 To exercise working manuals like ERA, AASHTO, etc...
 To bring the theoretical knowledge in to practical one and solve societal problems
on road accessibility.
 The objective of the project is to connect two city and to facilitate the inter city
movement. Specifically, this project focuses to design short, easy and economical
root connecting.
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1.2 Methodology
The project starts by describing the main objectives, then root selection and the traffic
analysis the wide area of the project, which is geometric design, will be done by the support of
eagle point software. Earthwork analysis is also manipulated by the software aid. But, drainage
design part is manipulated manually.
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CHAPTER TWO
2. ROUTE SURVEY AND SELECTION
2.1 Introduction
The primary task in high way design is the selection of possible alignment from the available
topographic map. This establishes the centerline of the proposed road in plan on the ground. The
topographic data that used to select the best route is obtained from rout surveying. Therefore,
highway surveying comes first before alignment and improvement design of road.
Type of route survey
A) Reconnaissance survey &Map study
B) Preliminary survey
C) Final location survey
D) Drawings and reports
A) Reconnaissance survey and map study
The initial reconnaissance survey of the region implies an examination of relatively large areas
between the terminals for the purpose of determining broad corridors through which alignment
may pass. This survey should be aided by available maps and Ariel photographic coverage of the
area.And from study of existing information (desk study)and Conducted in office prior to any field
investigation. Itobtained from existing reports, maps etc., Collect & evaluate all available info. of
the area
The selection of alignment can be located on the map depends on several factors. These factors
include the following:
✓ Gradient and length of the gradient
✓ Number and the radius of curves
✓ Length of the route
✓ Soil type through which the route passes
✓ Amount of cut and fill required
✓ Existence of valley, ponds and permanent structures
✓ Number and type of drainage structures
✓ Obligatory points to be touched by the road
✓ River and rail way other highwayscrossings
✓ Flood in the area
✓ Availability of construction materials and water
✓ Existing right of way
✓ Soil type, geological features
✓ Serviceability to industrial & population areas
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B) Preliminary survey
The purpose of the preliminary survey is to eliminate all but the final alignment for the
proposal. The result of preliminary survey leads to the selection of the final alignment. In order
to do the job necessary data like details of topography, drainage and soil properties collected
at the reconnaissance stage are important. Then the routes are evaluated and the best one is
selected.
Preliminary survey consists in running an accurate traverse line along the routes already
recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey in order to attain sufficient data for final
location.
C) Final location survey
The purpose of the final location is to fix the centreline of the selected alignment in the
field and to collect additional data for the preparation of the drawings. If the preliminary survey has
been done properly the data collection work during the final alignment survey will be limited.
The following are the general features of the final location survey
✓ Pegging the centerline
✓ Centre line leveling
✓ Cross section
✓ Intersecting road
D) Drawings and report
The data, after necessary investigation and final location, is sent to design office where
it‟s suitably proceed with respect to geometric design, design of drainage structures and pavement
design. A drawing for the highway scheme is the graphical instructions as to how a road way is
to be constructed. Highway drawings should be accomplished with reports, specifications of the
design, and estimation of bill of quantities.
A complete set of drawings for the highway may contain the following
✓ Site plan of the alignment
✓ A detailed plan and profile
✓ Cross sections for earth work at all necessary locations
✓ typical road sections at selected sections such as junctions
✓ a mass-haul diagram showing the movement of earth work and construction details of
structures like culverts, bridges, retaining walls etc.
2.2 Selection of the Best Route
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The selection of the best route is influenced by various factorsIn general,the proposed
Alignment should link the two places by the shortest possible route. Even though such direct link
will be the most convenient and perhaps economical, several other factors must be considered in
choosing an alignment. An optimum alignment takes in to account the economy, social and
environmental impacts into consideration.
The best route selection depend on the following factors:
✓ It has least gradient

✓ It has the least number of both vertical and horizontal curves
✓ Since it mostly passes through soft rock and soil cost of excavation will be minimum
when compared to other routes that pass through hard rock
✓ Least number of culverts is required
✓ Amount of damp material is minimum as amount of cut and fill is very close
✓ The curve that presented on the alignment
✓ The terrain type on the alignment
✓ The length of the road
✓ The alignment passing point
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CHAPTER THREE
3. DESIGN CONTROL CRITERION
The geometric design is influenced bynumerous factors and controlled by specific design
criteria as follows,
✓ Functional classifications of Road
✓ The nature of the terrain;
✓ The design vehicle;
✓ The traffic volumes and capacity expected on the road;
✓ The design speed;
✓ Design period;
✓ Economic and environmental considerations;
✓ The density and character of the adjoining land use;
✓ Soil type and climate;
✓ Roadside population and land use;
✓ Safety;
✓ Construction technology;
As these factors usually vary along a route of some length, the design does not have
to be constant for the whole length of a road.
3.1 Functional classifications of Road
The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes. The following are
the functional classes with their description.
I. Trunk Roads (Class I)

Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries
are linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads. They are numbered with an "A" prefix: an
example is the Addis-Gondar Road (A3).Trunk roads have a design AADT≥1000, although
they can have volumes as low as 150 AADT (see Table 2-1, ERA2013)
II. Link Roads (Class II)

Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban
centers are linked to each other by link roads (see Table 2-1, ERA2013). A typical link road
has AADT greater than first year 300 AADTs, although values can range between 75-10,000
AADT. They are numbered with a "B" prefix. An example of a typical link road is the
Woldiya- Debre Tabor- Woreta Road (B22),which links woldiya on Road A2 with Bahir-Dar
on Road A3.
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III. Main Access Roads (Class III )

Centers of provincial importance are linked by main access roads (see Table 2-1,
ERA2013). The AADTs are typically between 150 and 300 but can rang from 25-1000. They
are numbered with a "C" prefix.
IV. Collector Roads (Class IV)

Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or
to higher class roads, are classified as collector road. AADTs are between 25 and 300.They
are numbered with a "D" prefix (see Table 2-1, ERA2013).
V. Feeder Roads (Class V)

Any road link to a minor center such as market to rural communities is classified as a
feeder road. AADTs are less than 150. They are numbered with an "E" prefix.
✓ Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide
mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access.
❖ Our project is Trunk road.
3.2 Terrain type

The geometric design elements of a road also depend on the transverse terrain through
which the road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized in to four classes as follows.
As per ERA classification, the terrain along the road are classified as flat or gently rolling, rolling,
mountainous and escarpment depending on its cross fall and rise
1. Flat or gently rolling: This offers few obstacles to the construction of a road, having
continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope
up to 5 percent).
2. Rolling: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall
moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some
restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).
3. Mountainous: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of
terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25
percent to 50 percent).
4. Escarpment: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to
cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above
terrain types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback
roadway sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are
considerable, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent).
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Table 2.1- recommended transverse terrain slope values for different terrain
Terrain Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Transverse Up to 5% 5 % -25% 25 % - 50% Excess of

terrain slope 50%
-Terrain classification for our project is done by extracting the station pt, right and left
elevation and offset distance from eagle point and doing the calculation and assigning part by
using excel. The result shows us it has a flat terrain type. Our project‟ terrain classification is
calculated with 80m interval and since it is so long to show all here, we try to show the result
with 1.52km interval below.
Table 4.1. Terrain classification
ELEVATION WIDTH SLOPE % TERRIAN

STATION
RS CL LS
0+000 3013.92 3021.97 3026.77 50 25.7 MOUNTNAUS
0+020 3017.16 3021.41 3026.2 50 18.08 ROLLING
0+040 3013.24 3018.03 3023.65 50 20.82 ROLLING
0+060 3008.4 3015.76 3020.34 50 23.88 ROLLING
0+080 3011.6 3014.85 3018.72 50 14.24 ROLLING
0+100 3005 3010.6 2999.83 50 10.34 ROLLING
0+120 3010.29 3008.38 3000.42 50 19.74 ROLLING
0+140 3005 3004.29 2996.68 50 16.64 ROLLING
0+160 3004.99 3024.67 2992.86 50 24.26 ROLLING
0+180 3004.19 2994.01 2999.37 50 9.64 ROLLING
0+200 3004.75 2988.34 2985.62 50 38.26 MOUNTNAUS
0+220 2995.77 2982.2 2996.05 50 0.56 FLAT
0+240 3003.56 2974.77 2975.95 50 55.22 ESCARPMENT
0+260 3001.73 2975.77 2980.45 50 42.56 MOUNTNAUS
0+280 3000.08 2968.24 2977.6 50 44.96 MOUNTNAUS
0+300 2991.61 2970.42 2973.99 50 35.24 MOUNTNAUS
0+320 2991.68 2965.33 2973.89 50 35.58 MOUNTNAUS
0+340 2987.86 2957.04 2963.25 50 49.22 MOUNTNAUS
0+360 2981.74 2954.07 2961.7 50 40.08 MOUNTNAUS
0+380 2977.09 2951.12 2949.03 50 56.12 ESCARPMENT
0+400 2974.21 2947.02 2946.31 50 55.8 ESCARPMENT
9
0+420 2971.24 2944.47 2950.26 50 41.96 MOUNTNAUS

0+440 2971.24 2939.37 2938.7 50 65.08 ESCARPMENT
0+460 2966.53 2935.89 2941.24 50 50.58 ESCARPMENT
0+480 2969.61 2929.58 2934.05 50 71.12 ESCARPMENT
0+500 2964.55 2929.85 2931.39 50 66.32 ESCARPMENT
0+520 2960.96 2927.94 2928.22 50 65.48 ESCARPMENT
0+540 2955.63 2924.79 2924.26 50 62.74 ESCARPMENT
0+560 2951.71 2922.71 2921.98 50 59.46 ESCARPMENT
0+580 2949.2 2917.12 2915.62 50 67.16 ESCARPMENT
0+600 2953.63 2913.75 2919.36 50 68.54 ESCARPMENT
0+620 2950.39 2911.72 2917.18 50 66.42 ESCARPMENT
0+640 2939.43 2906.09 2910.43 50 58 ESCARPMENT
0+660 2957.1 2904.29 2907.48 50 99.24 ESCARPMENT
0+680 2946.68 2888.52 2910.09 50 73.18 ESCARPMENT
0+700 2939.86 2887.99 2905.82 50 68.08 ESCARPMENT
0+720 2944.04 2888.92 2895.89 50 96.3 ESCARPMENT
0+740 2938.51 2891.73 2895.76 50 85.5 ESCARPMENT
0+760 2934.27 2895.08 2898.77 50 71 ESCARPMENT
0+780 2930.52 2897.34 2898.61 50 63.82 ESCARPMENT
0+800 2934.26 2903.57 2901.51 50 65.5 ESCARPMENT
0+820 2929.05 2908.32 2902.59 50 52.92 ESCARPMENT
0+840 2924.9 2899.13 2910.52 50 28.76 MOUNTNAUS
0+860 2924.73 2898.91 2911.89 50 25.68 MOUNTNAUS
0+880 2928.53 2900.38 2906.73 50 43.6 MOUNTNAUS
0+900 2924.97 2896.82 2904.65 50 40.64 MOUNTNAUS
0+920 2921.12 2893.68 2899.51 50 43.22 MOUNTNAUS
0+940 2916.75 2893.82 2898.32 50 36.86 MOUNTNAUS
0+960 2911.97 2907.85 2901.13 50 21.68 ROLLING
0+980 2913.16 2910.54 2895.36 50 35.6 MOUNTNAUS
1+000 2908.25 2911.47 2895 50 26.5 MOUNTNAUS
1+020 2903.76 2913.82 2896.65 50 14.22 ROLLING
1+040 2905.78 2913.78 2907.35 50 3.14 FLAT
1+060 2903.81 2914.24 2913.42 50 19.22 ROLLING
1+080 2898.8 2914.03 2914.4 50 31.2 MOUNTNAUS
1+100 2896.52 2912.66 2914.56 50 36.08 MOUNTNAUS
1+120 2902.71 2909.75 2917.44 50 29.46 MOUNTNAUS
1+140 2887.9 2907.99 2914.23 50 52.66 ESCARPMENT
1+160 2884.36 2906.13 2918.87 50 69.02 ESCARPMENT
1+180 2887.3 2904.8 2917.72 50 60.84 ESCARPMENT
1+200 2882.73 2907.63 2917.31 50 69.16 ESCARPMENT
1+220 2888.2 2911.17 2905.37 50 34.34 MOUNTNAUS
10
1+240 2884.18 2912.64 2913.42 50 58.48 ESCARPMENT

1+260 2891.4 2911.17 2916.95 50 51.1 ESCARPMENT
1+280 2887.91 2910 2917.49 50 59.16 ESCARPMENT
1+300 2894.37 2905.7 2916.2 50 43.66 MOUNTNAUS
1+320 2891.49 2907.79 2917.83 50 52.68 ESCARPMENT
1+340 2896.54 2911.72 2917.48 50 41.88 MOUNTNAUS
1+360 2891.28 2913.99 2920.31 50 58.06 ESCARPMENT
1+380 2900.88 2914.11 2917.24 50 32.72 MOUNTNAUS
1+400 2897.3 2913.65 2918.47 50 42.34 MOUNTNAUS
1+420 2906.75 2913.45 2918.74 50 23.98 ROLLING
1+440 2901.85 2910.25 2917.87 50 32.04 MOUNTNAUS
1+460 2898.42 2909.83 2918.55 50 40.26 MOUNTNAUS
1+480 2898.1 2912.3 2916.81 50 37.42 MOUNTNAUS
1+500 2895.83 2913.07 2915.79 50 39.92 MOUNTNAUS
1+520 2895 2917.46 2914.89 50 39.78 MOUNTNAUS
1+540 2893.03 2916.8 2917.01 50 47.96 MOUNTNAUS
1+560 2890.82 2918.09 2919.27 50 56.9 ESCARPMENT
1+580 2903.31 2916.36 2922.07 50 37.52 MOUNTNAUS
1+600 2907.8 2916.08 2924.18 50 32.76 MOUNTNAUS
1+620 2902.04 2917.52 2924.62 50 45.16 MOUNTNAUS
1+640 2909.71 2916.21 2925.45 50 31.48 MOUNTNAUS
1+660 2902.33 2919.03 2923.72 50 42.78 MOUNTNAUS
1+680 2911.69 2919.7 2925.44 50 27.5 MOUNTNAUS
1+700 2913.25 2918.17 2924.86 50 23.22 ROLLING
1+720 2907.4 2918.3 2928.54 50 42.28 MOUNTNAUS
1+740 2913.4 2915.88 2930.51 50 34.22 MOUNTNAUS
1+760 2910.52 2917.36 2929.68 50 38.32 MOUNTNAUS
1+780 2910.97 2918.37 2925.66 50 29.38 MOUNTNAUS
1+800 2911 2918.68 2924.17 50 26.34 MOUNTNAUS
1+820 2907.98 2917.67 2915.38 50 14.8 ROLLING
1+840 2909.15 2919.42 2925.53 50 32.76 MOUNTNAUS
1+860 2906.01 2923.05 2928.62 50 45.22 MOUNTNAUS
1+880 2903.37 2926.38 2936.96 50 67.18 ESCARPMENT
1+900 2899.69 2927.29 2934.83 50 70.28 ESCARPMENT
1+920 2904.82 2928.4 2932.2 50 54.76 ESCARPMENT
1+940 2906.28 2928.57 2932.74 50 52.92 ESCARPMENT
1+960 2907.3 2931.82 2935.65 50 56.7 ESCARPMENT
1+980 2909.16 2934.36 2935.66 50 53 ESCARPMENT
2+000 2910.61 2940.06 2938.12 50 55.02 ESCARPMENT
2+020 2910.2 2940.42 2945.07 50 69.74 ESCARPMENT
2+040 2911.8 2942.28 2946.91 50 70.22 ESCARPMENT
11
2+060 2910 2941.56 2951.68 50 83.36 ESCARPMENT

2+080 2906.13 2942.04 2952.11 50 91.96 ESCARPMENT
2+100 2904.44 2939.94 2954.48 50 100.08 ESCARPMENT
2+120 2904.15 2938.43 2960.85 50 113.4 ESCARPMENT
2+140 2907.8 2938.09 2933.91 50 52.22 ESCARPMENT
2+160 2911.28 2936.6 2949.09 50 75.62 ESCARPMENT
2+180 2905.61 2936.82 2939.65 50 68.08 ESCARPMENT
2+200 2913.47 2933.89 2939.16 50 51.38 ESCARPMENT
2+220 2909.83 2933.91 2929.32 50 38.98 MOUNTNAUS
2+240 2912.96 2931.91 2931.25 50 36.58 MOUNTNAUS
2+260 2908.59 2928.35 2934.93 50 52.68 ESCARPMENT
2+280 2911.02 2926.05 2935.38 50 48.72 MOUNTNAUS
2+300 2911.01 2930.24 2930.15 50 38.28 MOUNTNAUS
2+320 2909.19 2924.25 2918.47 50 18.56 ROLLING
2+340 2906.51 2925.43 2925.58 50 38.14 MOUNTNAUS
2+360 2908.29 2924.89 2931.94 50 47.3 MOUNTNAUS
2+380 2905.54 2922.95 2933.99 50 56.9 ESCARPMENT
2+400 2903.76 2925.83 2916.77 50 26.02 MOUNTNAUS
2+420 2909.29 2927.25 2920.57 50 22.56 ROLLING
2+440 2904.65 2922.9 2919.16 50 29.02 MOUNTNAUS
2+460 2909.76 2917.45 2918.53 50 17.54 ROLLING
2+480 2904.16 2916.29 2916.86 50 25.4 MOUNTNAUS
2+500 2914.97 2914.39 2919.27 50 8.6 ROLLING
2+520 2904.81 2921.88 2921.12 50 32.62 MOUNTNAUS
2+540 2912.86 2914.72 2924.18 50 22.64 ROLLING
2+560 2904.98 2916.37 2922.08 50 34.2 MOUNTNAUS
2+580 2912.46 2914.75 2919.82 50 14.72 ROLLING
2+600 2903.44 2912.7 2920.67 50 34.46 MOUNTNAUS
2+620 2902.19 2913.11 2919.82 50 35.26 MOUNTNAUS
2+640 2913.16 2914.08 2920.28 50 14.24 ROLLING
2+660 2902.43 2915.63 2915.55 50 26.24 MOUNTNAUS
2+680 2913.19 2917.18 2918.51 50 10.64 ROLLING
2+700 2902.13 2916.57 2919.58 50 34.9 MOUNTNAUS
2+720 2913.03 2918.81 2923.32 50 20.58 ROLLING
2+740 2902.41 2917.34 2917.25 50 29.68 MOUNTNAUS
2+760 2914.36 2913.67 2918.62 50 8.52 ROLLING
2+780 2915.84 2914.73 2922.95 50 14.22 ROLLING
2+800 2902.97 2914.06 2922.4 50 38.86 MOUNTNAUS
2+820 2912.34 2911.62 2920.43 50 16.18 ROLLING
2+840 2903.86 2912.71 2922.78 50 37.84 MOUNTNAUS
2+860 2912.84 2913.7 2923.34 50 21 ROLLING
12
2+880 2908.12 2915.86 2921.12 50 26 MOUNTNAUS

2+900 2915.19 2916.74 2916.49 50 2.6 FLAT
2+920 2912.26 2917.92 2923.2 50 21.88 ROLLING
2+940 2913.12 2919.02 2915.42 50 4.6 FLAT
2+960 2917.91 2919.72 2919.92 50 4.02 FLAT
2+980 2910.46 2917.52 2916.37 50 11.82 ROLLING
3+000 2918.35 2913.7 2915.18 50 6.34 ROLLING
3+020 2905.34 2913.11 2913.81 50 16.94 ROLLING
3+040 2921.96 2913.09 2907.33 50 29.26 MOUNTNAUS
3+060 2906.69 2911.8 2914.9 50 16.42 ROLLING
3+080 2922.61 2904.12 2917.81 50 9.6 ROLLING
3+100 2923.05 2905.6 2929 50 11.9 ROLLING
3+120 2916.24 2907.29 2928.61 50 24.74 ROLLING
3+140 2919.12 2908.28 2928.59 50 18.94 ROLLING
3+160 2924.84 2911.89 2928.14 50 6.6 ROLLING
3+180 2927.21 2917.41 2927.36 50 0.3 FLAT
3+200 2920.45 2918.62 2927.09 50 13.28 ROLLING
3+220 2929.66 2918.57 2924.82 50 9.68 ROLLING
3+240 2920.39 2920.23 2923.7 50 6.62 ROLLING
3+260 2932.22 2919.96 2924.65 50 15.14 ROLLING
3+280 2920.21 2921.13 2924.22 50 8.02 ROLLING
3+300 2919.85 2920.93 2924.69 50 9.68 ROLLING
3+320 2938.79 2920.73 2924.82 50 27.94 MOUNTNAUS
3+340 2917.44 2920.42 2927.02 50 19.16 ROLLING
3+360 2939.69 2920.99 2927.38 50 24.62 ROLLING
3+380 2922.42 2921.17 2929.53 50 14.22 ROLLING
3+400 2939.77 2921.72 2932.66 50 14.22 ROLLING
3+420 2927.04 2919.88 2928.57 50 3.06 FLAT
3+440 2929.97 2922.48 2929.08 50 1.78 FLAT
3+460 2937.97 2927.24 2927.85 50 20.24 ROLLING
3+480 2927.11 2926.12 2920.16 50 13.9 ROLLING
3+500 2936.67 2924.52 2918.75 50 35.84 MOUNTNAUS
3+520 2935.01 2925.17 2919.44 50 31.14 MOUNTNAUS
3+540 2931.54 2922.66 2919.11 50 24.86 ROLLING
3+560 2931.45 2919.41 2915.84 50 31.22 MOUNTNAUS
3+580 2926.96 2916.84 2918.27 50 17.38 ROLLING
3+600 2922.68 2917.06 2919.43 50 6.5 ROLLING
3+620 2926.82 2915.4 2916.96 50 19.72 ROLLING
3+640 2921.51 2915.63 2918.63 50 5.76 ROLLING
3+660 2924.89 2914.05 2921.29 50 7.2 ROLLING
3+680 2920.9 2915.02 2911.06 50 19.68 ROLLING
13
3+700 2915.04 2913.79 2922.68 50 15.28 ROLLING

3+720 2917.68 2914.91 2924.47 50 13.58 ROLLING
3+740 2923.93 2915.57 2926.43 50 5 FLAT
3+760 2923 2914.38 2930.1 50 14.2 ROLLING
3+780 2916.39 2916.41 2928.31 50 23.84 ROLLING
3+800 2922.41 2919.27 2921.37 50 2.08 FLAT
3+820 2918.9 2920.7 2924.54 50 11.28 ROLLING
3+840 2923.67 2922.64 2920.17 50 7 ROLLING
3+860 2919.19 2923.72 2924.42 50 10.46 ROLLING
3+880 2924.59 2920.31 2918.95 50 11.28 ROLLING
3+900 2920.73 2918.76 2922.98 50 4.5 FLAT
3+920 2918.76 2916.32 2921.42 50 5.32 ROLLING
3+940 2914.64 2918.05 2921.91 50 14.54 ROLLING
3+960 2915.14 2917.76 2921.47 50 12.66 ROLLING
3+980 2912.83 2917.37 2919.35 50 13.04 ROLLING
4+000 2913.09 2913.31 2917.87 50 9.56 ROLLING
4+020 2908.33 2912.3 2915.73 50 14.8 ROLLING
4+040 2914.39 2911.75 2916.59 50 4.4 FLAT
4+060 2914.79 2914.95 2918.14 50 6.7 ROLLING
4+080 2921.06 2915.88 2921.58 50 1.04 FLAT
4+100 2920.74 2915.83 2918.04 50 5.4 ROLLING
4+120 2913.74 2914.7 2918.4 50 9.32 ROLLING
4+140 2911.68 2913.77 2919.25 50 15.14 ROLLING
4+160 2908.21 2913.57 2918.12 50 19.82 ROLLING
4+180 2913.12 2911.53 2915.97 50 5.7 ROLLING
4+200 2908.04 2913.59 2916.33 50 16.58 ROLLING
4+220 2914.38 2910.16 2918.44 50 8.12 ROLLING
4+240 2912.26 2910.37 2919.76 50 15 ROLLING
4+260 2904.35 2913.13 2915.47 50 22.24 ROLLING
4+280 2911.69 2914.25 2910.7 50 1.98 FLAT
4+300 2912.08 2916.35 2912.82 50 1.48 FLAT
4+320 2900.97 2915.85 2909.58 50 17.22 ROLLING
4+340 2913.09 2912.36 2911.83 50 2.52 FLAT
4+360 2904.6 2912.38 2905.54 50 1.88 FLAT
4+380 2913.76 2907.8 2907.39 50 12.74 ROLLING
4+400 2906.96 2906.17 2902.76 50 8.4 ROLLING
4+420 2916.38 2904.39 2904.68 50 23.4 ROLLING
4+440 2910.65 2900.99 2897.23 50 26.84 MOUNTNAUS
4+460 2916.57 2896.39 2900.89 50 31.36 MOUNTNAUS
4+480 2916.14 2890.98 2893.13 50 46.02 MOUNTNAUS
4+500 2909.78 2891.08 2894.89 50 29.78 MOUNTNAUS
14
4+520 2915.01 2887.35 2892.61 50 44.8 MOUNTNAUS

4+540 2916.55 2882.45 2890.51 50 52.08 ESCARPMENT
4+560 2906.62 2880.11 2883.68 50 45.88 MOUNTNAUS
4+580 2908.58 2876.24 2884.9 50 47.36 MOUNTNAUS
4+600 2911.85 2872.17 2882.13 50 59.44 ESCARPMENT
4+620 2911.38 2869.19 2881.63 50 59.5 ESCARPMENT
4+640 2906.66 2863.79 2883.68 50 45.96 MOUNTNAUS
4+660 2906.52 2858.71 2884.9 50 43.24 MOUNTNAUS
4+680 2910.92 2869.18 2882.13 50 57.58 ESCARPMENT
4+700 2907.4 2864.53 2881.63 50 51.54 ESCARPMENT
4+720 2911.06 2858.89 2881.63 51 57.70588 ESCARPMENT
3.3 DESIGN VEHICLE

Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in
geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to
weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and
width. The road elements affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width,
horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
The present vehicle fleet in Ethiopia includes a high number of four-wheel drive utility
vehicles and overloaded trucks. Until more information that is detailed becomes available
regarding the makeup of the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia, the four design vehicles indicated in
Table 5-1 Should be used in the control of geometric design:
Table 4.2. Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics
Design Design Overall (m) Overhang Wheelbase Min.

Vehicle Vehicle (m) (m) Design
Designation Turning
Height Width Length Front Rear Radius
(m)
4x4 Utility DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Vehicle
Single Unit DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Truck
15
Single Unit DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Bus
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4= 13.7

Combination 13.2
3.4 Design speed

Design speed is a speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a
highway that influences vehicular operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be obtained
over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so favorable that the design feature
of the highway governs. Different speed standards are assigned for different classes of the
road. The choice of a design speed depends on primarily on the surrounding terrain and the
functional class of the highway. Other factors determining the selection of design speed include
traffic volume and composition, costs of right of way and construction, and aesthetic
considerations. The speed that a driver adopts on a highway depends on factors such as:
➢ Physical characteristics of a highway and its surrounding
➢ Weather condition in the area
➢ Presence of other vehicle and their nature
➢ Speed limitation place up on the vehicle either by law or mechanical device
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, super elevation, sight
distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the
geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design speed.
The design speeds given in Table 2-9 on ERA manual 2013. Since our terrain type and
design standard is DS5 thus according to this table the design speed for our project is
85km/h( seetable 2-9: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC5 Paved
Table4.3. Design speed
Design Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-

Element Urban
Design km/h 85 70 60 50(3) 50

Speed
16
3.5 TRAFFIC FLOW, VOLUME AND CAPACITY
Vehicular characteristics related to cars, buses trucks, motor cycles all have different speed
and acceleration characteristics. The same traffic behavior is also affected by physical,
mental and psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians. A highway is designed
for not the traffic flow but slighter lower values, so a reasonable value of traffic volume is
decided by multiplying the peak flow with a factor.
3.6 ENVIROMENTAL FACTOR

The road going to be constructed has many advantages so that it should provide its function
without disturbed by the atmosphere of area. Also aesthetic and landscaping should affect the
geometry of the road. So it should be considered.
17
CHAPTER FOUR
4. CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE PROJECT ROAD
A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage
features, and earthwork profiles. For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements may also
include facilities for pedestrians, cyclists, median, or other specialist user groups. These
include curbs, footpaths, and islands.
Table 2-3: Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS5 Paved
18
4.1 CARRIAGE WAY

Carriageway is the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and
passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
4.2 SHOULDER
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the
accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic,
animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support
of the pavement courses.They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads where there is no
surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even greater sealed shoulder on major roads depending on the
terrain and design classification.
4.3 MEDIAN
The central strip of the road not intended for use by traffic, which separates opposing
traffic flows. They
✓ Significantly reduce the risk of collision with opposing traffic
✓ Provide space for street lighting, traffic signals, directions and regulatory signs
✓ Provide a safety refuge for pedestrians and make it easier and safer to cross busy roads.
✓ Provide space for landscape planting
✓ Provide space for future additional traffic lanes. etc.
4.4 Normal cross- fall

Normal cross- fall or crown should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage
whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water
varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of
cross fall should be related to the need to carry surface water away from the pavement
structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of material starts to become
a problem. The normal cross-fall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4 percent on
unpaved roads. Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same
normal cross-fall. Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the
cross-fall of the roadway. The recommended applications of normal cross-fall are given in
Tables 2-3 to 2-12 on ERA manual 2013.
4.5 SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES

Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to provide a
reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle. Three regions of the roadside
are important when evaluating the safety aspects: the top of the slope (hinge point), the side
slope, and the toe of the slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back
slope, forming a ditch). Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly
reduce the hazard potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.
The next table indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design
according to the height of fill and cut, and the material. Table 6-1, chapter 6 on ERA manual
19
Table4.6. Side slope ratios

Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Zone
Cut Fill Slope Description
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-
recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
Black Cotton 0.0 - 2.0m - 1:6 - Recoverable
Soil* Over 2.0m 1:4
4.6 RIGHT OF WAY

Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road width
and to enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. The width of right-of-way
depends on the cross-section elements of the highway, topography and other physical
controls together with economic considerations. Right of ways will be equidistant from the
centerline of the road to the left and to the right of the carriageway. It should always be
determined and shown on the final design plans of road projects. ERA recommends a right
of way of 50m for DS5and flat highways.
20
CHAPTER FIVE
5. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
5.1 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section,
the circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the super elevation section.
5.1.1 TANGENT SECTIONS
From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat
country but are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they
provide better visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections
increase the danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. The
maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0 kilometers.
5.1.2 THE CIRCULAR CURVE
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal
force. The centrifugal force is counterbalanced by super elevation of the roadway and/or the
side friction developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the minimum
horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation shall be used:
R min=V2D/127(e + f)
Where VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e=maximums super elevation
f =Side friction coefficient (given in Tables 8-1 and 8-2, and Figure 8-1 in ERA manual)
Table4.8. Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Super elevation
Design Speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz. 15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 630
Radius R (m)
Max. Degree 382 191 115 72 46 33 21 15 10
of
Curve (°)
Side Friction 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.10
Factor (f)
25
Limiting values have been established for both e and f in the formula. Side friction coefficients
are dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway surface, weather
conditions, and type and condition of tires.
Elements of a Circular Curve
1 .Δ: Deflection Angle by Arc Definition (in degrees)
2. R: Radius of Curve by Arc Definition
3. T (Tangent Distance)
T = R tan Δ/2
4. E (External Distance)
E = R [sec( Δ/2) - 1 ]
5 L (Curve Length)
2𝜋
L = Δ x R 360
6. M (Middle Ordinate)
M = R | 1- cos (Δ/2)|
7. C (Chord from P.C. to P.T.)
C = 2R sin (Δ/2)
8. Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station
26
P.C = P.I –T
9. Point-of-Tangency (P.T.) Station
P.T = P.C + L
5.1.3 Widening on Curves and Embankments

The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers
following the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening
reduces such problems. Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions
comparable to those on tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased.
Curve widening is required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the
design vehicle. Curve widening shall generally be applied to both sides of the roadway. It
should start at the beginning of the transition curve and be fully widened at the start of the
circular curve. Widening is also required for Design Standards DS1 through DS5 at high fills
for the psychological comfort of the driver. Widening for curvature and high embankment
shall be added where both cases apply.
A. vehicle operation
W = nL2/2R Where:- n = No of lane =2
=nB2 / 2R L = length of the vehicle (DV4) from ERA table 5.3
L= 15.2m from ERA table 5.2 , R = radius of curvature = 80m
W = 2*6.12/(2*80) B=wheel base taken as 6.1
= 0.465
B. Psychological reason.
W = Vd/10R1/2
= (50km/hr.)/10x√80
= 0.559
27
Then total widening needed for n lanes of highway is given by:

We = widening for vehicle operation + Psychological reason
= nL2/2R+vd/10√R
= 0.465+0.559
= 1.015≈1m
5.1.4 Transition Curves
The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius.

Transition curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt
introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also be used between two circular curves. For
large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves
are not normally required.
In our project no need transition curve according to ERA manual DC5 for escarpment and
mountainous train type
Number of horizontal curves and their location

Our rout comprises of 13 horizontal curves. Table below shows summary of number, station
and location of horizontal curve.
No. curve Station Northing easting angle Distance

BOP 0+000.00 1294151 536680.4 NE61.5725 1141.68
1 1+141.68 1294688 537688 SE81.4359 221.75
2 1+361.66 1294656 537907.4 NE36.0035 189.7
3 1+541.66 1294809 538019 SE74.2751 157.77
4 1+690.69 1294767 538171 NE35.4442 348.45
5 2+030.30 1295050 538374.5 SE85.0814 313.6
6 2+335.71 1295023 538687 SE65.2212 192.31
7 2+527.60 1294943 538861.8 NE67.0018 200.75
8 2+722.19 1295022 539046.6 NE24.4737 180.74
9 2+898.70 1295186 539122.4 NE78.5038 443.48
28
10 3+332.97 1295272 539557.5 NE37.5721 108.52

11 3+437.65 1295357 539624.3 SE88.3501 134.15
12 3+562.91 1295354 539758.4 SE65.0257 167.37
13 3+729.57 1295283 539910.1 NE76.4749 249.78
EOP 3+976.27 1295340 540153.3
Design for sample Horizontal curve 1
I. simple curve
Terrain type-escarpment
Design standard-(DS-5)
Max super elevation, e=8%
Side friction coefficient, f=0.17
For DS-5 and escatpment terrain from ERA manual

R =80m for e=8% and Vd=50km/h Deflection angle (D) =36.31°, from eagle pt.
1. Rmin= Vd 2/127(e+f)
= 502/127(0.08+0.17)
= 78.74 < Rprov= 80m
2. Degree of curve (D) = 5729.58/R
= 5729.58/80
= 71.6°
3. Tangent(T) = R*tan(D/2)
= 80*tan(36.31/2)
= 26.2m
4. External distance (E) = R(sec(D/2)-1)
= 80*(sec(36.31/2)-1)
= 4.19m
5. Length of curve (L) = 2*π*R(Δ/360)
= 2*80* π(36.31/360)
= 50.67m
6. Middle ordinate (M) = R*(1-cos(Δ /2))
= 80*(1-cos(36.31/2)) =3.98m
7. Chord length (from pc. to pt.), C = 2RsinD/2
= 2*80*sin(36.31/2) = 49.85m
8. Point of Curvature (P.C) station =PI-T
29
=1+141.68m - 26.2m = 1+115.48m

9. Point of Tangency (P.T) station =P.C+L
=1+115.44+50.67 = 1+166.11m
Calculate following parameter of horizontal curve by using same procedure needed on
Escarpment and mountainous trains.
5.1.5 Super elevation design

Super-elevation is the rising of the outer edge of the road along a curve in order to counter act
the effect of radial centrifugal force in combination with the friction between the surface and
tires developed in the lateral direction.
Maximum value is controlled by:
▪ Climatic conditions
▪ Terrain classification: flat vs. mountainous
▪ Area type: rural vs. urban
Advantages
▪ Creates comfortable, safe and smooth condition for the vehicle movement
▪ It introduces centripetal force to counter balance the centrifugal force
▪ Limit the fast movement of the vehicles on curves
▪ Reduces the intensity of stress on the foundation
5.1.6 Super-elevation runoff

In alignment design with spirals the super elevation runoff is affected over the whole of the
transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the
beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by removing
the adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a length of tangent
just ahead of TS (the tangent run out). Between the TS and SC (the super-elevation runoff) the
traveled way is rotated to reach the full super-elevation at the SC.This procedure is reversed on
leaving the curve. By this design the whole of the circular curve has full super elevation
Method of attainment of super-elevation

The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a super-elevated
surface in two stages.
In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is level. It is
desirable to accomplish the raising of the outer-half till it is level before the starting point of the
transition curve.
30
In the second stage, the surface of the road is rotated about the center line of the
carriageway, gradually lowering the inner edge and raising the upper edge until maximum super-
elevation is attained, keeping the level of the center line constant.
Shoulder Super-elevation
ERA Geometric Design manual provides shoulder super elevation rates corresponding to
carriageway super elevation rates. On the low side (inner shoulder) of super elevated curves, the
shoulder super elevation matches the roadway super elevation. On the high side (outer shoulder),
the super elevation is set such that the grade break between the roadway and the shoulder is 8
percent. An exception to this occurs at a maximum super elevation of 8 percent, where the resultant
shoulder super elevation would be an undesirable flat configuration. Here the super elevation is
set at -1% to drain the shoulder.
For our project horizontal curves are provided based on the design speed corresponding to
the terrain classification. A minimum of radius 80m &125m are provided for escarpment with the
design speed of 50km/hr and mountainous with design speed of 60km/hr respectively. But to keep
the drivers comfort, avoid sharp curves and not to be out of the route corridor, radius of greater
length than the minimum is provided for some curves..
According to ERA manual table 8-4 based on design speed and radius provided, the super
elevation rate and run off length is provided. The shoulder super elevation is also provided
according to figure 8.9 of ERA manual.
For our project road widening of curves is also provided based on table 8-3 of ERA
geometric design manual.
Sample calculation of super elevation
BS=Beginning of super elevation
PX=Remove adverse crown
PY=Reverse crown
BMS=Beginning of maximum super-elevation
EMS=Ending of maximum super-elevation
ES=Ending of super-elevation
SR=Super-elevation runoff length
TS=Distance from transition to spiral
CS=Curve to spiral
X=Distance from BS to PX
Y=Distance from BS to PY
C=Normal crown
e=Super-elevation rate
Important formula
X= (SR*C)/e (0.1)
Y=2X
31
TR=X +SE*SR
Super-elevation in stations Super-elevation out stations
BS=TS-EMS=CS
PX=TS PX=EMS+SR
PY=BS+Y ES=PX+X
BMS=PX+SR PY=ES-Y
Super elevation Curve 1
C=2.5%.................according to ERA geometric design manual table 2.6

e =8%.................. according to ERA geometric design manual table 8.5
SR=43................. According to ERA geometric design manual table 8.5
X= (SR*C)/e = (43*2.5)/8 = 13.44
Y=2X = 2*13.43=26.86
TR=X +SE*SR= 13.43+0.08*43=16.87
TS=PC-Ls/2= 1+121.88 - 70/2= 1+086.88
BS=TS – X = 086.88-13.44 = 1+73.56
PX=TS=1+086.88
PY=BS+Y = 1+73.56+26.86 = 100.42
BMS=PX+SR=1+086.88+43= 129.88
Sc=86+43=129.88
Lc=L-Ls=129.88-70=59.88
CS=Sc+Lc=129.88+59.88=189.76
EMS=CS=189.76
5.2 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed
by sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of
service. The following text gives the formula and features of the vertical curve; gives values
for maximum and minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through villages;
develops the criteria for incorporation of a climbing lane and provides vertical clearance
standards.
32
According to the topography (position of gradient) ‟vertical curves are of two types.
1. Crest curve.
2. Sag curve.
1) Crest curve
If the offsets of curve are below the tangent line (grade) the curve is called crest curve.
This curve occurred;
a) If there is a change in gradient from large positive to small positive.
b) If there is a change in gradient from positive to negative.
c) If there is a change in gradient small negative to large negative.
2) Sag curve
If the offsets of curve are above the tangent the curve is called sag curve. This curve
occurred;
a) If there is a change in gradient from large negative to small negative and,
b) If there is a change in gradient from negative to positive.
c) If there is a change in gradient from small positive to large positive
In this project both curves are available. Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical
curves have been recommended based on design Speeds and stopping sight distance
requirements. They provide for ride comfort, appearance, and most importantly, safety.
1 and 9-2 in ERA manual 2002, respectively, in terms of “K” values.
5.2.1 VERTICAL CURVE GRADIENTS AND GRADE CONTROLS

One of the important considerations in designing vertical alignment is the gradient.
The cost of operation of vehicles the speed of vehicles and the capacity of a highway are
profoundly affected by the grades provided in order to limit the effect of grade on vehicular
operation; the maximum grade on any highway should be selected judiciously. The selection
of the maximum grade for a highway depends on;
• Visibility related to sight distance.

• Cost of vehicle operation Cut and fill (earth work) Passengers comfort.
• General appearance and
• Existing road intersections & adjacent land use
Fixing of grade for the road

In fixing, the grade of the road the following points where considered to be the decisive factors
➢ minimum gradient
➢ Maximum grade limit
➢ Critical length of gradient (according to ERA manual 2002
table9.)
➢ Phasing of vertical & horizontal curves
33
➢ Cut & fill
a) Maximum grade limit

The selection of grade is depending on the economic benefit of the highway, safety,
traffic volume and drainage. The maximum grade limit for the design standard DS4 is given
in ERA geometric design manual 2002(table 9-3) depending on terrain type of the highway.
b) Minimum Gradient for drainage
The selection of the minimum grade for a highway depends on the drainage condition
of the highway. Longitudinal drainage slope is mostly 0.5%. However, flat and level gradients
on uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation
above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed highways
or streets, longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface drainage and 1% for
unlined roads
c) Critical length of gradient

Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or
the point at which it has lost a certain amount of speed. Critical length of gradient is considered
to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which a loaded truck can operate
without unreasonable reduction in speed. It depends on the grade of the highway. Generally,
critical length is decreased as the gradient increase and increase as the gradient decrease.
(ERA Geometric design manual 2002 table 9.4)
CLIMBING LANE
A climbing lane is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes.
The provision of these lanes:-
➢ Has the effect of reducing congestion in the through lanes by removing slower moving
vehicles from the traffic stream.
➢ Has effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient
➢ Enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the through lane.
The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed and
traffic volume. Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic volumes are
greater than 400ADT. Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited particularly to trunk
and link roads.
5.2.3 SIGHT DISTANCES

Sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For highway safety, we
must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of their
vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected object on the traveled way. Sight
distance includes:-
a) stopping sight distance
b) Passing sight distance
34
a) Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The
minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes into
account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. And it is
given by the formula
V2=d (0.278)(t)(V)/ 254f
Where d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time generally taken to be 2.5seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (given as a function of design
speed on Table 7-1 on ERA 2002 manual)
The following values should be used for the determination of sight lines
Driver's eye height: 1.05 meters
Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meter
Fig. Stopping Sight Distance at Sag
35
Fig. Stopping Sight Distance at Crest
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or

other sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight
distance
5.2.4 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway
roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed. Care
must be exercised in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance
may be obscured in the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components,
as follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction d2 = distance
during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane d3 = clearance distance between vehicles
at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle The formulae
for these components are as indicated below:
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1/2)
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver,
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle,
km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d3 is safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on
ambient speeds as per Table 7-2 on ERA manual:
d4 is distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less the
portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3 where , d2 = 0.278 vt2
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
36
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
5.2.5DESIGN LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE
A) Design length of SAG curves

The design data are taken from ERA geometric manual 2013, table for DS5.
• Design speed ------ 50km/h

• Topography --------- Escarpment
• Curve type --------- SAG
• Maximum gradient desirable ---- 8%
• Maximum gradient absolute ------10%
• Departed gradient ---- G1= -7.18% G2= -1.87%
• Minimum gradient ----- 0.5%
• Min. stopping sight -----70m
• Min .passing sight distance -----180m
Algebraic difference in grade (G) =/ -7.18-(-1.87)/ = 9.05%

Station of PVI =0+810
Elevation of PVI = 2919.0
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L = G*K , where K is rate of vertical curvature.
K = 9 for crest curve
L = 9.05*9 = 81.45m
2 Length required for safe stopping site distance

When Sd< Lc
37
Lc= Sd2*G /2(h+ Sdtanα) h= the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, h =0.6
The angle b/n the ray from the observer’s eye to the object ,α=1o
2
Lc=43 *0.0905 /2(0.6+43tan1)
= 61.94m
3. Length required for safe passing
Lc= 2*MPD - 2(h+MPDtanα)/G
Lc= 2*180 – 2(0.6+ 180tan1)/ 0.0905 = 277.3m
To get full station, lets use Lc =280m
4. Length required for passengers comfort
Lc= (Vd2*G)/3.89 =(502 *0.0905)/3.89
Lc= 66.74m
5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
Lc= 30 *G = 30*9.05
= 271.5m
Therefore the maximum of the above values i.e. Lc = 280m is to be provided as curve
length.
Determination of the curve elements

station of PVI =0+810
Elevation = 2919.44
station of PVC = PVI- L/2 = 0+810 - 140 = 0+670
Elevation = 2919.44
station of PVT =PVI + L/2 =0+810 + 140 = 0+950
Determination of elevations on the curves at x distance from PVC (STATION 0+670)
ElevX= ElevPVI + G1+ y
Where y =offset at x distance from pvc
= ((g2-g1)*L*4x2)/800*L2
= 9.05*280*4*x2/800*2802
=0.0001616 x2
Therefore
Ex= 2919.44 – 0.0718x + 0.0001616 x2
All the values are shown on the table attached bellow. Location of the lowest points on
the curve is required for the determination of drainage patterns, and computed as follow
location
Xm= -g1*L /G
= 7.018*280 /9.05
= 217.13m from PVC (0+670)
There for the location of the lowest point is at 0+887.3
Elevation of the curve at this station is:
38
E 0+887.3= 2919.44 – 0.0718*217.13 +0.0001616*217.132

= 2911.48m
B Design length of crest curves

In determining the length of the curve, the following points are taken in to account
• sight distance (both stopping and passing )
• class of highway (DS5)
• terrain type
• minimum curvature
• Aesthetic values
• Passenger comfort
1. Length of crest curve required for minimum curvature
Lmc = GK
2. Length of crest curve required for safe stopping sight distance
• When sight distance is, Sd> L
Lsd = 2SSD - 200(√H1+√H2)2 /G
• When sight distance is, Sd<L
Lsd =G*SSD2 / (100*( + )2
3. Length of crest curve required for safe passing sight distance
Lpd= 2PSD -200(H1+h2+2√H1*H2)/A
4. Length of crest curve required for aesthetic value
La = Vd2*G/389
5. Length of crest curve required for passengers comfort
Lc = 30*G
The design data are taken from ERA geometric manual 2013, table for DS5.
• Design speed ------ 50km/h

• Topography --------- Escarpment
• Curve type --------- crest
• Maximum gradient desirable ---- 8%
• Maximum gradient absolute ------10%
• Departed gradient ---- G1=-1.87% G2=+3.07%
• Minimum gradient ----- 0.5%
• Min. stopping sight -----70m
• Min .passing sight distance -----180m
Algebraic difference in grade (G) =/ -1.87-(3.07)/ = 4.94%

Station of PVI =1+860
39
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k

L = G*K , where K is rate of vertical curvature.
M = 17 for crest curve
N = 4.94*17 = 83.98m
2. Length required for safe stopping site distance

SSD = 0.278*v*t + v2 / (254(f G) f=0.35 for v=50 from ERA manual 2013, table 7.2
= 0.278*50*2.5+502/ (254(0.35 - 4.94/100)) t=driver reaction time =2.5
= 67.49m
Case i. When sight distance is, SSD<L
Lsd = G*SSD2 / (100*( + )2
= 4.94*67.492/(100*(√2*1.05+√2*0.2)2
=51.92m>SSD = 67.49m
Case ii. When sight distance is, SSD>L
Lsd = 2SSD - 200(√H1+√H2)2 /G
=2*67.49 - 200(√1.05+√0.2)2/4.94
=47.26m
3. Length of crest curve required for safe passing sight distance
Lpd= 2PSD -2(h1+h2+2√h1*h2)/G
= 2*180-200(1.05+0.2+2√(1.05*0.2) /4.94
= 27.52m
4. Length required for passengers comfort
Lc = Vd2*G /389
= 502*4.94/389
= 31.74 m
5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
Lc = 30 *G
= 30*4.94 = 148.2m
Lmin = max (67.69, 27.52, 31.74)
=67.69 m
The minimum curve length should not be less than twice the design speed (50*2=100).
Provide L=100m
Determination of the curve elements

Station of PVI =1+860.00
Station of PVC = PVI- L/2
= 1+860.00 – 100/2
40
= 1+810
Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI - G1* (L/2)
= 2933.44- (4.94/100)*(100/2)
= 2930.97
Station of PVT = PVI + L/2
= 1+860 + 100/2
= 1+910
Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI + (G2)(L/2)

= 2933.44+ (3.07/100)*(100/2)
= 2934.97
Curve setting out

Curve elevation = Elev.PVC + X*G1+Y for the first 100m
= Elev.PVT - X*G2+Y for the next 100m

2
Y = GX /200L
Where, y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (m)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (m)
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve
5.3 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so
that the line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards
and visual defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a
driver must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well within
the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with small radius curves than with
large.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do
no more than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such
defects often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a
psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases,
the defects may endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. A
sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect.
41
6.5.1. Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action

When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are
coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects
occur, phasing may be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths
such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common
station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of
the curves is at a common station. Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are
described below together with the necessary corrective action for each type.
A. Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve

If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver’s
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed
because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve.
B. Insufficient Separation between the Curves

If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a false
reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal curve.
This is a visual defect. Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the
curves or making the curves concurrent.
C. Both Ends of the Vertical Curve Lie on the Horizontal Curve

If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve
may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the vertical
curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase.
D. Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal Curve

If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be created
because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of the
vertical curve while sight distance is reduced.
4.5.2. Other Mis-Phasing

A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction. This illustrates the
need to avoid broken back curves in design. A double sag curve occurs at one horizontal
curve. This illustrates the effect in this case of a broken back vertical alignment on design.
4.5.3. The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing

The phasing of vertical curves restricts their movement and fitting to the ground so that the
designer is prevented from obtaining the lowest cost design. Therefore, phasing is usually
bought at the cost of extra earthworks and the designer must decide.
42
CHAPTER SIX
6 EARTHWORKS
6.1 Introduction
Earth work is conversion of natural condition to required section and grade. Earthwork
involves excavation and removal and dumping of earth. Therefore, it is required to make good
estimates of volumes of earthwork. Volume computations are also needed to determine the
capacity of bins, tanks, and reservoirs. Earthwork operations involve the determination of volumes
of material that is to be excavated or embanked in engineering project to bring the ground surface
to a predetermined grade. Earthwork computation involves:
✓ The calculation of earthwork volumes
✓ The determination of final grades
✓ The balancing of cuts and fills and
✓ Planning the most economical haul of material
✓ Area computation
During design, earthwork calculation helps the designer to limit the earthwork quantities
so that proper grade or vertical alignment can be determined with least cost.
Earthwork can be:
✓ clearing the roadway
✓ Excavation of earth and rock from the roadway
✓ Borrowing and formation of embankments
✓ Haul and overhaul of material
✓ Compacting and
✓ Grading to the required geometry of the section
Area is computed from plan which may be enclosed by straight, irregular or combination
of straight and irregular boundaries. When the boundaries are straight the area is determined by
subdividing the plan into simple geometrical figures such as triangles, rectangles, trapezoids, etc.
43
Volumes of cut in the case of excavation or volumes of fill in the case of embankment can be
determined using end-area rule or prismoidal rule.
The volume of earthwork is found by means of average end area formula. Because of this we
use the average end area formula for the calculation of volume of earthwork.
Average end area formula.
Volume (V) =1/2 (A1+A2)*L
Where: A1 and A2= area of end section (m2)
L = length between the two areas (20m) in our case
This formula applies to areas of any shape, but the results are slightly too large. The error is
small if the sections do not change rapidly.
6.2 BASIC EARTH WORK OPERATIONS
Clearing and garbing(m2) is the removal of top soil, trees, and bushes and from the sub grade.
Excavation(m3) is the process of losing and removal of soil and rocks. It is used to maintain the
grades for roads and drainage.
Classification of excavation
✓ Rock excavation
✓ Common excavation
✓ Borrow excavation
Unsuitable material excavation: removal and disposal of unsuitable materials for the road.
Embankment /compaction are the densification of fill section of the road.
Transporting /hauling: moving excavated material place to place Unit price of excavation
including the cost of transportation from cut to fill is free haul
Over haul transporting a distance greater than the free haul distance.
Cost are increased for the over haul distance m3-km-station
Grading /shaping the road bed: is shaping the road bed (m2)
Factors affecting earthwork

SHRINKAGE: When the excavated material is compacted the volume will be reduced because of
the escape of voids (i.e. water and air) from the soil and this phenomenon is called shrinkage. This
volume difference is due to the loss of material during hauling and compaction to increase the
density of the soil.
SWELL: When the earth material are excavated their volume increases. This increase in volume
is called swelling.
44
Definition of terms
Free haul: is the distance through which excavated material may be transported without added
cost above the unit bid price.
Limit of economical haul: is the distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated
material than to waste and borrow.
Over haul: It is the product of volume times distance and is represented in the mass haul diagram
as the area between the zero balance line and the curve of the mass after eliminating all the free
haul
Waste: Is the material excavated from the road way cuts but not required for making the
embankments.
6.3 ESTIMATING EARTHWORK QUANTITIES
Here both the quantity earth to be removed and the volume of earth necessary to form
an embankment are involved. Balancing the two sometimes determines the grade to which the
road will be laid. This needs a lot of trail and it‟s difficult to work out manually. We have
tried to balance cut and fill volume by changing the grade direction as well as percent of grade
in the software. To compute the earthwork quantities cross-section are taken at 40m interval.
station Distance Area Volume Fill corr Corrective volume Comulative
Cut Fill Area Cut Fill Cut Fill Volume
Area
0+000.00 1423.98 0 0 0.00 0.00
0+020.00 20 1265.8 0 26897.8 0 0 26897.80 26897.80
0+040.00 20 1328.97 0 25947.7 0 0 25947.70 52845.50
0+060.00 20 1223.2 0 25521.7 0 0 25521.70 78367.20
0+080.00 20 1097.63 0 23208.3 0 0 23208.30 101575.50
0+100.00 20 859.67 0.06 19573 0.6 0.69 19572.31 121147.81
0+120.00 20 669.76 0.08 15294.3 1.4 1.61 15292.69 136440.50
0+140.00 20 596.8 0.05 12665.6 1.3 1.495 12664.11 149104.61
0+160.00 20 528.14 0.06 11249.4 1.1 1.265 11248.14 160352.74
0+180.00 20 448.63 0.06 9767.7 1.2 1.38 9766.32 170119.06
0+200.00 20 373.69 0.07 8223.2 1.3 1.495 8221.71 178340.77
0+220.00 20 305.41 0.05 6791 1.2 1.38 6789.62 185130.39
0+240.00 20 225 0.05 5304.1 1 1.15 5302.95 190433.34
0+260.00 20 134.99 0.1 3599.9 1.5 1.725 3598.18 194031.51
0+280.00 20 65.48 66.27 2004.7 663.7 763.255 1241.45 195272.96
0+300.00 20 18.27 123.24 837.5 1895.1 2179.365 - 193931.09
1341.87
0+320.00 20 13 201.97 312.7 3252.1 3739.915 - 190503.88
3427.22
45
0+340.00 20 13.76 287.06 267.6 4890.3 5623.845 - 185147.63

5356.25
0+360.00 20 14.83 379.21 285.9 6662.7 7662.105 - 177771.43
7376.21
0+380.00 20 15.89 476.6 307.2 8558.1 9841.815 - 168236.81
9534.62
0+400.00 20 16.98 579.29 328.7 10558.9 12142.74 -11814 156422.78
0+420.00 20 18.6 690.31 355.8 12696 14600.4 - 142178.18
14244.6
0+440.00 20 19.46 809.19 380.6 14995 17244.25 - 125314.53
16863.7
0+460.00 20 19.43 926.73 388.9 17359.2 19963.08 - 105740.35
19574.2
0+480.00 20 19.41 1040.81 388.4 19675.4 22626.71 - 83502.04
22238.3
0+500.00 20 19.38 1141.34 387.9 21821.5 25094.73 - 58795.21
24706.8
0+520.00 20 19.36 1234.58 387.4 23759.2 27323.08 - 31859.53
26935.7
0+540.00 20 19.33 1320.38 386.9 25549.6 29382.04 - 2864.39
28995.1
0+560.00 20 19.31 1441.7 386.4 27620.8 31763.92 - -28513.13
31377.5
0+580.00 20 19.28 1679.61 385.9 31213.1 35895.07 - -64022.29
35509.2
0+600.00 20 19.26 1665.95 385.4 33455.6 38473.94 - -
38088.5 102110.84
0+620.00 20 19.23 1817.4 384.9 34833.5 40058.53 - -
39673.6 141784.46
0+640.00 20 19.21 2082.56 384.4 38999.6 44849.54 - -
44465.1 186249.60
0+660.00 20 19.19 1951.41 384 40339.7 46390.66 - -
46006.7 232256.26
0+680.00 20 19.16 1620.44 383.5 35718.5 41076.28 - -
40692.8 272949.03
0+700.00 20 19.14 1264.96 383 28854 33182.1 - -
32799.1 305748.13
0+720.00 20 19.11 1056.4 382.5 23213.6 26695.64 - -
26313.1 332061.27
0+740.00 20 19.09 858.91 382 19153.1 22026.07 - -
21644.1 353705.34
46
0+760.00 20 19.06 671.42 381.5 15303.3 17598.8 - -

17217.3 370922.63
0+780.00 20 19.04 491.33 381 11627.5 13371.63 - -
12990.6 383913.26
0+800.00 20 17.83 322.53 368.7 8138.6 9359.39 - -
8990.69 392903.95
0+820.00 20 15.44 180.37 332.7 5029 5783.35 - -
5450.65 398354.60
0+840.00 20 12.45 77.52 278.9 2578.9 2965.735 - -
2686.84 401041.43
0+860.00 20 7.53 18.16 199.8 956.8 1100.32 -900.52 -
401941.95
0+880.00 20 18.35 17.76 258.8 359.2 413.08 -154.28 -
402096.23
0+900.00 20 26.65 0.22 450 179.8 206.77 243.23 -
401853.00
0+920.00 20 21.99 0.26 486.4 4.8 5.52 480.88 -
401372.12
0+940.00 20 15.53 1.18 375.2 14.4 16.56 358.64 -
401013.48
0+960.00 20 11.62 156 271.5 1571.8 1807.57 - -
1536.07 402549.55
0+980.00 20 15.44 340.8 270.6 4968 5713.2 -5442.6 -
407992.15
1+000.00 20 14.83 336.9 302.7 6777 7793.55 - -
7490.85 415483.00
1+020.00 20 9.92 103.34 247.5 4402.4 5062.76 - -
4815.26 420298.26
1+040.00 20 10.2 55.48 201.2 1588.2 1826.43 - -
1625.23 421923.49
1+060.00 20 12.02 121.54 222.2 1770.2 2035.73 - -
1813.53 423737.02
1+080.00 20 11.84 166.72 238.6 2882.6 3314.99 - -
3076.39 426813.41
1+100.00 20 11.83 203.16 236.7 3698.8 4253.62 - -
4016.92 430830.33
1+108.88 8.88 11.82 217.33 105.006 1866.976 2147.022 - -
2042.02 432872.35
1+110.00 1.12 11.82 219.22 13.2384 244.468 281.1382 -267.9 -
433140.25
1+120.00 10 11.81 245.75 118.15 2324.85 2673.578 - -
2555.43 435695.67
47
1+130.00 10 12.16 291.37 119.85 2685.6 3088.44 - -

2968.59 438664.26
1+140.00 10 12.92 322.71 125.4 3070.4 3530.96 - -
3405.56 442069.82
1+150.00 10 12.14 180.84 125.3 2517.75 2895.413 - -
2770.11 444839.94
1+160.00 10 12.21 64.37 121.75 1226.05 1409.958 - -
1288.21 446128.14
1+170.00 10 6.77 43.32 94.9 538.45 619.2175 - -
524.318 446652.46
1+172.26 2.26 6.86 44.06 15.4019 98.7394 113.5503 - -
98.1484 446750.61
1+180.00 7.74 7.19 47.12 54.3735 352.8666 405.7966 - -
351.423 447102.03
1+200.00 20 7.28 52.55 144.7 996.7 1146.205 - -
1001.51 448103.54
1+220.00 20 8.04 63.13 153.2 1156.8 1330.32 - -
1177.12 449280.66
1+240.00 20 8.83 76.56 168.7 1396.9 1606.435 - -
1437.74 450718.39
1+260.00 20 13.65 101.63 224.8 1781.9 2049.185 - -
1824.39 452542.78
1+280.00 20 14.09 169.57 277.4 2712 3118.8 -2841.4 -
455384.18
1+300.00 20 14.5 208.24 285.9 3778.1 4344.815 - -
4058.92 459443.09
1+320.00 20 14.76 245.34 292.6 4535.8 5216.17 - -
4923.57 464366.66
1+332.23 12.23 14.98 304.24 181.8601 3360.682 3864.784 - -
3682.92 468049.59
1+340.00 7.77 15.11 350.53 116.8997 2543.781 2925.349 - -
2808.45 470858.04
1+350.00 10 15.21 388.61 151.6 3695.7 4250.055 - -
4098.46 474956.49
1+360.00 10 15.24 399.19 152.25 3939 4529.85 -4377.6 -
479334.09
1+370.00 10 15.2 408.16 152.2 4036.75 4642.263 - -
4490.06 483824.15
1+380.00 10 15.1 407.49 151.5 4078.25 4689.988 - -
4538.49 488362.64
1+384.38 4.38 15.04 397.06 66.0066 1761.965 2026.259 - -
1960.25 490322.89
48
1+400.00 15.62 14.76 340.53 232.738 5760.578 6624.665 - -

6391.93 496714.82
1+420.00 20 14.41 286.49 291.7 6270.2 7210.73 - -
6919.03 503633.85
1+440.00 20 13.99 246.68 284 5331.7 6131.455 - -
5847.46 509481.30
1+460.00 20 13.51 212.25 275 4589.3 5277.695 -5002.7 -
514484.00
1+480.00 20 12.95 219.35 264.6 4316 4963.4 -4698.8 -
519182.80
1+500.00 20 14.05 431.26 270 6506.1 7482.015 - -
7212.02 526394.81
1+511.78 11.78 16.12 620.54 177.7013 6195.102 7124.367 - -
6946.67 533341.48
1+520.00 8.22 17.95 776.27 140.0277 5740.889 6602.022 - -
6461.99 539803.48
1+530.00 10 16.92 768.16 174.35 7722.15 8880.473 - -
8706.12 548509.60
1+540.00 10 15.25 661.01 160.85 7145.85 8217.728 - -
8056.88 556566.48
1+550.00 10 14.29 593.51 147.7 6272.6 7213.49 - -
7065.79 563632.27
1+560.00 10 13.88 559.09 140.85 5763 6627.45 -6486.6 -
570118.87
1+570.00 10 13.84 555.47 138.6 5572.8 6408.72 - -
6270.12 576388.99
1+570.02 0.02 13.84 555.51 0.2768 11.1098 12.77627 - -
12.4995 576401.48
1+580.00 9.98 14.02 559.53 139.0214 5564.05 6398.657 - -
6259.64 582661.12
1+600.00 20 14.35 559.94 283.7 11194.7 12873.91 - -
12590.2 595251.33
1+620.00 20 13.41 535.66 277.6 10956 12599.4 - -
12321.8 607573.13
1+640.00 20 13.17 517.84 265.8 10535 12115.25 - -
11849.5 619422.58
1+660.00 20 13.11 465.03 262.8 9828.7 11303.01 - -
11040.2 630462.78
1+661.00 1 13.1 462.57 13.105 463.8 533.37 - -
520.265 630983.05
1+670.00 9 12.92 407.96 117.09 3917.385 4504.993 -4387.9 -
635370.95
49
1+680.00 10 12.65 293.29 127.85 3506.25 4032.188 - -

3904.34 639275.29
1+690.00 10 13.19 301.99 129.2 2976.4 3422.86 - -
3293.66 642568.95
1+700.00 10 13.69 408.23 134.4 3551.1 4083.765 - -
3949.37 646518.31
1+710.00 10 14.64 528.67 141.65 4684.5 5387.175 - -
5245.53 651763.84
1+719.47 9.47 15.41 600.23 142.2868 5345.342 6147.143 - -
6004.86 657768.69
1+720.00 0.53 15.47 603.4 8.1832 318.9619 366.8062 - -
358.623 658127.31
1+740.00 20 17.14 705.65 326.1 13090.5 15054.08 -14728 -
672855.29
1+760.00 20 17.83 794.75 349.7 15004 17254.6 - -
16904.9 689760.19
1+780.00 20 17.8 907.06 356.3 17018.1 19570.82 - -
19214.5 708974.70
1+800.00 20 17.78 691.67 355.8 15987.3 18385.4 - -
18029.6 727004.30
1+820.00 20 13.02 240.51 308 9321.8 10720.07 - -
10412.1 737416.37
1+840.00 20 22.4 23.65 354.2 2641.6 3037.84 - -
2683.64 740100.01
1+860.00 20 38.45 54.08 608.5 777.3 893.895 - -
285.395 740385.40
1+880.00 20 32.18 140.03 706.3 1941.1 2232.265 - -
1525.97 741911.37
1+900.00 20 13.36 257.63 455.4 3976.6 4573.09 - -
4117.69 746029.06
1+920.00 20 14.46 291.95 278.2 5495.8 6320.17 - -
6041.97 752071.03
1+940.00 20 14.71 261.84 291.7 5537.9 6368.585 - -
6076.89 758147.91
1+960.00 20 14.14 213.12 288.5 4749.6 5462.04 - -
5173.54 763321.45
1+980.00 20 9.84 120.32 239.8 3334.4 3834.56 - -
3594.76 766916.21
2+000.00 20 5.74 43.44 155.8 1637.6 1883.24 - -
1727.44 768643.65
2+007.22 7.22 31 20.59 132.6314 231.1483 265.8205 - -
133.189 768776.84
50
2+010.00 2.78 63.6 10.58 131.494 43.3263 49.82524 81.67 -

768695.17
2+020.00 10 248.36 0.05 1559.8 53.15 61.1225 1498.68 -
767196.50
2+030.00 10 481.41 0.05 3648.85 0.5 0.575 3648.28 -
763548.22
2+040.00 10 603.08 0.05 5422.45 0.5 0.575 5421.88 -
758126.35
2+050.00 10 650.12 0.05 6266 0.5 0.575 6265.43 -
751860.92
2+056.74 6.74 641.13 0.05 4351.512 0.337 0.38755 4351.12 -
747509.80
2+060.00 3.26 633.61 0.05 2077.826 0.163 0.18745 2077.64 -
745432.16
2+080.00 20 563.71 0.06 11973.2 1.1 1.265 11971.94 -
733460.22
2+100.00 20 430.49 0.06 9942 1.2 1.38 9940.62 -
723519.60
2+120.00 20 355.47 0.05 7859.6 1.1 1.265 7858.34 -
715661.27
2+140.00 20 273.52 0.06 6289.9 1.1 1.265 6288.64 -
709372.63
2+160.00 20 116.37 0.14 3898.9 2 2.3 3896.60 -
705476.03
2+180.00 20 7.84 49.86 1242.1 500 575 667.10 -
704808.93
2+200.00 20 8.31 130.64 161.5 1805 2075.75 - -
1914.25 706723.18
2+220.00 20 21.76 39.21 300.7 1698.5 1953.275 - -
1652.58 708375.76
2+240.00 20 82.19 0.1 1039.5 393.1 452.065 587.44 -
707788.32
2+260.00 20 107.65 0.06 1898.4 1.6 1.84 1896.56 -
705891.76
2+280.00 20 110.5 0.06 2181.5 1.2 1.38 2180.12 -
703711.64
2+300.00 20 108.1 0.01 2186 0.7 0.805 2185.20 -
701526.45
2+320.00 20 124.26 3.5 2323.6 35.1 40.365 2283.24 -
699243.21
2+330.41 10.41 156.39 0.13 1460.783 18.89415 21.72827 1439.05 -
697804.16
51
2+340.00 9.59 183.51 0.1 1629.821 1.10285 1.268278 1628.55 -

696175.61
2+350.00 10 220.82 0.08 2021.65 0.9 1.035 2020.62 -
694154.99
2+355.59 5.59 234.19 0.08 1271.753 0.4472 0.51428 1271.24 -
692883.75
2+360.00 4.41 243.33 0.08 1052.932 0.3528 0.40572 1052.53 -
691831.23
2+380.00 20 309.04 0.06 5523.7 1.4 1.61 5522.09 -
686309.14
2+400.00 20 423.49 0.05 7325.3 1.1 1.265 7324.04 -
678985.10
2+420.00 20 531.87 0.05 9553.6 1 1.15 9552.45 -
669432.65
2+440.00 20 520.09 0.04 10519.6 0.9 1.035 10518.57 -
658914.09
2+460.00 20 310.63 0.15 8307.2 1.9 2.185 8305.02 -
650609.07
2+480.00 20 170.88 0.14 4815.1 2.9 3.335 4811.77 -
645797.31
2+480.02 0.02 170.79 0.14 3.4167 0.0028 0.00322 3.41 -
645793.89
2+490.00 9.98 135.82 0.13 1529.984 1.3473 1.549395 1528.43 -
644265.46
2+500.00 10 118.79 0.14 1273.05 1.35 1.5525 1271.50 -
642993.96
2+510.00 10 72.06 0.15 954.25 1.45 1.6675 952.58 -
642041.38
2+520.00 10 6.17 30.44 391.15 152.95 175.8925 215.26 -
641826.12
2+530.00 10 7.83 89.65 70 600.45 690.5175 - -
620.518 642446.64
2+540.00 10 9.23 86.97 85.3 883.1 1015.565 - -
930.265 643376.90
2+550.00 10 7.1 68.32 81.65 776.45 892.9175 - -
811.268 644188.17
2+560.00 10 7.01 59.52 70.55 639.2 735.08 -664.53 -
644852.70
2+570.00 10 6.97 52.16 69.9 558.4 642.16 -572.26 -
645424.96
2+580.00 10 6.65 43.78 68.1 479.7 551.655 - -
483.555 645908.52
52
2+583.92 3.92 6.99 43.7 26.7344 171.4608 197.1799 - -

170.446 646078.96
2+600.00 16.08 44.23 0.24 411.8088 353.2776 406.2692 5.54 -
646073.42
2+620.00 20 214.52 0.1 2587.5 3.4 3.91 2583.59 -
643489.83
2+640.00 20 61.03 0.19 2755.5 2.9 3.335 2752.17 -
640737.67
2+660.00 20 17.33 3.03 783.6 32.2 37.03 746.57 -
639991.10
2+680.00 20 7.89 4.2 252.2 72.3 83.145 169.06 -
639822.04
2+681.27 1.27 7.91 3.91 10.033 5.14985 5.922327 4.11 -
639817.93
2+690.00 8.73 8.23 2.08 70.4511 26.14635 30.0683 40.38 -
639777.55
2+700.00 10 7.91 1.99 80.7 20.35 23.4025 57.30 -
639720.25
2+710.00 10 32.14 0.28 200.25 11.35 13.0525 187.20 -
639533.05
2+720.00 10 199.46 0.14 1158 2.1 2.415 1155.59 -
638377.47
2+730.00 10 353.37 0.16 2764.15 1.5 1.725 2762.43 -
635615.04
2+740.00 10 382.82 0.16 3680.95 1.6 1.84 3679.11 -
631935.93
2+750.00 10 367.12 0.13 3749.7 1.45 1.6675 3748.03 -
628187.90
2+760.00 10 321.21 0.14 3441.65 1.35 1.5525 3440.10 -
624747.80
2+770.00 10 283.52 0.14 3023.65 1.4 1.61 3022.04 -
621725.76
2+773.36 3.36 268.39 0.14 927.2088 0.4704 0.54096 926.67 -
620799.10
2+780.00 6.64 234.3 0.16 1668.931 0.996 1.1454 1667.79 -
619131.31
2+800.00 20 106.18 0.16 3404.8 3.2 3.68 3401.12 -
615730.19
2+820.00 20 15.04 5.18 1212.2 53.4 61.41 1150.79 -
614579.40
2+840.00 20 7.01 61.37 220.5 665.5 765.325 - -
544.825 615124.23
53
2+860.00 20 8.57 92.98 155.8 1543.5 1775.025 - -

1619.23 616743.45
2+880.00 20 10.42 130.07 189.9 2230.5 2565.075 - -
2375.18 619118.63
2+881.37 1.37 10.52 133.13 14.3439 180.292 207.3358 - -
192.992 619311.62
2+890.00 8.63 11.47 154.47 94.88685 1240.994 1427.143 - -
1332.26 620643.87
2+900.00 10 9.05 133.45 102.6 1439.6 1655.54 - -
1552.94 622196.81
2+910.00 10 18.27 49.4 136.6 914.25 1051.388 - -
914.788 623111.60
2+920.00 10 75.72 0.18 469.95 247.9 285.085 184.87 -
622926.74
2+926.65 6.65 109.9 0.12 617.1865 0.9975 1.147125 616.04 -
622310.70
2+940.00 13.35 180.39 0.1 1937.686 1.4685 1.688775 1936.00 -
620374.70
2+960.00 20 328.11 0.1 5085 2 2.3 5082.70 -
615292.00
2+980.00 20 415.48 0.06 7435.9 1.6 1.84 7434.06 -
607857.94
3+000.00 20 471.27 0.06 8867.5 1.2 1.38 8866.12 -
598991.82
3+020.00 20 516.31 0.05 9875.8 1.1 1.265 9874.54 -
589117.28
3+040.00 20 546.96 0 10632.7 0.5 0.575 10632.13 -
578485.16
3+060.00 20 553.18 0 11001.4 0 0 11001.40 -
567483.76
3+080.00 20 533.45 0 10866.3 0 0 10866.30 -
556617.46
3+100.00 20 72.12 0.16 6055.7 1.6 1.84 6053.86 -
550563.60
3+120.00 20 63.94 0.25 1360.6 4.1 4.715 1355.89 -
549207.71
3+140.00 20 60.62 0.19 1245.6 4.4 5.06 1240.54 -
547967.17
3+160.00 20 43.83 26.85 1044.5 270.4 310.96 733.54 -
547233.63
3+180.00 20 49.65 0.13 934.8 269.8 310.27 624.53 -
546609.10
54
3+200.00 20 30.9 0.18 805.5 3.1 3.565 801.94 -

545807.17
3+220.00 20 37.08 0.16 679.8 3.4 3.91 675.89 -
545131.28
3+240.00 20 10.49 139.43 475.7 1395.9 1605.285 - -
1129.59 546260.86
3+260.00 20 8.35 78.21 188.4 2176.4 2502.86 - -
2314.46 548575.32
3+280.00 20 5.44 27.41 137.9 1056.2 1214.63 - -
1076.73 549652.05
3+286.00 6 4.63 12.57 30.21 119.94 137.931 - -
107.721 549759.78
3+290.00 4 6.07 2.8 21.4 30.74 35.351 -13.951 -
549773.73
3+300.00 10 56.89 0.13 314.8 14.65 16.8475 297.95 -
549475.77
3+310.00 10 139.2 0.13 980.45 1.3 1.495 978.96 -
548496.82
3+320.00 10 257.61 0.11 1984.05 1.2 1.38 1982.67 -
546514.15
3+330.00 10 381.1 0.11 3193.55 1.1 1.265 3192.29 -
543321.86
3+340.00 10 434.97 0.11 4080.35 1.1 1.265 4079.09 -
539242.78
3+350.00 10 417.5 0.07 4262.35 0.9 1.035 4261.32 -
534981.46
3+360.00 10 383.04 0.04 4002.7 0.55 0.6325 4002.07 -
530979.40
3+370.00 10 350.18 0.08 3666.1 0.6 0.69 3665.41 -
527313.99
3+380.00 10 342.86 0.08 3465.2 0.8 0.92 3464.28 -
523849.71
3+390.00 10 351.61 0.08 3472.35 0.8 0.92 3471.43 -
520378.28
3+400.00 10 371.71 0.08 3616.6 0.8 0.92 3615.68 -
516762.60
3+400.18 0.18 371.29 0.08 66.87 0.0144 0.01656 66.85 -
516695.74
3+420.00 19.82 505.37 0.07 8687.701 1.4865 1.709475 8685.99 -
508009.75
3+431.89 11.89 617.41 0 6674.927 0.41615 0.478572 6674.45 -
501335.30
55
3+440.00 8.11 614.46 0 4995.233 0 0 4995.23 -

496340.07
3+450.00 10 619.49 0 6169.75 0 0 6169.75 -
490170.32
3+460.00 10 636.25 0 6278.7 0 0 6278.70 -
483891.62
3+470.00 10 644.15 0 6402 0 0 6402.00 -
477489.62
3+480.00 10 649.28 0 6467.15 0 0 6467.15 -
471022.47
3+490.00 10 644.89 0 6470.85 0 0 6470.85 -
464551.62
3+500.00 10 565.78 0 6053.35 0 0 6053.35 -
458498.27
3+510.00 10 537.86 0 5518.2 0 0 5518.20 -
452980.07
3+520.00 10 734.96 0 6364.1 0 0 6364.10 -
446615.97
3+530.00 10 904.05 0 8195.05 0 0 8195.05 -
438420.92
3+540.00 10 1005.86 0 9549.55 0 0 9549.55 -
428871.37
3+550.00 10 1078.09 0 10419.75 0 0 10419.75 -
418451.62
3+560.00 10 1124.58 0 11013.35 0 0 11013.35 -
407438.27
3+570.00 10 1171.44 0 11480.1 0 0 11480.10 -
395958.17
3+580.00 10 1215.09 0 11932.65 0 0 11932.65 -
384025.52
3+581.18 1.18 1218.66 0 1435.912 0 0 1435.91 -
382589.61
3+600.00 18.82 1194.32 0 22706.14 0 0 22706.14 -
359883.47
3+601.43 1.43 1183.94 0 1700.456 0 0 1700.46 -
358183.01
3+610.00 8.57 1126.52 0 9900.321 0 0 9900.32 -
348282.69
3+620.00 10 1101.23 0 11138.75 0 0 11138.75 -
337143.94
3+630.00 10 1095.98 0 10986.05 0 0 10986.05 -
326157.89
56
3+640.00 10 1086.87 0 10914.25 0 0 10914.25 -

315243.64
3+650.00 10 1208.13 0 11475 0 0 11475.00 -
303768.64
3+660.00 10 1334.33 0 12712.3 0 0 12712.30 -
291056.34
3+667.15 7.15 1413.6 0 9823.85 0 0 9823.85 -
281232.49
3+680.00 12.85 1527.68 0 18897.72 0 0 18897.72 -
262334.77
3+700.00 20 1632.5 0 31601.8 0 0 31601.80 -
230732.97
3+720.00 20 1773.87 0 34063.7 0 0 34063.70 -
196669.27
3+740.00 20 1798.98 0 35728.5 0 0 35728.50 -
160940.77
3+760.00 20 1815.79 0 36147.7 0 0 36147.70 -
124793.07
3+780.00 20 1730.22 0 35460.1 0 0 35460.10 -89332.97
3+784.58 4.58 1695.11 0 7844.006 0 0 7844.01 -81488.96
3+790.00 5.42 1666.58 0 9110.18 0 0 9110.18 -72378.78
3+800.00 10 1629.09 0 16478.35 0 0 16478.35 -55900.43
3+810.00 10 1598.77 0 16139.3 0 0 16139.30 -39761.13
3+816.55 6.55 1578.61 0 10405.92 0 0 10405.92 -29355.21
3+820.00 3.45 1568.35 0 5428.506 0 0 5428.51 -23926.70
3+840.00 20 1548.46 0 31168.1 0 0 31168.10 7241.40
3+860.00 20 1447.34 0 29958 0 0 29958.00 37199.40
3+880.00 20 1316.94 0 27642.8 0 0 27642.80 64842.20
3+900.00 20 1123.77 0 24407.1 0 0 24407.10 89249.30
3+920.00 20 941.55 0 20653.2 0 0 20653.20 109902.50
3+940.00 20 788.57 0 17301.2 0 0 17301.20 127203.70
3+960.00 20 689.64 0 14782.1 0 0 14782.10 141985.80
3+980.00 20 635.48 0.06 13251.2 0.6 0.69 13250.51 155236.31
4+000.00 20 613.73 0.07 12492.1 1.3 1.495 12490.61 167726.91
4+020.00 20 437.64 0.04 10513.7 1.1 1.265 10512.44 178239.35
4+040.00 20 146.82 0.06 5844.6 1 1.15 5843.45 184082.80
4+049.73 9.73 0 0 714.2793 0.2919 0.335685 713.94 184796.74
57
6.3.1 MASS-HAUL DIAGRAM

A mass-haul diagram or curve is drawn subsequent to the calculation of earthwork
volumes, its ordinates showing cumulative volumes at specific points along the centre line. It is a
graphical representation of the amount of earth work and embankment involved in a project and
the manner in which the earth is to be moved.
In other words, mass haul diagram is a continuous curve showing the accumulated
algebraic sum of the cut (positive) and fill (negative) volume from some initial station for any
succeeding section. The horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is usually expressed in meters
or stations. The vertical or y- axis represents the cumulative volume (quantity) of earth work in
cubic meter. The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive, and
embankment is negative.
To draw the mass haul diagram it is convenient to tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fill
at each station.
Characteristics of Mass haul Curve:

1. Rising sections of the mass curve indicates areas where excavating exceeds fill, whereas falling
sections indicate where fill exceeds excavation.
2. Steep slopes reflect heavy cuts & fills, while flat slopes indicate areas of small amount of
earthwork.
3. The difference in ordinates between any two points indicates net excess of excavation over
embankment or vice versa.
4. Any horizontal line drawn to intersect two points within the same curve indicates a balance of
excavation (cut) and embankment (fill) quantities between the two points.
5. Points of zero slopes represent points where roadway goes from cut to fill or from fill to cut.
6. The highest or the lowest point of the mass haul diagram represents the crossing points between
the grade line (roadway level) and natural ground level.
USES OF MASS HAUL DIAGRAM
✓ If mass haul is drawn for each trial grade line it can be used for selecting the most
economical gradient.
✓ Once the formation level is designed it can be used to indicate the most economical method
of moving the earth.
✓ proper distribution of excavated material
✓ To know amount and location of waste
✓ To know amount and location of borrow
✓ To compute the amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
58
✓ To know the direction of haul
59
-1000000.00
-800000.00
-600000.00
-400000.00
-200000.00
0.00
200000.00
400000.00
0+000.00
0+100.00
0+200.00
0+300.00
0+400.00
0+500.00
0+600.00
0+700.00
0+800.00
0+900.00
1+000.00
1+100.00
1+140.00
1+180.00
1+280.00
1+350.00
1+400.00
HIGH WAY ENGINEERING integral PROJECT
1+500.00
1+550.00
1+600.00
1+670.00
1+719.47
1+800.00
1+900.00
2+000.00
2+040.00
2+100.00
60
2+200.00
2+300.00
2+355.59
2+440.00
2+500.00
2+550.00
2+600.00
MASS HAUL DIAGRAM
2+681.27
2+730.00
2+773.36
2+860.00
2+910.00
2+980.00
3+080.00
3+180.00
3+280.00
3+320.00
3+370.00
3+420.00
3+470.00
3+520.00
3+570.00
3+610.00
3+660.00
3+740.00
3+800.00
3+860.00
February 19, 2019
3+960.00
4+049.73
CHAPTER SEVEN
7. TRAFFIC SURVEY AND ANALYSIS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The traffic volume is one of the parameters used for determination of design standards.
Collection of traffic data and estimation of future traffic composition, traffic volume and traffic
growth rate should be carried out carefully and precisely. So, the actual traffic encountered will
be as expected and this reduces the effect of over dosing (traffic congestion). In addition, over
estimation lead to uneconomical design and often causes wastage of national resource. Among
the various elements the following are based on traffic forecast:
1) Design speed
2) Geometry of the road
3) Drainage system
4) Pavement type and thickness
7.2 Traffic Volumes

✓ Vehicle Classification
Classified volume count for each category of vehicle that is According to ERA 2002
pavement design manual chapter 2 of table 2.2. The types of vehicles are defined according to the
Breakdown adopted by ERA for traffic counts: cars; pick-ups and 4-wheel drive vehicles Such as
Land Rovers and Land Cruisers; small buses; medium and large size buses; small trucks; medium
trucks; heavy trucks; and trucks and trailers. This breakdown is further simplified, for reporting
purposes, and expressed in the five classes of vehicles (with vehicle codes 1 to 5).
7.3 Base Line Traffic Flow

Assume the road is design for the following initial traffic volume in terms of AADT
(Average annual daily traffics) have been established for 2005 EC for a section of a trunk road
under study, as follows,
Vehicle classification 2005 AADT

Car 250
Bus 40
Trunk 130
Trunk-trailer 180
✓ The anticipated traffic growth is a constant 5% and the opening of the road is scheduled for
2006 EC.
7.4 Traffic Forecast
61
Even with stable economic conditions, traffic forecasting is an uncertain process. Although
the pavement design engineer may often receive help from specialized professionals at this stage
of the traffic evaluation, some general remarks are in order. To forecast traffic growth.
✓ From ERA manual the project AADTs in 2006 can be calculated as follows and the
corresponding one directional volume for each class of vehicles in 2006 EC.
AADT1 = AADT0(1+i) x
Where AADT1=Average annual daily traffics for 2006
AADT0=Average annual daily traffics for 2005
i=anticipated traffic growth=5%=0.05
X=period of construction =1
AADT1 = AADT0 (1+i) x
=250(1+0.05)1 =263
Vehicle classification Two-directional traffic One – directional traffic
volume volume
Car 263 132
Bus 42 21
Truck 137 69
Truck-trailer 189 95
✓ for AADT 631 Trunk road is selected, from ERA Geometric manual-2013.
✓ From ERA manual Equivalency factors for the sample of truck-trailers, and a mean
equivalency factor for that class of heavy vehicles,
𝐴𝑋𝐿𝐸𝑖 𝑛
Equivalency factor = ( 8160 )
Where AXLEi = mass of axle i
62
n= a power factor that varies depending on the pavement construction type

and subgrade but which can be assumed to have a value of 4.5
Vehicle Axle 1 Axle2 Axle3 Axle4 Total

No Load factor Load factor Load Factor Load factor factor
1 6780 0.43 14150 11.91 8290 1.07 8370 1.12 14.54
2 6260 0.30 12920 7.91 8090 0.96 9940 2.43 11.60
3 6350 0.32 13000 8.13 8490 1.20 9340 1.84 11.49
4 5480 0.17 12480 6.77 7940 0.88 9470 1.95 9.77
5 6450 0.35 8880 1.46 6290 0.31 10160 2.68 4.80
6 5550 0.18 12240 6.20 8550 1.23 10150 2.67 10.28
7 5500 0.17 11820 5.30 7640 0.74 9420 1.91 8.12
8 4570 0.07 13930 11.10 2720 0.01 2410 0.00 11.18
9 4190 0.05 15300 16.92 3110 0.01 2450 0.00 16.99
10 4940 0.10 15060 15.76 2880 0.01 2800 0.01 15.88
❖ Mean equivalency factor for truck-trailers = 11.74
For similar manner the Axle load for each vehicle and the equivalency factors are
calculated. But in our case assume the equivalency factor for Buses and trucks of 0.14 and 6.67
respectively.
✓ The cumulative No of ESAs (Equivalent single Axle loads) over the design period is
calculated as follows, using the cumulative number of vehicles previously calculated and
the equivalency factors: the design period is 20 years, the cumulative number of vehicles
in one- direction over the design period is calculated as:
T = 365 AADT1[(1+i) N – 1] / (i)
✓ Vehicle Classification Cumulative No of vehicle in one-direction over 20 years Car
T=365*132[(1+0.05)20-1]/0.05=1593118
Vehicle Cum.No.vehicles Equivalency ESAs (106)

Classification factor
Car 1593118 0.00 0.0
Bus 253451 0.14 0.035
Truck 832766 6.67 5.56
Truck-trailer 1146562 11.47 13.15
Total ESAs =18.75
63
✓ From ERA manual the traffic class:

✓ Table 2-5: Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design
Traffic classes Range (106 ESAs)

T1 < 0.3
T2 0.3 - 0.7
T3 0.7 - 1.5
T4 1.5 - 3.0
T5 3.0 - 6.0
T6 6.0 - 10
T7 10 - 17
T8 17– 30
✓ Based on the above analysis and ERA manual the truck road under study would belong to
traffic class T8 for flexible pavement design.
✓ From the subgrade strength the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of our soil is 20%, So from
ERA manual, it classified as S5.
Class Range (CBR %)

S1 2
S2 3-4
S3 5-7
S4 8-14
S5 15-29
S6 30>
Let as assume Granular road base materials are available in the site. So, from four given
alternative design pavement thickness we select on depend on the following criteria’s: -
✓ Availability of material
✓ Economic
❖ But because of limitation of data we are assuming that granular materials are available in
the site. So, depend on the above criteria we select pavement design thickness which found
in chart 5.
From the above chart the traffic class T8 and S5, So the
thickness of the surfacing material is 15cm bituminous
surface, 25cm Granular road base, 10cmselected
material.
64
CHAPTER EIGHT
8 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Highway drainage is the process of collecting, transporting and disposing

excess surface and sub-surface water within the right of way. It includes
interception and diversion of water from the road surface and sub-grade. During
rains part of the rain water flows on surface and part of it percolates through the
soil mass as gravitational water until it reaches the ground water below the water
table. Removal and diversion of surface water from the roadway and adjoining
land is termed as surface drainage. Structures that provide for surface drainage
include Shoulder, Side Ditches, Cross‐sectional Ditches Culverts and Bridges.
Diversion or removal of excess soil-water from the sub grade is termed as sub-
surface drainage.
The serviceability of a highway is greatly dependent up on the adequacy

of its drainage system. Good drainage design implies good highway location that
avoid poor drained areas, unstable soil, frequently flooded area and unnecessary
stream crossing. Drainage costs 20_25% of the total highway cost.
Requirements of highway drainage system
▪ Surface water from carriageway and shoulder should effectively be drained.

▪ Surface water from adjoining land should be prevented from entering the
road.
▪ Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes
shouldn’t cause formation of cross ruts or erosion
▪ Seepage and other sources of underground water should be drained off by
the subsurface drainage system
▪ In water logged areas special precautions should be taken
Some common consideration in drainage design;
❖ Rain fall intensity: The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in
mm/hr for duration equal to the time of concentration for a selected return
65
period. Once a particular return period has been selected for design and a time
of concentration calculated for the catchment area.
❖ Time of concentration: The time of concentration is the time required for
water to flow from the hydraulically most remote point of the catchment area
to the point under investigation.
❖ Run off coefficient: difference between amount of rainfall and loss due to
infiltration, evaporation, transpiration, interception & storage
❖ Shoulder gutter: A shoulder gutter may be appropriate to protect fill slopes
from erosion caused by water from the carriageway pavement. A shoulder
gutter shall be considered on fill slopes higher than 5 meters at a side slope of
2:1 or elsewhere where slopes may be subject to erosion. In areas where
permanent vegetation cannot be established, shoulder gutter shall be provided
on fill slopes higher than 3 meters.
8.2 Surface Drainage

Hydrological study: To determine amount of water
Hydraulic study: To design the drainage facility Hydrological study
The main purpose of the hydrological and hydraulics study and analysis
for this Road is to compute and evaluate peak discharges at crossings and all
other natural or manmade hydraulic conveyances along the route and determine
the minimum dimensions or opening sizes drainage structures that required to
pass the design discharges with appropriate consideration on safety and
economy but also with no or minimal adverse effects on the local community
and environment due to alteration of the natural drainage. The Peak discharge of
a waterway for a certain design period is a function of factors which include
intensity and duration of rainfall on its catchment cover and land use
Hydrological study
Methods to determine surface runoff
➢ Rational method (Lloyed‐Daves) ≤ 10 km2
➢ Talbot method (10 –100 km2)
By determining catchment area is A= length of road *width of catchment.
66
Step 1) Discharge design (Q)

The Talbot method estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a
catchment area as a function of the catchments area, runoff coefficient, and
means rainfall intensity
Q = 33.6 * K (C1 + C2 + C3) √A
Where:
Q= Discharge (m3/sec)
A= Catchment area (km2)
k= Coefficient depending on size of basin area
C1= Coefficient of vegetation
C2= Coefficient of slope
C3= Coefficient of shape of catchment area
Step 2) Design side ditch
By selecting trapezoidal cross section of side ditch since it is efficient,
economical and easy for construction.
The recommended velocity which cause neither erosion nor sedimentation we

take v = depending on soil type ditch from ERA table
From Q=A*V; A=Q/V
From Manning’s formula:-

V=1/n*R2/3*S1/2, where n from table of ERA manual for rough concrete.
S is the slope of side ditch which is equal to the longitudinal slope of the road.
By selecting trapezoidal cross section
67
m=√(1/3)
h=0.202m plus freeboard
𝐴
h=0.25m b= − 𝑚ℎ
ℎ
B = b+2mh
P=2h (2√(1+m2)-m)
Step 3) Culvert design
A culvert is a structure that is designed hydraulically to take advantage of
submergence to increase hydraulic capacity. It is also a structure used to convey
surface runoff through embankments. A culvert can be a structure, as
distinguished from bridges, that is usually covered with an embankment and is
composed of structural material around the entire perimeter. These include steel
and concrete pipe culverts and concrete box culverts. However, a culvert can also
be a structure supported on spread footings with the streambed serving as the
bottom of the culvert. These include some multi-plate steel structures and
concrete slab culverts. In addition, a culvert can be a structure that is 6 meters or
less in centerline span length or between the extreme ends of openings for
multiple boxes
In our design we determine:-
• Type of culvert
• Capacity of culvert
• Load imposed on culvert
From manning equation
𝐴
Qd= R2/3 S1/2
𝑛
68
We select circular concrete type culvert.Depending on the

Concrete P
material of construction different veocity values are given Since
i
the selected material for our culvert is concrete, the limiting
velocity is 2m/s
A=πr2
R=A/P= πr2/2πr = r/2
Qd=2Q
𝐴
Qd= R2/3 S1/2
𝑛
Step 4) pressure design due to external load
i. Over burden pressure

in ridged pipe which is cast from concerete
p=kγB2
Where:
p = Applied pressure per meter
1 k = A Coefficient (Value depends on type of pipe &
≤ .
5 characteristic of foundation and backfill)
B = Trench width ( m )
γ = Unit weight of the back fill (KN/m3)
D = Diameter of pipe or culvert ( m )
The trench width is 1.3 m
By considering a soil type of dry sand gravel so we take

Pc=kγB2
δc = Pc/D
ii. Traffic load transmitted to the culvert

δz=(F/2π) * (3Z3 /(r2+z2)5/2
69
3
𝐹 (𝜋)
2
= + 𝑟
𝑍(2)! (1+( )2)∗5/2
Where
F=Concentrated load from traffic
δz=Stress induced to the culvert
Step 5 Analysis thickness of pipe

t = ṔD/2δall
Ṕ=δc +δz
70
CHAPTER NINE
9. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
9.1 Conclusion
➢ The project is very useful to know deeply about geometric design and earth work of
high way; due to this we encounter so many problems to select the best route.
➢ Next to these, safe and economical geometric alignment design is provided based on
the limits set by ERA2013manual and engineering judgments which are related to
the condition of the project. Survey data and hydrological data are the basic to do the
design.
➢ Thirdly, providing appropriate gradients, which is the basic factor which controls
economy and aesthetic as well as drainage of the highway.
➢ In addition to the above, clear and precise working drawings and typical sections,
where ever necessary,
➢ The geometric design and earth work extremely depends on the topography, soil type,
alignment of the route, design speed and other environmental factors.
➢ Volume and cost of earth work can be reduced by selecting gradients that are close
to the natural terrain. In addition, rough estimations must be done during the
alignment of the route.
➢ We were interested to revise our work and come the best design with respect to
balance user and highway cost and to minimize technical errors. But, lack of time
limits us to this degree.
➢ We tried to get best design regarding the given conditions and got satisfactory
knowledge about high way design. Hence, the aim of the project is achieved
71
9.2 Recommendation and suggestions
➢ Since we did not visit the road location and topography we may leave some
important considerations which are essential for our road design. So it is better
to students to practice design a project which is nearly available. This may
help them to conceptualize the real work.
➢ The survey data we used are not enough to design the road correctly. Better
complete survey data is important in order to get best design.
➢ To design a safe and economical highway through the desired design period,
deep studies on the social and environmental factors and traffic volume
should be done.
➢ We have limited knowledge of Eagle point software, drainage design and

some others. So it is better to address such courses before doing this type of
project
➢ To properly evaluate the alternative routes and select the best possible route
full data such as geological and hydrological data should be provided.
➢ To do the alignments, proper surveying data for both horizontal and vertical
curves should be given.
➢ Providing appropriate gradients, which balance the amount of earth work and
other factors which is a basic factor which controls economy and aesthetics
as well as drainage of the highway.
➢ Calculation of the volume of earth work and drawing of mass haul diagram is
done to determine the economical over haul distance and total cost of earth
work. Hence careful attention should be given to this part of the work.
72
Reference
❖ ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY. Drainage Design Manual, 2013.

❖ ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY. Geometric Design Manual, 2013.
❖ ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY. Pavement Design Manual, Volume 1
Flexible Pavements and Gravel Roads-2013.
❖ Traffic and Highway Engineering, 4th edition, Nicholas J. Garber Lester A. Hoel University
of Virgini
73
APPENDEX
Horizontal alignment
i
Cross section
ii
Typical section
iii
Profile of vertical alignment
iv

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HIGH WAY ENGINEERING integral PROJECT February 19, 2019

The reasons behind are,

✓ Connecting nation to nation

Some of the disadvantages are,

In general, when a road is designed the following considerations are done.

The main objective of this work is to:-

 To develop integration and communication skills in a group project working.

2. ROUTE SURVEY AND SELECTION

D) Drawings and report

2.2 Selection of the Best Route

✓ It has least gradient

3.1 Functional classifications of Road

I. Trunk Roads (Class I)

II. Link Roads (Class II)

III. Main Access Roads (Class III )

IV. Collector Roads (Class IV)

V. Feeder Roads (Class V)

3.2 Terrain type

Transverse Up to 5% 5 % -25% 25 % - 50% Excess of

Table 4.1. Terrain classification

ELEVATION WIDTH SLOPE % TERRIAN

0+420 2971.24 2944.47 2950.26 50 41.96 MOUNTNAUS

1+240 2884.18 2912.64 2913.42 50 58.48 ESCARPMENT

2+060 2910 2941.56 2951.68 50 83.36 ESCARPMENT

2+880 2908.12 2915.86 2921.12 50 26 MOUNTNAUS

3+700 2915.04 2913.79 2922.68 50 15.28 ROLLING

4+520 2915.01 2887.35 2892.61 50 44.8 MOUNTNAUS

3.3 DESIGN VEHICLE

Table 4.2. Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics

Design Design Overall (m) Overhang Wheelbase Min.

Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4= 13.7

3.4 Design speed

Table4.3. Design speed

Design Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-

Design km/h 85 70 60 50(3) 50

3.5 TRAFFIC FLOW, VOLUME AND CAPACITY

3.6 ENVIROMENTAL FACTOR

4.1 CARRIAGE WAY

4.4 Normal cross- fall

4.5 SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES

Table4.6. Side slope ratios

4.6 RIGHT OF WAY

5.1 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

e=maximums super elevation

Table4.8. Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Super elevation

Design Speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

Elements of a Circular Curve

1 .Δ: Deflection Angle by Arc Definition (in degrees)

2. R: Radius of Curve by Arc Definition

7. C (Chord from P.C. to P.T.)

8. Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station

9. Point-of-Tangency (P.T.) Station

5.1.3 Widening on Curves and Embankments

Then total widening needed for n lanes of highway is given by:

The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius.

Number of horizontal curves and their location

No. curve Station Northing easting angle Distance

10 3+332.97 1295272 539557.5 NE37.5721 108.52

Design for sample Horizontal curve 1

Max super elevation, e=8%

Side friction coefficient, f=0.17

For DS-5 and escatpment terrain from ERA manual

=1+141.68m - 26.2m = 1+115.48m

5.1.5 Super elevation design

X= (SRC)/e = (432.5)/8 = 13.44

E 0+887.3= 2919.44 – 0.0718217.13 +0.0001616217.132