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 25 Postharvest Technology
A.P. Rodiño, J. Kumar, M. De La Fuente, A.M. De Ron and M. Santalla
25.1 Introduction
The grain legumes constitute an important
dietary constituent for humans and animals.
They are considered as ‘vegetarian’s meat’
because of the high protein content (15–34%,
depending on species), which is double that
of wheat and three times that of rice. The grain
legumes are generally consumed as natu-
ral food products in form of whole grains or
de-hulled or split grains. Therefore, size and
shape of seeds, seed coat appearance, colour,
cotyledon colour and uniformity are important
for markets. Besides postharvest maintenance
of grain legumes during storage, processing
and marketing help to determine quality and
minimize yield losses. Most of the commer-
cial technologies available for this purpose
are either obsolete or inadequate and result
in heavy losses due to breakage and powder-
ing of the grain. Successful efforts have been
made to develop improved technologies to
reduce losses and improve product quality.
Postharvest technologies help agro-insturies
in making legume grains more preferable to
consumers. Moreover, development of this
industry would provide additional rural
employment, improve nutritional standards,
bring a better price to the grower and ensure
supplies at lower prices to the consumer.
Postharvest processing of grain legumes
necessitates a series of mechnical separations,
©CAB International 2011. Biology and Breeding of Food Legumes
(eds A. Pratap and J. Kumar)
Pratap_Ch25.indd 385
milling operations and modifications for
preparing the processed foods for consump-
tion. The grain legume processing industry
incorporates three major components.
1. Primary processing, i.e. cleaning, drying,
storage, packaging, etc. Raw materials are
purified by removal of foreign matter and
immature grain, and are then prepared for
grading and secondary processing.
2. The secondary processing stage mostly
involves de-hulling, splitting, sorting and pol-
ishing of grains, i.e. processing of the raw mate-
rial into product s suitable for food uses or
consumption after cooking, roasting, frying, etc.
3. Tertairy processing, which involves further
processing of legume grains into useful food
products, i.e. value addition and creation of
ready-to-eat forms.
In this chapter, the first two components
of postharvest processing are dealt with while
the third is discussed in detail in Chapter 26.
25.2 Basic Considerations
for Postharvest Processing
Preharvest management
Environmental conditions experienced
during the growing season may change the
385
5/21/2011 1:13:20 PM
 386 A.P. Rodiño et al.
physical properties of grains, leading to loss
of quality and quantity during postharvest
processing. Preharvest management of crops
can minimize these losses and improve the
grain quality. For example in lentil, alternat-
ing wet and dry periods during late stages
of maturity can cause wrinkling, colour loss
and brittle seed coat which, in turn, contrib-
ute to damage during storage and posthar-
vest handling. Chemical desiccation of the
crop prior to harvest may also be a factor in
the finding of brittle seeds coats that chip
and spilt more easily (Vandenberg, 2009).
Quality in cowpea beacomes a serious
problem if rainfall occurs soon after matu-
rity, and therefore preharvest fungicide
sprays can be of benefit in preventing this.
For avoidance of the grain damage, this
crop should be harvested well before too
much drying can occur and the drum speed
kept low (250–300 rpm) in mechanized har-
vesting, to avoid splitting and cracking of
grains (Cameron, 1999). Thus preharvest
management of legume grain crops should
be taken into consideration for obtaining
improved quality and quantity in posthar-
vest products.
Threshing
Primary processing starts with pod thresh-
ing and de-hulling of the whole seeds. In
India, the threshing of food legumes is
usually carried out manually using long,
wooden sticks, thereby increasing grain
damage. Advances in postharvest technol-
ogy have made available threshing machin-
ery that separates the seeds from the pods.
However, it is necessary that crops have
optimum moisture content in their grains
in order to minimize threshing damage. It
has been observed in harvested soybean
of < 12% moisture that losses through
mechanical damage may be high, while in
chickpea the degree of dryness determines
its susceptibility to cracking. Therefore,
the careful setting of drum speeds, con-
veyors and augers on threshing machines
is required (http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/
fieldcrops/3251.html).
Pratap_Ch25.indd 386
Storage conditions
Before primary processing, the harvested
grain legumes are stored in steel bins, jute
bags, earthen pots, mud bins, bamboo bas-
kets or in other types of receptacles at farmer,
trader and industry levels. Appropiate tech-
nologies for handing and storage have been
developed (Ali and Srivastava, 1993). It has
been observed that the initial conditions of
the storage environment may have an impact
on processing quality of legume grains: high
temperature, humidity, light and moisture
content are all involved in the changing the
seed coat colour (an important factor in mar-
keting of grain legumes for consumption).
For example, when the seed coat of green
lentil is exposed to moderately high tem-
peratures (20–30°C) at high relative humid-
ity (RH) (100%), it slowly turns from green to
an oxidized brown colour in 3 weeks or less.
Studies have been conducted to optimize
moisture levels during storage (Cenkowski
et al., 1989; Tang et al., 1994), and it has been
observed that a cool temperature (5°C) with
100 % RH can prevent browning for up to
5 weeks (Nordstorm and Sistrunk, 1979;
Nozzolillo and De Bezada, 1984). Storage of
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) at 1°C and 30%
RH retained their original colour for one year,
while 24°C and 80% RH accelerated darken-
ing (Hughes and Sandsted, 1975; Edmister
et al., 1990; Gunes and Lee, 1997). Even at a
moderately low temperature (10°C), darken-
ing was slow in adzuki bean (Vigna angularis;
Yousif et al., 2003).
In faba bean (Vicia faba L.), postharvest
darkening reduces its market value (Hughes
and Sandsted, 1975); it has been observed
that faba bean seeds darken rapidly and
phenolic content falls when stored at higher
temperature, moisture and light intensity
(Nasar-Abbas et al., 2009). In chickpea also,
temperatures ranging from 33 to 35°C and
75% RH for 160 days caused darkening of the
testa (Reyes-Moreno et al., 2000). The moisture
content during storage is one of the important
factors affecting the quality of grain for pri-
mary and secondary processing; serious losses
in milling quality may result during shelling
of groundnut when kernels are dried below
7% moisture content (by weight) or stored at
5/21/2011 1:13:20 PM
 Postharvest Technology 387

a temperature below 7°C. Therefore, for bulk phosphine tablets, which are neither safe nor
storage of unshelled groundnuts, it is impor- effective for maintaining grain quality.
tant to maintain at least 7.5% kernel moisture
content and store them at 10°C and 65% RH.
Under these conditions, unshelled groundnuts 25.3 Primary Processing
can be stored without significant loss in qual-
ity for about 10 months (http://www.vasat.
Primary processing involves the cleaning
icrisat.org/?q=node/190). In North America,
of legume grains and their separation into
lentil matures during the cooler season, and
desired quality classes on the basis of physi-
therefore it becomes necessary to reduce the
cal properties such as diameter, thickness,
moisture content immediately after harvest
density and grain colour. Therefore, impor-
using aeration fans in the bins. In general,
tant physical properties including surface
storage of pulses (legume grain crops) is safe
area and volume have been studied in several
at 10–20% moisture (Ali, 2004).
crops, including chickpea (Konak et al., 2002),
Mechanical dryers using biomass, solar
cowpea (Ige, 1977; Yalcin, 2007), soyabean
energy and electrical energy are now avail-
(Deshpande et al., 1993), pea (Yalcin et al.,
able, but sun drying is the most common
2007) and lentil (Carman, 1996).
practice. Farmers expose their legume grains
The cleaning phase uses various
to sunshine at various intervals after stor-
screens, air flows, separators and de-stoning
age to reduce moisture content (Giga et al.,
mechanisms to remove unwanted organic
1992). Alternatively, solarization by solar
or inorganic matter. Specific machinery
heaters can be used where lethal tempera-
for large-scale primary processing has
tures are required to kill all insects. For exam-
been developed, and modifications used
ple, 65°C is required to kill all life stages of
for processing include those to elevators,
Callosobruchus maculatus, the cowpea storage
conveyors and storage systems in order
insect (Murdock and Shade, 1991). Solar heat-
to reduce damage to both grain and seed-
ers are now available for this purpose, being
coat, and to maintain high visual quality.
suitable for treating small quantities of cow-
For example, in most of the food legumes
pea (25–50 kg), but it is imperative they be
including lentil, the primary processs begins
used correctly in order to heat the grains suf-
with storage and with bagging of cleaned
ficiently and for long enough to kill all insects
grains (Vandenberg, 2009). The operations
without losing quality.
required between these processes are highly
Grain legumes are more prone to insect
variable and flexible, in accordance with the
and pest attack during storage than cereals,
economics of meeting consumer demand.
and are hence more difficult to store. Milling
Since the level of grain quality is based on
losses in insect-damaged grain are even
specific diameter, thickness, colour, damage
higher, as more breakage and powdering
and admixture specifications, shape, density
occurs with such grains. In Ghana, a study
and hardness, these physical parameters
demonstrated that the level of damage due
are used when setting machine parameters
to insects during storage reached up to 60%
(Sahay, 2003). The general procedure used in
in cowpea and 15–20% in bambara nut. It has
primary processing is outlined in Fig. 25.1
been demonstrated through trials that tra-
and discussed briefly below.
ditional methods such as the application of
either shea nut butter or a mixture of ash and
chilli powder can reduce damage levels to 5%
(equivalent to a weight loss of only 1%); these Cleaning
methods make a significant contribution to
household food security. Fumigation with The threshed grains are generally impure,
phosphine before storage of cowpea grains due to the presence of straw, stones, inert
has been shown more useful in treating sacks matter, etc. Traditionally in rural areas, sieves
of grain than traditionally used chemicals, are used for small-scale primary processing.
including rat poison, pesticide sprays and The simplest cleaning method in soybean

Pratap_Ch25.indd 387 5/21/2011 1:13:20 PM

 388 A.P. Rodiño et al.

Operations Activities

Stored uncleaned grain Storage of legume grains in specific

conditions required for crop

Pre-cleaning Removal of coarse and fine materials based

on stationary screens

Air cleaning Use of a combination of air, gravity and

screens to remove chaff, straw and dust
and to separate grains on the
basis of size, shape and density

Indent cleaning Grains uniform in diameter are separated

Gravity separation Separation of grains based on specific

weight

De-stoming Removal of heavier materials like stones,

glass and metal

Grading Grains are graded on the basis of size and

colour as per customer demands

Packaging The cleaned and graded grains are packaged

into bags, containers, bulk containers, etc.
for delivery

Fig. 25.1. General outline of steps involved in the primary processing of legume grains (modified from
Vandenberg, 2009).

involves tossing the beans into the air and
letting the wind carry off the lightest impuri-
ties; however, this cleaning method does not
eliminate the heavier impurities. Improving
legume quality is best achieved mechani-
cally, principally with the air-screen sepa-
rator that uses a combination of air, gravity
and screens to separate seeds based on size,
shape and density. Models equipped with
vibrating screens and replaceable sieves are
now commercially available. The mechanical
cleaning of lentil grains has been discussed in
detail by Vandenberg (2009). In general, the
basic principle used in cleaning grains can be
similary applied to other legumes, although
the size of the screen mesh will vary with
the size and shape of the grain. Adjustments
can be made to settings to achieve optimum
quality in the final product. For example, for
soyabean, adjustments to air speed, chaffer
and sieve settings can be made as required,
depending upon weather conditions. The set-
ting of the cleaning fan to provide maximum
air exposure without blowing the beans into
the return elevator or out from the back end
by adjustment of the chaffer allows the fan to
separate pods and stalk fragments from the
beans.
Following air-screening, indent clean-
ing is generally used for separating grains
by diameter into different sizes, for which
mechanical separators are commercially
available. Some machines have inbuilt air-
screen separators, which use a combina-
tion of air, gravity and screens to separate
grains based on size, shape and density.

Pratap_Ch25.indd 388 5/21/2011 1:13:20 PM

 Postharvest Technology
The primary aspiration drains off chaff,
straw, dust or decreased grains, then the
gravity separator cleans grains of similar
size but different weight. It can be used effec-
tively to remove partially eaten (for exam-
ple by storage insects), immature or broken
seeds to ensure maximum quality of the final
product. De-stoning machines are used to
separate heavier materials like stones, glass
and metal (Sahay, 2003; Vandenberg, 2009).
Cowpea grown as a dried pea product can
be directly combined using a platform head
or a row crop head. Adjustments to com-
bined settings, and possibly screen/sieve
sizes, should be made for the cowpea seed
(Quinn, 1999).
25.4 Secondary Processing
The cleaned and graded grains are proc-
essed further into various forms by sec-
ondary processing, of which de-hulling
or decortication is one of the main steps.
De-hulled grains are consumed as whole
or split grains in the form dhal. The recov-
ery of de-hulled grain after milling is often
called milling efficiency, defined in pulses
in various ways. Ehiwe and Reichert (1987)
defined it as percentage recovery of hull
and de-hulled grain yield during decortica-
tion. The terms milling efficency and have
been used by Wang (2005), who described
these as the percentage of whole and split
de-hulled grains and percentage recovery of
de-hulled whole grains, respectively, during
the process of decortication. A more precise
definition of de-hulling efficency is total
percentage recovered of split and unsplit
cotyledons with less than 2% hull during
decortication (Vandenberg, 2009).
De-hulling efficiency and loss are deter-
imed by several parameters that have been
optimized in several pulse crops. The de-
hulling index was studied in pigeon pea
using response surface methodology (RSM;
Phirke et al., 1996; Goyal et al., 2008), and
it has been reported that hot milling (heat
treatment after urea application) reduces
de-hulling time by 50% (Phirke et al.,
1996). Process parameters and enzymatic
Pratap_Ch25.indd 389
389
pretreatment were found to be optimized
using RSM in this crop (Verma et al., 1993).
Machine conditions for milling of pigeon
pea were optimized without considering the
time required for de-hulling (Mandhyan and
Jain, 1992). The carborundum number of de-
husking rollers has also been shown to affect
the recovery of de-hulling pigeon pea grain
(Sahay and Bisht, 1987).
The moisture content of grain plays an
important role in de-hulling, as efficiency
decreases with increases in moisture con-
tent (Ramakrishnaiah and Kurien, 1983).
The milling of dhal is the main secondary
processing procedure carried out in South
Asia, especially in India where around 75%
of total pulses are milled into dhal, mostly
by domestic, cottage and small- to medium-
scale industries. It represents the third largest
food grain processing industry in India after
rice and wheat. Ali (2004) observed that in
India there are around 11,000 dhal mills with
an average capacity of 10–20 t/day. However,
these mills do not follow standard process
because there is variation in pulse crops, vari-
eties, environments and treatments. In other
countries too, the milling of dhal is becoming
popular – Turkey, Sri Lanka, Egypt, Syria,
Canada, Australia and the United Arab
Emirates (Vandenberg, 2009). The use of the
chakki, a vertical stone, is common in India,
but it involves a high level of grain damage
(up to 20–45%) and poor-quality dhal (Ali,
2004). Thus efforts have been made at several
research centres in India to develop small-
capacity mills to achieve better recovery of
dhal. These low-cost machines are usually of
1–2 horsepower (HP), with de-hulling, split-
ting and aspiration capability; use of these
requires pretreatment of the grains with
various agents including water and oil, salts,
chemicals or heat alone or in combination,
in order to remove the pericarp (see below
for details). However, these mills have not
attained popularity among villagers, despite
their low cost and refined pretreatment
techniques.
The commercial de-hulling or dhal
mills comprise cleaning and grading units
and pitting, pretreatment and drying units.
The cost of these commercial mills depends
upon the capacity and degree of automation
5/21/2011 1:13:20 PM
 390 A.P. Rodiño et al.

Operations Activities
Cleaning and grading legume Product of primary processing is used.
grains
Pitting Abrasive roller machine is used to scratch grains for facilitating the entry
of oil/water in to the grains during pretreatments. This process is also
part of the de-hulling procedure.
Pretreatment with oil and water Pretreatments are given with edible oil/water/salt for loosening of husk.
or other agents Sometimes water and oil are applied simultaneously. This process
reduces the total time required in processing.
Tempering and steeping Legume grains are covered and left for 12–18 h for penetration of
oil/water into the cotyledons after oil/water mixing.
Drying For equilibrium of grain temperature and moisture following sun-drying,
generally for 1–5 days depending on weather conditions.
De-hulling and splitting The dried and pretreated grains are milled in an abrasive mill for remo-
ving the seed coat. Complete splitting needs many passes (generally
3–9) and hence de-husking is preferably achieved by subjecting the
grains to abrasive forces and splitting by attrition and/or impact. This
process results in whole grains, split grains and hulls.
Sieving For separating the fine hull from whole and split grains. This process is
also required to obtain the whole de-hulled grains.
Aspiration Husk is separated with aspiration and sold as live stock

Grading Unsplit and split de-hulled grains are graded on the basis of size and
colour as per costumer demand
Polishing Split/dhal/whole de-hulled grains are polished to add lustre and shine to
the product. Dhal is polished in different ways such as nylon polishing,
oil/water polishing, color polishing, but sometimes consumers prefer
unpolished dhal.
Packaging The graded split grains are packed into bags, containers or bulk
containers for delivery.

Fig. 25.2. Outline of general steps involved in secondary processing for de-hulling or dhal milling in legume
grains.

introduced for handling of materials. The
general procedure of secondary processing
for de-hulling is outlined in Figure 25.2.
The process of de-hulling begins with the
cleaned and graded grain product derived
from primary processing, and requires vari-
ous additional and optional steps that vary
greatly by plant.
In the decortication process of legume
grains, loosening of the binding between the
seed coat and cotyledon is required – usu-
ally a gum (such as galactomannan) or lignin
layer (Siegel and Fawcett, 1976). The variab-
lity in thickness and depth of this layer influ-
ences the binding strength (Muller, 1967), the
thickness being reported as low as 5% of the
seed in some varieties of cowpea and as high
as 30% in some lupin species (Kurien, 1984).
Lentil, chickpea, pea and lathyrus crops are
considered to be in the category of pulses
that are realtively easy to de-hull compared
with pigeon pea, green gram and back gram
(Muller, 1967). Therefore, pretreatment is
generally suggested to loosen the seed coat.
Singh (1995) reviewed various pretreatments
used in pigeonpea; commercial mills use ~1%
edible oil as pretreatment for loosening the
husk of those legume grains that are difficult
to mill (Singh, 1995; Sokhansanj and Patil,
2003). In black gram, the use of 0.85% oil
treatment with 90°C drying temperature has
been reported for maximum recovery of dhal
(Tiwari et al., 2005). The hot milling treatment
is optimal for obtaining maximum recovery

Pratap_Ch25.indd 390 5/21/2011 1:13:20 PM

 Postharvest Technology
of de-hulled grains in pigeon pea (Phirke
et al., 1996).
For dhal milling, grains are given an initial
‘pitting’ in the roller mill before pretreatment,
to crack the husk and thereby improve the
absorption of pretreatment agents. In the case
of black gram, the coating of wax and dust is
removed by initial scouring in a roller mill,
facilitating the absorption of water or oil.
Thus the steps of pitting, addition of water,
heating and cooling are designed to reduce
the natural binding of the seed coat to the
cotyledon.
The pretreated grains are then tempered
and dried, which aids penetration of oil/water
into the cotyledons, and grain temperature is
equilibrated after drying, natural sun-drying
is most commonly practised. The drying
period varies from one to five days, depend-
ing upon weather conditions. Some dhal mills
are equipped with dryers for continuous
operation, especially in the rainy season and/
or unfavourable weather conditions.
De-husking and splitting are the most
important unit operations of any dhal mill-
ing process; these are carried out either in
a single operation or, more advantageously,
as independent operations. The pretreated
grains are subjected to abrasive/scouring
forces for removal of husks and splitting
of cotyledons into two equal halves. The
chakki is used in some operations to de-husk
and split the grains. For the splitting of de-
husked and moistened grains, either the
vertical disk burr mill is used or grains are
allowed to fall on a hard or cemented sur-
face from sufficient height (Sahay, 2003). For
processing of split lentils, it is also possible to
use a second set of horizontal stone-milling
machinery that can be adjusted to produce
100% split products from de-hulled grains
(Vanderberg, 2009). Although moisture addi-
tion adversely affects husking, it helps in
splitting the grain, and thus water addition
prior to husking often leaves patches of husk
on the split cotyledons (dhal). These patches
have to be removed by scouring in polishing
machines. Husk separated by aspiration may
be used for livestock feed.
After milling the split and whole
grains are polished to remove fine dust,
as a means of improving the visual qual-
Pratap_Ch25.indd 391
391
ity of the product. Polishing with water is
common practice, and is accomplished in
same facilities by adding small amonuts to
the product stream as it passes in a horizon-
tally mounted screw-conveyer prior to bag-
ging. Adding a small amount of vegetable
oil to the product steam is also used for cer-
tain makets, the Middle East in particular.
In some cases, lentils are double-oiled for
specific markets. Oiling is also a traditional
method of preparation of de-hulled pulses
in South Asia. The practice is commonly
used in Africa and India at the household
level, and to control grain storage insects
such as Bruchus spp. occuring in Europe,
North Africa and South-west Asia.
Thermal processing in glass jars or
cans and infrared drying are other forms
of secondary processing (Cenkowski and
Sousulski, 1997; Vandenberg, 2009). European
and North American consumers are generally
more familiar with thermally processed pulse
products in ready-to-eat forms such as soup
and side dishes. Variations on the thermal
process include packaging of prepared dishes
in foil or plastic envelopes or bags. Thermal
processing may alter the nutritional profile,
depending to some extent on the temperature
used in the process and the chemical composi-
tion of the brine solution used in the canning
procedure (Singh and Diwaker, 1993). Infrared
drying is applied to rehydrate whole grains to
a moisture content of 19–39%; for this pupose,
an infrared wave length of 1000–1500 nm can
be used for rapid reduction of moisture con-
tent. Dehydration triggers changes to cooking
properties, reducing cooking time and alter-
ing starch gelatinization and solubilization
through changes in porosity and water dis-
persibility (Scanlon et al., 2005). This process
has been commercialized for whole lentils and
other grain products by Infraready Products
Ltd, to produce quick-cooking whole grains
(Vandenberg, 2009).
25.5. Grading and Packaging
Both cleaned grains with hull and whole
or split de-hulled grains are graded and
packed for consumers. Therefore, grading
5/21/2011 1:13:20 PM
 392 A.P. Rodiño et al.
and packaging operations are common steps
in both primary and seconday processing.
On the basis of consumer demand, cleaned
grains are graded for uniformity of specific
diameter or thickness of grain. This grading
is based on grain size, which can incur addi-
tional cost to the final product, and demand
for sizing can be very specific. As in the case
of lentil, consumers in Spain prefer to pay
extra for extra-large green lentils, and in
Bangladesh or other part of South Asia for
extra-small red lentils. The size of faba and
chickpea grains also determines consumer
preference, as large-seeded varieties require
longer cooking times than small-seeded
(Hsieh et al., 1998). To this end, efforts have
been made to develop sizing and grading
machines and now both, hand- and power-
operated graders are avaliable commercially
(Ali, 2004). In chickpea, separation of dhal
is carried out according to size and sound-
ness using rotating-reel graders, the sepa-
rate compartments of which have different
screen mesh pore sizes (Sahay, 2003).
The grading of legume grains is on the
basis of colour; machinery that sorts by col-
our is available, having been adapted from
other industries. A computerized image
analysis system has now been developed that
can grade the legume grains on the basis of
size, shape and colour, and this has been uti-
lized to evaluate the volume and surface area
of lentil, bean and pea (Kadlec et al., 2006;
Fıratıgil-Durmus et al., 2010). The basic prin-
ciple here is to compare the grain colour by
passage through sensors that are adjusted to
an acceptable predominant colour range, with
colours lying outside the selected range being
rejected by air-jetting (Vandenberg, 2009).
In Canadian lentil production this system is
often used, depending on the market price of
colour-sorted and -unsorted lentil.
After grading, legume food grains are
packed in polypropylene or jute bags as whole
grains or spilt forms. In Canada, the packag-
ing of whole lentil grains is done as per local
or export specifications. For this purpose,
various types of bagging, containerization
and shipping methods are used. Exported
lentils are generally packaged in polypro-
pylene bags of 25–100 kg. Consumer-ready
packages are typically sold in 500 or 1000 g
Pratap_Ch25.indd 392
polyethene bags, or possibly upto 15 kg,
particularly for the restaurant and institu-
tional sector (Vandenberg, 2009). Private firms
in Turkey supply all types of dry legumes
in 1 kg packets or 25–50 kg polythene bags. In
India, food legume grains are consumed as
whole grains as well as in split dhal form; the
cleaned and graded lentils are packed in 50 or
100 kg jute bags for wholesale and retail trad-
ers. Packaging of split dhal is available in 500
or 1000 g polythene bags in market. Various
types of packaging machines are now avail-
able, and commercial dhal mills have bagging
and packaging units as part of both primary
and seconday processing (Ali, 2004). Bagging
sytems for grain legumes are flexible and can
be influenced by packaging trends in other
crops or can be changed according to con-
sumer requirements and market trends.
25.6 Conclusions
Some traditional pest control methods can
significantly reduce postharvest losses of
legume grains, allowing longer storage and
thus increasing household food security.
Farmers can also increase income by selling
their surplus grain later in the season, when
market prices are higher. Significant levels of
postharvest losses affect the economy and the
welfare of farmers, consumers and traders,
and therefore some key socio-economic and
technological aspects of postharvest process-
ing and preservation need to be considered in
regard to reducing these postharvest losses.
A comparative study on various postharvest
practices among small, medium and large
farms would enable researchers and policy
makers to identify postharvest loss-reducing
technologies for specific groups of farmers.
Frequently farmers are required to harvest
immature crops –mainly fruits and vegeta-
bles – during those times when they need
immediate cash and/or when prices are high.
The relationship between large capital invest-
ment and postharvest losses, and information
on postharvest practices, should be collated
through research. Provision of policy guide-
lines for increasing postharvest research and
development activities carried out by research
institutions and universities to determine
5/21/2011 1:13:20 PM
 Postharvest Technology 393

the technologies best suited at the farmer
and grain-processor levels is also needed.
Production of cereals (rice and wheat) has
almost doubled since 1970, but in case of food
legume crops no such improvements have
been attained. On the other hand, the demand
for vegetarian food within an expanding
population is increasing. Postharvest losses
due to inadequate processing and preserva-
tion facilities must be given due attention to
ensure food security at both the macro and
micro level.

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