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3n + 2 ≥ 3n * 3n + 2 = Ω(n) :2222
. n ≥ 1 <) BBBB) *BBBB
100 n + 6 ≥ 100 n * 100 n + 6 = Ω ( n )
2 2
. n ≥ 1 <) B B
10 n + 4 n + 2 ≥ n * 10n + 4n + 2 = Ω(n )
B) *B
2 2

. n ≥ 1 <) ) *
6* 2n + n2 ≥ 2n * 6* 2n + n2 = Ω(2n )

B
B8, a m > 0  f ( n ) = a m n + .... + a 1 n + a 0 *B
B
 :2
m
2 
f ∈ Ω (n m )

14


 
  
:

1 

  

 

B 7 & B

,
&,


*
&
 g *% : [Theta] Θ( g ) 1   
/ Θ ( g ) = O ( g ) ∩ Ω ( g ) B8, . &

& " "

,
&,

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AB % *B
) . Ω ( g )  O ( g ) *B
  
%% %
4
%
&,

/ *) <)
#(  7 C  , c1, c2 *
* " " *% 
 "
 f ∈ Θ (g )
n ≥ n0  ) *
c1 g ( n ) ≤ f ( n ) ≤ c 2 g ( n ) Q"% H  n0

) *
3n + 2 ≤ 4n  n ≥ 2 <) ) *
3n + 2 ≥ 3n * 3n + 2 = Θ(n) :
2 2
. 10n + 4n + 2 = Θ(n ) . n0=2  c1=3, c2=4 *?B
BB B
BB%  n ≥ 2 <)
. 6* 2 + n = Θ(2 )
n 2 n

BB8, am > 0  f ( n ) = a m n m + .... + a 1 n + a 0 *BB
 :22 

f ∈ Θ (n m )

 B"
 f(n) = o(g(n)) &B

*% : [Little “oh”] o( g ) 1   
f (n )
lim = 0
n →∞ g (n)
*
3n + 2
LB
BBBBB  lim = 0 * 3n + 2 = o(n2 ) :2
22222
n → ∞ n 2

. 6*2
n
+n2 ≠ o(2n ) n 2 n

  6*2 +n = o(3 ) *) 
 . 3n + 2 = o(n log2 n)

"
 f(n) = w(g(n)) &

*% : [Little omega] w(g ) 1   
. lim g ( n ) = 0 . *

n →∞ f (n)

15


 
  
:

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(,
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B,
&,

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,
&,

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: & %
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& " "

: Transitivity <%
&  1

• f ∈ Θ(g ) and g ∈ Θ(h) then f ∈ Θ ( h )

• f ∈ O ( g ) and g ∈ O ( h ) then f ∈ O ( h )
• f ∈ Ω ( g ) and g ∈ Ω ( h ) then f ∈ Ω ( h )
• f ∈ o ( g ) and g ∈ o ( h ) then f ∈ o ( h )
• f ∈ w ( g ) and g ∈ w ( h ) then f ∈ w (h )

Reflexivity & (D
&  
2

• f ∈ Θ( f )
•
f ∈ O( f )
• f ∈ Ω( f )

: Symmetry & G%
&  
3

f ∈ Θ ( g ) if and only if g ∈ Θ ( f )

: Transpose Symmetry "


& G% &  
4

• f ∈ O (g ) if and only if g ∈ Ω ( f )
• f ∈ o(g ) if and only if g ∈ w( f )

16


 
  
:

1 

  

 


 #.
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o ( g ( n )) I w ( g ( n )) &,


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: 9 

*  &"

 a, b * " " * , *  &"

*  @9%  -

f (n) = O( g(n)) ≈ a≤b

f (n) = Ω( g (n)) ≈ a≥b
f (n) = Θ( g(n)) ≈ a=b
f (n) = o( g(n)) ≈ a<b
f (n) = w( g(n)) ≈ a >b
: %
9 *  =%
 

$, #"%
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% 
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H  c, n0, m0 &

 
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f (n, m) ≤ cg(n, m) &-O
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2n 2 + 3n +1 = 2n2 + f (n)
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2n + f (n) = g(n)
2

17


 
  
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#"%
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Floors &Ceilings ,)  8, 5

@ 
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BB @ 
  x <( ) ) C  , =)  x A"( 
) . x BB

. x

,)  8, 5 3

x −1 < x ≤ x ≤ x < x +1 : * x " " , <) ) *
1
n n
 2  +  2  = n :* n #
C  , <) ) *
2

: * n C  , <) *

 / *   7 a, b *   * , <) ) *
3
n  n 
a  n   a   n 
  =     =  
 b   ab   b   ab
   
    

Exponentials )9 5 3

: & %
"%

  n  m / a ≠ 0 & " " 
,) & O ) *


a0 = 1
a1 = a
1
a −1 =
a
(a m )n = a mn

18


 
  
:

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a ma n = a m + n
) *
: *    <) 
 
*
;() * #

(F
4%

 

b
b n
.n = o(a n ) *) <) lim n
= 0   b  a>1 * " "
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n → ∞ a

x " " , <) ) *

8, . !% 7$
4%
X() e = 2.71828…. %,

 
: 

x 2 x 2 ∞
x i
e x
= 1 + x +
2!
+
2!
+ ...... = ∑i=1 i!
x
C% . e ≥ 1 + x : &
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Q"%% / x " " , <) ) *
%
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) x = 0 * " 
, +
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&
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: %
# "%

1 + x ≤ ex ≤ 1 + x + x2
e x = 1 + x + Θ ( x 2 ) : * & O
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,

Logarithms
 :" 3

:   n  a > 0, b > 0, c > 0 & " "

,
) *



a = blogb a
log c ( ab ) = log c a + log c b
log c ( a n ) = n log c a
log c a
log b a =
log c b
1
log b ( ) = − log b a
a

19


 
  
:

1 

  

 

1
log b a =
log a b

a log b n
= n log b a

: 9 |x| < 1 

, ln(1+x) 4%
9
 
x2 x3 x4 x5
ln( 1 + x ) = x − + − + − .......
2 3 4 5

Factorials +"  5

: 9 n! A / #(  7 "  "
, n *  
1 if n = 0
n! = 
 n .( n − 1 )! if n > 0
n! = 1.2.3……n *) <)
:%
9 Stirling # "% #( n! % -
n n 1
n!= 2π n ( ) (1 + Θ ( ))
e n

Fibonacci Numbers +7- 1*

: & 
&-O 9%  
,) A%

0 if i = 0

fi = 1 if i = 1
f + f if i > 1
 i −1 i −2
&$($(
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* 
;

*
3% 9%  
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,) A% & %

: & %
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@) 


20


 
  
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1 

  

 

φ − φˆ i
i
fi = , i = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , ....... where
5
1+ 5 1− 5
φ = = 1 . 61803 ....., φˆ = = − 0 . 61803 .....
2 2

21


 
  
:

1 

  

 

  %  101

: & %
& 


4"
$ 

 "%
) :1% 
1 for (int i=1; i<=n; i++) 1 int i=1;
2 for (int j=1; j<=i; j++) 2 while (i<=n){
3 for (int k=1; k<=j ; k++) 3 x++; i++;
4 x++ ; 4 }
(a) (b)

: & %

$ 


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) :2% 
void D(int x[], int n)
{
int i = 1;
do{
x[i] += 2; i+=2; }
} while (i<= n )
i = 1;
while (i <=(n/2) {
x[i] += x[i+1]; i++;
}
}

void Transpose (int a[][] , int n)

{
for (int i =1; i<=n ; i++)
for (int j = i+1; j<=n; j++){
int t = a[i][j] ; a[i][j] = a[j][i]; a[j][i]=t;
}
}

void mystery (int n)

22


 
  
:

1 

  

 

{
int i, j, k;
int r = 0;
for(i=1; i<=n-1; i++)
for (j = i+1; j<=n; j++)
for (k=1; k<=j; k++)
r = r+1;
}

void pesky (int n)

{
int i, j, k;
int r = 0;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
for (j = 1; j<= i; j++)
for (k=j; k<=i+j; k++)
r = r+1;
}
void pestiferous (int n)
{
int i, j, k,l;
int r = 0;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
for (j = 1; j<= i; j++)
for (k=j; k<=j+i; k++)
for (l=1; k<= i+j-k; l++)
r = r+1;
}
void conundrum (int n)
{
int i, j, k;
int r = 0;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
for (j = i+1; j<= n; j++)
for (k=i+j-1; k<= n; k++)
r = r+1;
}

23


 
  
:

1 

  

 

: &  & %
D

*) * [ :3% 
1. 17 = Θ (1 )
2. 5 n 2 − 6 n = Θ ( n 2 )
3. n! = O ( n 2 )
4. 2 n 2 2 n + n log 2 n = Θ ( n 2 2 n )
n
5. ∑i= 0
i k = Θ ( n k +1 )

6. 33 n 3 + 4 n 2 = Ω ( n 3 )

: &   7 & %
D


*) * [ :4% 
2
(a) 10 n + 9 = O ( n )
(b) n 2 log 2 n = Θ(n 2 )
n2
(c) = Θ (n 2 )
log 2 n

: (growth rate) 1

 
#( & %
4
%
#% :5% 
n 1
n, n , log2 n, log2 log2 n, log2 2 n, , n log2 2 n, ( ) n ,
log2 n 3
3
( ) n , 17.
2
: $ 
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kf(n) = O(f(n)) *? "
"
, k *
 1
f(n)+g(n) = O(h(n)) *? g(n) = O(h(n))  f(n) = O(h(n)) *
 2
: *? T2(n) = O(g(n))  T1(n) = O(f(n)) *
 3
T1(n)+T2(n) = O(max((f(n),g(n))) L  T1(n)T2(n) = O(f(n)g(n))

24


 
  
:

1 

  

 

8, g ( n) = 1 + c + c + ...... + c  "
" " " , c *
 * [  :7 % 
2 n

: *
L  / c<1 *
 g ( n) = Θ(1)
* "I )  / c=1 *
 g ( n) = Θ( n)
. c>1 *
 g ( n) = Θ(c n )

: H  B(x)  A(x) 

  *  :8% 

n n
A[ x ] = ∑
i= 0
ai x i , B[ x] = ∑bx
j=0
i
i

P[ x ] = A[ x ] * B [ x ] 2

#( !"% & 8
 &
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1 : #$



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25


 
  
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15 8 1 24 17
16 14 7 5 23
22 20 13 6 4
3 21 19 12 10
9 2 25 18 11

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26