Unit 1.1-Merged

1st Semester Computer – UNIT 1.
1 [BHM105]
INFORMATION CONCEPTS AND PROCESSING
Computer Fundamentals
Definition of a Computer:
• A computer is an electronic device that operates under the
control of a set of instructions that is stored in its memory unit.
• A computer is a collection of hardware and software
components that help you complete many different tasks.
• A computer can be more accurately defined as an electronic
device that takes data as input, stores, and processes it, and
displays the output according to the given instructions.
Data processing Concept

I-P-O Cycle –
IHM Notes Site | Computer

1st Semester Computer – UNIT 1.1 [BHM105]
The cycle of activities performed by a computer is referred to as the

Input- Process-Output cycle or the I-P-O cycle. A computer consists of
several components. Each component participates in either one of
the inputs, process, or Output phases
Data
A computer usually accepts input in the form of data. Data is the raw
material. Data refers to numerical (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0), alphabetical
(A,B,C,D ……Z) and special characters (e.g., @,#,$,%,^,&,!). A set of
numbers could be examples of data. OR
Data is a word of Latin used to describe a collection of natural
phenomena like numbers, characters, images, or symbols, in a very
broad sense.
Information
Information is the finished product (manipulation of raw facts).
Information refers to data in a particular context, which helps us
understand facts. Example- +91(011) 2555-1212 is a telephone no. of
a directory. It includes country code 91, an area code 011, a
telephone exchange 2555, and a number within the exchange 1212.

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Definition of a Computer:
A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of
a set of instructions that is stored in its memory unit.
A computer is a collection of hardware and software components that
help you complete many different tasks.
A computer can be more accurately defined as an electronic device
that takes data as input, stores, and processes it, and displays the
output according to the given instructions.
Characteristics of computer
Computers of all sizes have common characteristics:
• Speed
• Reliability
• Multitasking
• Diligence
• Accuracy
• Memory capacity

Speed
• It works at very high speeds and can much faster than humans.
• It is equivalent to one million mathematicians working 24 hours
a day.
Reliability
• Computers are extremely reliable as well. Most errors are
caused by humans, not computers.
• Computers are capable of storing enormous amounts of data
that must be located and retrieved very quickly.
Multitasking
• Modern computers can perform multiple tasks at once. i.e. they
can perform a set of works simultaneously.
• Example – at the same time it can play a game & printing your
document.
Diligence
• Unlike a human, a computer simply does not get bored or tired.
• Repetitive work does not affect the computer.
Accuracy
• Computers rarely make mistakes.
• Most computer errors are caused by human faults
Storage capacity
• It stores a huge amount of data/information

Classification of Computers
On The Basis Of Purpose

1. General Purpose Computers
These are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability
to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency
comparatively.
2. Special Purpose Computers
Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem
or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the
machine.
On The Basis Of Size

1. Microcomputers
• Microcomputers are connected to networks of other
computers.
• The price of a microcomputer varies from each other depending
on the capacity and features of the computer.
• Microcomputers make up the vast majority of computers.

• A single user can interact with this computer at a time.

• It is a small and general-purpose computer.
2. Mini Computer
• Mini Computer is a small and general-purpose computer.
• It is more expensive than a microcomputer.
• It has more storage capacity and speed.
• It designed to simultaneously handle the needs of multiple
users.
3. Mainframe Computer
• Large computers are called Mainframes.
• Mainframe computers process data at very high rates of speed,
measured in the millions of instructions per second.
• They are very expensive than the microcomputer and
minicomputers.
• Mainframes are designed for multiple users and process vast
amounts of data quickly.
• Examples: Banks, insurance companies, manufacturers, mail-
order companies, and airlines are typical users.
4. Super Computers
• The largest computers are Super Computers.
• They are the most powerful, the most expensive, and the
fastest.
• They are capable of processing trillions of instructions per
second.

On The Basis Of Functionality/ Data Handling

1. Analog Computers
• An Analog Computer is a form of computer that uses continuous
physical phenomena such as electrical, hydraulic, or mechanical
quantities to model the problem being solved.
• They work on the principles of measuring in which the
measurements obtained are translated into data.
• Modern Analog Computers usually employ electrical parameters
such as voltages, resistances or currents to represent the
quantities being manipulated.
• They measure continuous physical magnitudes
2. Digital Computers
• A computer that performs calculations and logical operations
with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary
number system.
• They process data into a digital value (0s and 1s).
• They give results with more accuracy at a faster rate.
3. Hybrid Computers
• A combination of computers, those who are capable of inputting
and outputting in both digital and analog signals.
• A Hybrid computer system set up offers a cost-effective method
of performing complex simulations.
• They incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer
and counting feature of a digital computer.
• For computational purposes, these computers use analog
components and store digital memories are used.

Limitations of Computer
The computer cannot operate without the instructions given by
humans. It is programmed to work effectively, fast, and accurately.
The computer cannot think by itself and does not have common
sense. It is totally dependent on humans.
• Depend on the user’s input.
• The computer has no imagination.
• Cannot detect an error in logic.
• An only an expert user can work on it.
• Cannot take its own decisions.
Some of the limitations of the computer are as follows:

• No Self-Intelligence
The computer does not have an intelligence of its own to complete
the tasks. They give wrong output if the input given by humans is
wrong. It works according to the instructions given to it by the user.
• No Thinking and Decision-Making Power
The computer cannot think of itself. The concept of artificial
intelligence shows that a computer can think. But still, this concept is
dependent on a set of instructions. It cannot take any decision. It can
only perform the tasks that are instructed by the users.
• No Feeling
Lack of feeling is another limitation of the computer. A computer
cannot feel like us. It does not have emotions, feelings, knowledge
etc. It does not get tiring and keep on doing its tasks. It can do very
risky works that are not capable of human beings.

• No Learning Power
The computer has no learning power. The computer cannot perform
the tasks without instructions. It cannot read the same instructions
time and again. Once the instructions are given it will work for one
time. It can solve the problems but it cannot learn the problems. It
can only work according to the instructions given.

HARDWARE FEATURES & USES
Components of a Computer
A computer system consists of both hardware and information stored
on the hardware. Information stored on computer hardware is often
called software.
The hardware components of a computer system are the electronic
and mechanical parts
The software components of a computer system are the data and
computer programs.
The major hardware components of a computer system are:
1. Processor
2. Main memory
3. Secondary memory
4. Input devices
5. Output devices
The below section describes briefly all the computer components in a

computer system –
Input Unit
The input unit is used for transfers’ raw Data and control signals into
the information processing system by the user before processing and
computation. All the input unit devices provide the instructions and
data are transformed into binary codes that are the primary memory
acceptable format.

Example of Input unit devices: keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick,

MICR, Punched cards, Punched paper tape, Magnetic tape, etc.
Memory or Storage Unit
Memory or Storage unit is used for storing Data during before and
after processing. The capacity of storage is expressed in terms of
Bytes.
The two terms Memory or Storage unit are used interchangeably, so
it is important to understand what is the difference between memory
and storage?
• Memory
This unit retains temporary results until further processing, For
example, Random Access Memory (RAM). This memory is
volatile, which means data disappear when the power is lost.
• Storage
The storage or “secondary storage” is used to retain digital data
after processing for permanently. For example, hard drive. The
Storage is non-volatile in nature. CPU does not access directly to
secondary storage memories, instead, they accessed via the
input-output unit. The contents of secondary storage memories
are first transferred to the main memory (RAM) and then CPU
access it.
Output Unit
The output unit receives information from the CPU and then delivers
it to the external storage or device in the soft or hard processed form.
The devices which are used to display output to the user are called
output devices. The Monitor or printer is a common output device.

Central Processing Unit

The main chip in a computer is the microprocessor chip, which is also
known as the CPU (central processing unit). The CPU is mounted on a
printed circuit board called the mainboard or motherboard. This chip
is considered to be the controlling chip of a computer system since it
controls the activities of other chips as well as outside devices
connected to the computer, such as to monitor and printer. In
addition, it can also perform logical and computational tasks.
Microprocessors work on a parallel system. The figure shows a typical
structure of one of the first-generation microprocessors. The recent
ones possess greater complexity, although the basic design concept
has not changed much.
The various activities that a microprocessor performs, such as storing
data, doing arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc.), are the result of instructions given to the
CPU in the form of sequences of 0s and 1s. Microprocessors are
designed to carry out a large number of instructions and all the
instructions may be represented by different sequences of 0s and 1s.
Each instruction is represented by a unique set of 0s and 1s.
The internal structure of a typical CPU consists of circuits which form
a number of registers (the typical number is 16), an arithmetic unit for
carrying out arithmetic operations, a logic unit, and a control unit.

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

Arithmetic Logical Unit is used for processing data after inputting data
is stored in the primary unit. The major operations of the Arithmetic
Logical Unit are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic,
and comparison.
Control unit (CU)
It is like a supervisor, that checks ordaining operations or check
sequence in which instructions are executed.
Generations of Computers
First Generation
• Basic component – Vacuum Tubes 1940-1956
• Processing Speed – Slow & Unreliable Machine
• Heat Generation – Huge amount of Heat generated
• Size – Bulky & Non – Portable Machine
• Instructions – Only Machine Language was used
• User Friendly – Very Difficult to operate
• Cost – Production & Maintenance costs were very High
• Example – ENIAC, UNIVAC, ENIAC = (Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator, UNIVAC = (Universal Automatic
Computer)

Second Generation
• Basic component – Transistors & Diodes
• Processing Speed – More reliable than 1st one
• Heat Generation – Less amount of Heat generated
• Size – Reduced size but still Bulky
• Instructions – High-level Language was used (Like COBOL,
FORTRAN)
• User Friendly – Easy to operate from 1st one
• Cost – Production & Maintenance costs was < 1st
• Example – IBM 7090, NCR 304
Third Generation
• Basic component –Integrated Circuits 1964-1971
• Processing Speed – More reliable than 1st & 2nd Machine
• Heat Generation – The lesser amount of Heat generated
• Size – Smaller than older computer
• Instructions –Expensive use of High-level Language
• User Friendly – General-purpose Machine used in commercial
Application
• Cost – Production & Maintenance costs were Cheaper than the
older one
• Example – IBM 360, CDC 7600

Fourth Generation
• Basic component –: Microprocessors 1971-Present
• 8842Thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single
silicon chip.
• Processing Speed – Most reliable than older computer
• Heat Generation – Virtually no Heat generated
• Size – Smallest in size making them easily portable
• Instructions –Very sophisticated programs & Languages use
• User Friendly –Easiest to operate
• Cost – Production & Maintenance costs were Cheapest than the
older one
• Example – IBM 3090, VAX
Fifth Generation
• Fifth Generation – Present and Beyond: (Artificial Intelligence)
• Fifth-generation computing devices, based on artificial
intelligence, are still in development.

Computer’s Primary and Secondary Storage

Storage Device/Media
Data needs to be stored for later use on storage media. The two types
of storage media are:
• Primary storage media
• Secondary storage media
Primary storage media
1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
• It is the internal storage area of the machine.
• This is the memory that the computer uses for storing the
programs and their data while working on them.
• Data within the RAM can be read or modified, i.e. you can either
read from the RAM or write onto it.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory)
• It is an internal permanent storage memory.
• ROM contains permanently recorded instructions that are vital
for starting the computer.
• One set of instruction in ROM is called the ROM-BIOS
• All machine-level instructions are stored in the ROM.

Secondary storage media

Compact Disk (CD ROM)
Floppy Disk
Cartridge Tape
Magneto-Optical Disk
USB drive / Pen Drive
Memory Stick
Hard Disk
About Memory Size

1 Nibble = 4 bits 1Byte = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 Bytes 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
1 Petabyte (PB) = 1024 TB 1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB
1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB

Data Entry Devices/ Input Devices

Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data into a
form that can be understood by the computer. A good input device
should provide timely, accurate, and useful data to the main memory
of the computer for processing. The following are the most useful
input devices.
Keyboard:
This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout
of the keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type
QWERTY. It also contains some extra command keys and function
keys. It contains a total of 101 to 104 keys. A typical keyboard used in
a computer you have to press the correct combination of keys to
input data. The computer can recognize the electrical signals
corresponding to the correct key combination and processing is done
accordingly.
Mouse:
The mouse is an input device that is used with your personal
computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the
top. When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors
the mouse in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves
very fast with mouse giving you more freedom to work in any
direction. It is easier and faster to move through a mouse
Types of Mouse:
• Trackball Mouse: In this, the ball is rolled at one place rolling the
mouse on the tabletop.
• Optical Mouse: It uses a light beam to detect movement.

• Wireless Mouse: It is a mouse without a cable. This mouse

works up to one and a half meters away from the computer.
• Light Pen Mouse: It uses a light-sensitive detector, requiring you
to hold a pen and point it at the screen.
• Joystick Mouse: It usually includes two upright sticks which are
moved with the hand and the button is pressed on either stick.
Scanner
The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we
want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. The scanner is
an optical device that can input any graphical matter and display it
back. The common optical scanner devices are:
• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): This is widely used
by banks to process large volumes of cheques and drafts.
Cheques are put inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit
the cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes the
read head to recognize the character of the cheques.
• Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when
students have appeared in objective type tests and they had to
mark their answer by darkening a square or circular space by
pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for
grading where OMR is used.
• Optical Character Recognition (OCR): This technique unites the
direct reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set
of handwritten characters on a piece of paper. You put it inside
the scanner of the computer. This pattern is compared with a
site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever pattern
is matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot be
identified are rejected. OCRs are expensive though better the
MICR.

• Barcode Reader (BCR): A barcode reader is an electronic device

for reading printed barcodes. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists
of a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating optical
impulses into electrical ones. Additionally, nearly all barcode
readers contain decoder circuitry analysing the barcode’s image
data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode’s content
to the scanner’s output port.
Data Output Devices
Visual Display Unit

The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display Unit
(VDU). It is also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data
and a Monitor is used to display the input data and to receive
messages from the computer. A monitor has its own box which is
separated from the main computer system and is connected to the
computer by cable. In some systems, it is compact with the system
unit. It can be colour or monochrome.
Currently, there are two types of visual display units (VDU) available.
These help in displaying what we have entered into the computer, as
well as the output that is derived from the computer after a process.
• CRT – Cathode Ray Tube, which comes in monochrome, soft
white, and color forms. These are normally used with Desktop
computers.
• LCD – Liquid Crystal Display, also in soft white and colour. These
are sleek and mostly used in portable computers, viz. palm-tops,
and laptops. On the same lines, there are LCD overhead
projectors, which when interfaced with the computer the

output could be projected on to a screen in a larger form for

convenient viewing in meetings, demonstrations, and
presentations.
Terminals
It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into
two types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy
terminal provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals
provide a visual copy on the monitor. A terminal when connected to a
CPU sends instructions directly to the computer. Terminals are also
classified as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals depending upon
the work situation.
Printer
It is an important output device that can be used to get a printed copy
of the processed text or result on paper. There are different types of
printers that are designed for different types of applications.
Depending on their speed and approach of printing, printers are
classified as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers use the
familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface against the
paper and inked ribbon. Dot-matrix printers are of this type. Non-
impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use
electrostatic chemicals and ink-jet technologies. Laser printers and
Ink-jet printers are of this type. This type of printers can produce
colour printing and elaborate graphics. A computer printer is a
computer peripheral device that produces a hard copy (permanent
human-readable text and/or graphics, usually on paper) from data
stored in a computer connected to it. The world’s first computer
printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by
Charles Babbage for his Difference Engine.

• Non-impact printers: In these printers, the print head does not

physically touch the paper; but makes impression on the paper
by different techniques viz. heat, light and liquid. All these are
versatile, high-speed letter-quality printers that work almost
silently. Monochrome, colour, and photo printers – A
monochrome printer can only produce an image consisting of
one colour, usually black. A monochrome printer may also be
able to produce gradations of the tone of that colour, such as a
scale. A colour printer can produce images of multiple colours.
• Toner-based printers: Laser printers refer to the method used to
adhere toner to the media. The advent of cost-effective,
precision lasers has made them the dominant toner-based
monochrome printer type for home and office applications.
Another toner-based printer is the LED printer which uses an
array of LEDs instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion.
• Inkjet printers: Inkjet printers spray very small, precise amounts
of ink onto the media. For colour applications including photo
printing, inkjet methods are dominant. Inkjet printers or bubble-
jet printers are one of the most commonly used printers. They
consist of nozzles that produce very small ink bubbles that turn
into tiny droplets of ink. The dots formed are the size of tiny
pixels. Ink-jet printers can print high-quality text and graphics.
They are also almost silent in operation. They are cheaper than
laser printers but are expensive to run as their cartridges need
to be frequently replaced.
• Impact printers: These printers physically touch the paper and
make the impression on it; hence these are called impact
printers. These are very noisy printers. Impact printers rely on a
forcible impact to transfer ink to the media, similar to
typewriters, that are typically limited to reproducing text. A
daisy wheel printer is a specific type of impact printer where the

type is moulded around the edge of a wheel. A golf ball

typewriter is similar to the daisy wheel type but has the
characters distributed over the face of the globe shape.
• Dot-matrix printers: In the general sense many printers rely on a
matrix of pixels, or dots, that together form the larger image.
However, the term dot matrix printer is specifically used for
impact printers that use a matrix of small pins to create precise
dots. The advantage of dot-matrix over other impact printers is
that they can produce graphical images in addition to text;
however, the text is generally of poorer quality than impact
printers that use letterforms. Dot-matrix printers can either be
character-based or line-based (that is, a single horizontal series
of pixels across the page), referring to the configuration of the
print head. At one-time Dot-matrix printers were one of the
more common types of printers used for general use – such as
for home and small office use. Such printers would have either 9
or 24 pins on the print head. 24 pin print heads were able to
print at a higher quality.
• Line printers: Line printers, as the name implies, print an entire
line of text at a time. Two principle designs existed. In drum
printers, a drum carries the entire character set of the printer
repeated in each column that is to be printed. In chain printers
(also known as train printers), the character set is arranged
multiple times around a chain that travels horizontally past the
print line. In either case, to print a line, precisely timed
hammers to strike against the back of the paper at the exact
moment that the correct character to be printed is passing in
front of the paper. The paper presses forward against a ribbon
which then presses against the character form and the
impression of the character form is printed onto the paper.
These printers were the fastest of all impact printers and were
used for bulk printing in large computer centres. They were

virtually never used with personal computers and have now

been partly replaced by high-speed laser printers.
• Daisy wheel / Golf ball printer: A small Daisy-like structure/golf
ball-like structure the fonts forming characters is embossed. The
wheel/ball rotates at a speed and a hammer hits the wheel or
ball, based on the instruction from the computer when a
particular character is on the side of the paper, which in turn
hits a ribbon which makes the character print on the paper. The
print out is called a letter-quality printout, since complete
characters are printed, unlike dots in a dot matrix printer. These
cannot print graphs etc.

SOFTWARE CONCEPTS
The system software is a type of computer program that is designed
to run a computer’s hardware and application programs. If we think
of the computer system as a layered model, the system software is
the interface between the hardware and user applications. The
operating system (OS) is the best-known example of system software.
The OS manages all the other programs on a computer.
Besides the application software, there is another software called
system software. The system software is the operating system. This is
very important for the working of the PC.
Example – Windows 98, Windows 95, Windows XP, Solaris, Linux,
Unix, Vista, etc.
When a user wants to store any data or program, the data or the
program is stored at a location that is known only to the operating
system. Therefore, the operating system performs the task of storage
management.
Other examples of system software include:
• The BIOS (basic input/output system) gets the computer system
started after you turn it on and manages the data flow between
the operating system and attached devices such as the hard
disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse, and printer.
• The boot program loads the operating system into the
computer’s main memory or random-access memory (RAM).
• An assembler takes basic computer instructions and converts
them into a pattern of bits that the computer’s processor can
use to perform its basic operations.
• A device driver controls a particular type of device that is
attached to your computers, such as a keyboard or a mouse.
The driver program converts the more general input/output

instructions of the operating system to messages that the device

type can understand.
Additionally, system software can also include system utilities, such as
the disk defragmenter and System Restore, and development tools,
such as compilers and debuggers.
System software and application programs are the two main types of
computer software. Unlike system software, an application program
(often just called an application or app) performs a particular function
for the user. Examples include browsers, email clients, word
processors, and spreadsheets.
Application Software
Application software is a program or group of programs designed for
end-users. These programs are divided into two classes: system
software and application software. While system software consists of
low-level programs that interact with computers at a basic level,
application software resides above system software and includes
applications such as database programs, word processors, and
spreadsheets. Application software may be bundled with system
software or published alone.
Application software may simply be referred to as an application.
Different types of application software include:
• Application Suite: Have multiple applications bundled together.
Related functions, features, and user interfaces interact with
each other.
• Enterprise Software: Addresses an organization’s needs and
data flow in a huge distributed environment
• Enterprise Infrastructure Software: Provides capabilities
required to support enterprise software systems

• Information Worker Software: Addresses individual needs

required to manage and create information for individual
projects within departments
• Content Access Software: Used to access content and addresses
a desire for published digital content and entertainment
• Educational Software: Provides content intended for use by
students
• Media Development Software: Addresses individual needs to
generate and print electronic media for others to consume
Types of Computer Language

• Low-Level Languages: A language that corresponds directly to a
specific machine
• High-Level Languages: Any language that is independent of the
machine
There are also other types of languages, which include;
• System languages: These are designed for low-level tasks, like
memory and process management
• Scripting languages: These tend to be high-level and very
powerful
• Domain-specific languages: These are only used in very specific
contexts
• Visual languages: Languages that are not text-based
• Esoteric languages: Languages that are jokes or are not intended
for serious use
Language is a means of communication. Normally people interact
with each other through communication. On the same pattern,
communication with computers is carried out through a language.
The language is understood both by the user and the machine.
Normally every language has its grammatical rules; similarly, every

computer language is bound by rules known as the SYNTAX of the

language.
Programming language
A programming language is an artificial language that can be used to
write programs that control the behaviour of a machine, particularly a
computer.
Programming languages are defined by rules which describe their
structure and meaning respectively.
Many programming languages have some form of written
specification of their syntax.
There are two levels of language.
1. High-level programming language
2. Low-level programming language
High-level programming language

These languages are normal, English like. Easy to understand
statements to pass the instruction to the computer. The languages
are problem-oriented. It offers:
• Readability
• Easy Debugging
• Portability
• Easy software Development
Example: – BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, and C.

Low-level programming language

Low-level programming languages are sometimes divided into two
categories:
I. Machine Language
Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by
the computer. It does not need any translator program. We also call it
machine code and it is written as strings of 1’s (one) and 0’s (zero).
When this sequence of codes is fed to the computer, it recognizes the
codes and converts it into electrical signals needed to run it. For
example, a program instruction may look like this: 1011000111101. It
is not an easy language for you to learn because of its difficult to
understand. It is efficient for the computer but very inefficient for
programmers. It is considered to the first-generation language. It is
also difficult to debug the program written in this language.
Advantages and Limitations of Machine Languages
Programs written in machine language can be executed very fast by
the computer. This is due to the fact that machine instructions are
directly understood by the CPU and no translation of the program is
required. But writing a program in machine language has some
disadvantages which are given below:
1. Machine dependence: Since the Internal design of a computer
varies from machine to machine, the machine language is different
from computer to computer. Thus, a program written in machine
language in one computer needs modification for its execution on
another computer.
2. Difficult to the program: A machine language programmer must
have thorough knowledge about the hardware structure of the
computer.

3. Error-prone: For writing programs in machine language, a

programmer has to remember the OPCODES and has to keep track of
the storage locution of data and instructions. In the process, it
becomes very difficult for him to concentrate fully on the logic of the
problem and as a result, some errors may arise in programming.
4. Difficult to modify: It is very difficult to correct or modify machine
language programs.
II. Assembly Language
It uses only letters and symbols. Programming is simpler and less time
consuming than machine language programming. It is easy to locate
and correct errors in Assembly language. It is also machine-
dependent. The programmer must have knowledge of the machine
on which the program will run. An assembler is a program that
translates an assembly language program into a machine language
program.
Assembly languages have the following advantages over machine
languages;
1. Easier to understand and use: Assembly languages are easier to
understand and use because mnemonics are used instead of numeric
op-codes and suitable names are used for data.
2. Easy to locate and correct errors: While writing programs in
assembly language, fewer errors are made and those that are made
arc easier to find and correct because of the use of mnemonics and
symbolic names.
3. Easier to modify: Assembly language programs are easier for
people to modify than machine language programs. This is mainly
because they are easier to understand and hence it is easier to locate,
correct, and modifies instructions as and when desired.

4. No worry about addresses: The great advantage of assembly

language is that it eliminates worry about address for instructions and
data.
Disadvantages
1. Machine Dependence: Programs written in assembly language are
designed for the specific make and model of the processor being used
and are therefore machine-dependent.
2. Knowledge of hardware is required: Since assembly language is
machine-dependent, the programmer must be aware of a particular
machine’s characteristics and requirements as the program is written.
Machine and assembly codes are based on the basic design of
computers and are referred to as ‘low-level language’.
Compilers
• Besides the application software and the system software, there
is a third kind of software called the compiler software.
• A compiler is a system program that translates source code
(user-written program) into object code (binary form).
• The whole source code file is compiled in one go and a
complete.
• This means that the program can only be executed once the
translation is complete.
• It is 5-25 times faster than an interpreter.
• Ex- C & C++ are most popular compiled language.

Interpreter
Translate the high-level language and execute the instruction before
passing on to the next instruction.
• An Interpreter is a contrast to a compiler, analyses & executes
the source code line- by – line without looking at the entire
program.
• First, it translates & executes the first line then it moves to the
next line of the source code & repeats the process.
• It is a slow process.
• It is used in the FORTRAN program.
• Ex- JavaScript & VBScript are interpreted language.
INTERPRETER COMPILER
It translates the program line by
It assembles the whole program.
line,
The debugging process is
complex as it generates errors
The debugging process is easy.
only at the end of the
compilation.
The object code of the statement The object code produced by the
produced by the interpreter is compiler is permanently saved
not saved. for future reference.
It is a complicated process
It is a smaller program compared
compared to an interpreter.
to a compiler. Thus, it occupies
Thus, it has a higher execution
lesser memory space and has a
time and occupies larger
lower execution time.
memory space.
It is 5-25 times faster than an
It is a slow process.
interpreter.
It is used in the FORTRAN
It is used in C language program.
program.

BASICS OF MS-DOS
DOS Commands are instructions to perform tasks on files and

directories very useful to Windows users. DOS commands are case
insensitive. And as you already know, the file is the area where we
store a group of information or data, and the collection of a group of
files is called a directory.
In MS-DOS the file name follows 8dot3 format and is divided into two
parts – primary name and secondary name. The primary name is up
to 8 characters long and the secondary name is up to 4 characters
with a dot. For example, in the file-name Logo.jpg, Logo is the primary
name and .jpg is the secondary name. Secondary names are fixed for
a particular type of file, meaning for system files the secondary name
is designated as .sys, for text files it is .txt and so on. To name a file or
directory special characters like < > , . / * ? | & Space are not allowed.
Here is the list of some of the important types of files with their
default secondary names:
Text file .txt

Command file .com
System file .sys
Program file .prg
Database file .dbm
Library file .lib
Batch file .bat
Executable file .exe

DOS Commands are divided into 2 types:

Internal Commands
Internal Commands are built into the operating system as the part of
a file called COMMAND.COM
When you type an Internal Command MS-DOS will perform it
immediately. All of the internal commands are part of the shell which
could be command.com or cmd.exe (depending on your version of
MS-DOS or Windows) and are not separate files on the hard drive. As
long as you can open a command line you can run any of the internal
commands included with your version of MS-DOS
Example of MS-dos Internal Command Are:
• CLS – It is a command that allows you to clear the complete
contents of the screen and leave only a prompt.
• BREAK – Break can be used to enable or disable the braking
capability of the computer.
• REN – It is used to rename files and directories from the original
name to a new name.
• CHDIR – Chdir (change directory) is a command used to switch
directories in MS-DOS.
• EXIT – The exit command is used to withdrawal from the
currently running application and the MS-DOS session.
• RMDIR – Removes an empty directory in MS-DOS.
• DEL- Del is a command used to delete files from the computer.
• COPY – Allows you to copy one or more files to an alternate
location.
• VOL – Displays the volume of information about the designated
drive.
• TYPE- Display the contents of a text file.

• DATE – The date command can be used to look at the current

date of the computer as well as change the date to an alternate
date.
• TIME – Allows the user to view and edit the computer’s time.
• DIR – The dir command displays information about files and
directories, and how many spaces available.
• SET – Allows you to change one variable or string to another.
• MKDIR/MD – Allows you to create directories in MS-DOS.
• PATH – Path is used to specify the location where MS-DOS looks
when using a command.
• DISKCOMP- Comparing two diskettes.
• DISKCOPY- Copying a diskette.
• RD- Remove a directory.
External Commands
These external commands are for performing advanced tasks and
they do need some external file support as they are not stored in
COMMAND.COM. There are also Batch commands or Batch files
which are text files that contain a list of internal and/or external
commands which are executed in sequence when the batch file is
executed. AUTOEXEC.BAT gets executed automatically on booting.
Examples of External Commands are:
• DELTREE- Short for delete tree, deltree is a command used to
delete files and directories permanently from the computer.
• TREE- Allows the user to view a listing of files and folders in an
easy to read the listing.
• PRINT – The print command allows users to print a text file to a
line printer, in the background.
• FIND – Allows you to search for text within a file.

• XCOPY – Xcopy is a powerful version of the copy command with

additional features; has the capability of moving files,
directories, and even whole drives from one location to another.
• DISK COMP- Compares the contents of a floppy disk in the
source drive to the contents of a floppy disk in the target drive.
• FORMAT – Format is used to erase information off of a
computer diskette or fixed drive.
• ATTRIB – Attrib allows a user to change the attributes of a file or
files.
• SORT- Sorts the input and displays the output to the screen.
• CHKDSK- Chkdsk is a utility that checks the computer’s hard
drive status for any cross-linked or any additional errors with the
hard drive.
• FORMAT – Format a diskette.
• PRINT – Printing a file.
• MOVE- Allows you to move files or directories from one folder
to another, or from one drive to another.

INTRODUCTION TO WINDOWS
GUI (Graphics User Interface)

GUI is a program interface that takes advantage of the computer
graphics capabilities to make the program easier to use. Well-
designed graphical user interfaces can free the user from learning
complex command languages. On the other hand, many users find
that they work more effectively with a command-driven interface,
especially if they already know the command language.
Basic Components of a GUI
Graphical user interfaces, such as Microsoft Windows and the one
used by the Apple Macintosh, feature the following basic
components:
• Pointer: A symbol that appears on the display screen and that
you move to select objects and commands. Usually, the pointer
appears as a small angled arrow. Text -processing applications,
however, use an I-beam pointer that is shaped like a capital I.
• Pointing device: A device, such as a mouse or a trackball, that
enables you to select objects on the display screen.
• Icons: Small pictures that represent commands, files, or
windows. By moving the pointer to the icon and pressing a
mouse button, you can execute a command or convert the icon
into a window. You can also move the icons around the display
screen as if they were real objects on your desk.
• Desktop: The area on the display screen where icons are
grouped is often referred to as the desktop because the icons
are intended to represent real objects on a real desktop.
• Windows: You can divide the screen into different areas. In each
window, you can run a different program or display a different

file. You can move windows around the display screen, and
change their shape and size at will.
• Menus: Most graphical user interfaces let you execute
commands by selecting a choice from a menu.
In addition to their visual components, graphical user interfaces also
make it easier to move data from one application to another. A true
GUI includes standard formats for representing text and graphics.
Because the formats are well-defined, different programs that run
under a common GUI can share data. This makes it possible, for
example, to copy a graph created by a spreadsheet program into a
document created by a word processor.
Many DOS programs include some features of GUIs, such as menus,
but are not graphics based. Such interfaces are sometimes called
graphical character-based user interfaces to distinguish them from
true GUIs.
The First Graphical User Interface

The first graphical user interface was designed by Xerox Corporation’s
Palo Alto Research Center in the 1970s, but it was not until the 1980s
and the emergence of the Apple Macintosh that graphical user
interfaces became popular. One reason for their slow acceptance was
the fact that they require considerable CPU power and a high-quality
monitor, which were prohibitively expensive.

Windows versions
Following is a brief summary of the client versions of Windows (a
user’s PC running Windows). For more on the server versions, see
Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2008, and Windows Server
2012.
Windows 10 S (2017)
The streamlined version that obtains content via the Internet. See
Windows 10 S.
Windows 10 (2015) – MS Version 6.4
The next client version of Windows. See Windows 10.
Windows 8/8.1 (2012-2013) – MS Version 6.2/6.3
The current client version of Windows. See Windows 8.
The previous client version of Windows. Windows 7 greatly improved
stability over Vista. See Windows 7.
Windows Vista (2006) – MS Version 6.0
A client version of Windows that was widely criticized for its bugs and
behavior (see Windows Vista). Windows Server 2008 was the server
counterpart. See Windows Server 2008.
Windows XP (2001) – MS Version 5.1
A client version of Windows that has been widely used. Adding more
security and administrative capabilities, XP became available in 64-bit
versions for AMD x86 and Intel Itanium CPUs. See Windows XP.


Windows 2000 was an updated version of Windows NT 4 for client
and server. It added numerous enhancements including Plug and Play
and Active Directory. Windows 2000 came in one workstation and
three server versions. Server versions supported 64-bit AMD x86 and
Intel Itanium CPUs. See Windows 2000.
Windows NT (1993) – MS Versions 3.1, 3.5, 4.0
Windows NT 3.1 was a completely new 32-bit OS with separate client
and server versions. Introduced during the reign of Windows 3.1 and
two years before Windows 95, it used the same Program Manager
user interface as Windows 3.1 but provided greater stability. In 1996,
Windows NT 4.0 switched to the Windows 95 Start menu interface
but did not include Plug and Play. NT Server gained significant market
share, while NT Workstation client version was aimed at the
professional user and not the Windows 95/98 market. See Windows
NT.
Windows ME (2000) – MS Version 4.9
An upgrade to Windows 98. It had a shorter boot time, but no longer
could be booted into DOS only (DOS sessions could still be run in a
Windows window). See Windows ME.
Windows 98 was an upgrade to Windows 95 that tightly integrated
the Internet Explorer Web browser with the OS. In 1999, Windows 98
Second Edition fixed numerous bugs and upgraded its applications.
See Windows 98 and Windows Second Edition.
Windows 95 was the first 32-bit Windows operating system and a
major upgrade from Windows 3.1. It used an entirely different user

interface that incorporated the now-common Start menu and

Taskbar. It was also the first time the computer booted directly into
Windows, rather than being loaded after booting up in DOS. See
Windows 95.
Windows 3.x (1990-1992) – MS Version 3.x
Windows 3.0 was the first popular version of Windows with a new,
colorful user interface that was far superior to Windows 2.0. Although
the PC still booted into DOS, Windows 3.0 included a DOS extender
that broke the 1MB memory limit (a major breakthrough). Windows
3.0 was widely used to multitask DOS applications.
Windows 2.0/286/386 (1987) – MS Version 2.0
Windows 2.0 introduced overlapping, resizable windows with more
flexibility. Soon after, Windows/386 was released for Intel’s 386 CPU,
which could run multiple DOS applications simultaneously (Windows
2.0 was renamed Windows/286). Windows was becoming more
useful, and a handful of companies adopted it as an operating
environment. See Windows 2.0.
Windows 1.0 (1985) – MS Version 1.0
The first Windows version introduced the “MS-DOS Executive,” which
was a DOS application that ran applications in side-by-side windows. It
was rarely used. See Windows 1.0.

Parts of a Windows in Computer

Microsoft Windows, the most widely used operating system in the
world, employs the metaphor of a window for navigation and file
management. Understanding the parts of a window is the first step to
knowing how to navigate through the operating system.
The Title Bar
At the top of every window is the title bar. The center of the title bar
displays either the name of the program you are currently working in
or relevant information about what is happening in the program at
any given moment. When the window is not maximized, this is where
you can click and drag to move the window to a new location on the
screen.
Minimize, Maximize, Close Buttons
In the upper right-hand corner of the window are the three buttons
used to minimize, maximize, and close the window. Minimizing the
window shrinks it to nothing and places it out of sight. Maximizing the
window makes it fill the screen and locks it into position so that it
cannot be moved by dragging the title bar. Closing the window shuts
down the program.
The Scroll Bar
On the right side of the window is the scroll bar, which appears only if
there is information to be displayed beyond the bottom range of the
current window size. Clicking and dragging on the slider in the scroll
bar moves the contents of the window up or down so you can view all
of the data available.

The Menu Bar

Most programs will have a menu bar visible in the upper left-hand
corner of the window. The menu bar appears as the text for most
programs and usually starts with “File” at the far left. Accessing the
menu allows you to view various commands available to that
program, including closing the program or the window.
The Work Space
The workspace is all of the areas inside the window where data for
the current program is displayed. usually, the workspace will have a
white background, but it is possible to customize this in all versions of
Windows, and it may vary by program.
Basic Functions of the Windows

The key five basic functions of any windows are as following:
1. The interface between the user and the hardware:
An OS provides an interface between user and machine. This interface
can be a graphical user interface (GUI) in which users click onscreen
elements to interact with the OS or a command-line interface (CLI) in
which users type commands at the command-line interface (CLI) to
tell the OS to do things.
2. Coordinate hardware components:
An OS enables the coordination of hardware components. Each
hardware device speaks a different language, but the operating
system can talk to them through the specific translational software
called device drivers. Every hardware component has different drivers
for Operating systems. These drivers make communication successful
between the other software and the hardware.

3. Provide an environment for software to function:

An OS provides an environment for software applications to function.
Application software is specific software that is used to perform a
specific task. In GUI operating systems such as Windows and macOS,
applications run within a consistent, graphical desktop environment.
4. Provide structure for data management:
An OS displays structure/directories for data management. We can
view file and folder listings and manipulate those files and folders like
(move, copy, rename, delete, and many others).
5. Monitor system health and functionality:
OS monitors the health of our system’s hardware, giving us an idea of
how well (or not) it’s performing. We can see how busy our CPU is, or
how quickly our hard drives retrieve data, or how much data our
network card is sending etc. and it also monitors system activity for
malware

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
A network topology is the arrangement of nodes — usually switches,

routers, or software switch/router features — and connections in a
network often represented as a graph. The topology of the network
and the relative locations of the source and destination of traffic flows
on the network, determine the optimum path for each flow and the
extent to which redundant options for routing exist in the event of a
failure. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the
physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.
The physical topology of a network is the layout of nodes and physical
connections, including wires (Ethernet, DSL), fiber optics, and
microwave. There are several common physical topologies, as
described below, and as shown in the illustration.
Types of physical topologies
In the bus network topology, every node is connected in series along
a linear path. This arrangement is found today primarily in cable
broadband distribution networks.
In the star network topology, a central node has a direct connection
to all other nodes. Switched local-area networks (LANs) based on
Ethernet switches, including most wired home and office networks,
have a physical star topology.
In the ring network topology, the nodes are connected in a closed-
loop configuration. Some rings will pass data only in one direction,
while others are capable of transmission in both directions. These
bidirectional ring networks are more resilient than bus networks
because traffic can reach a node by moving in either direction. Metro
networks based on Synchronous Optical Network Technology (SONET)
are the primary example of ring networks today.

The mesh network topology links nodes with connections so that

multiple paths between at least some points of the network are
available. A network is said to have fully meshed if all nodes are
directly connected to all other nodes and partially meshed if only
some nodes have multiple connections to others. Meshing to create
multiple paths increases resiliency under failure, but increases cost.
The Internet is a mesh network.
The tree network topology, also called a star of stars, is a network
where star topologies are themselves connected in a star
configuration. Many larger Ethernet switch networks including data
center networks are configured as trees
Bus Topology
In the bus topology, the server is at one end, and the client PCs
(devices) are connected at different points or positions along with the
network. All signals pass through each of the devices. Each device has
a unique identity and can recognize those signals intended for it. It is
easy and simple to design and implement.
Advantages:
• Easy to implement and extend
• Well suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high
speeds
• Cheaper than other topologies.
• Cost-effective as only a single cable is used.
• Cable faults are easily identified.

Disadvantages
• Limited cable length and the number of stations.
• If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes
down.
• Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
• It works best with a limited number of nodes.
• It is slower than the other topologies.
Star Topology
This is a form of LAN architecture is which nodes on a network are
connected to a common central hub or switch, and this is done by the
use of dedicated links.
• In this kind of topology all the cables run from the computers to
the central location where they are all connected by a device
called hub or switch (or host node).
• Each computer on a star network communicates with a central
device that resends the message either to each computer or
only to the destination computer, e.g. if it is a hub then it will
send to all and if it is a switch then it will send to the only
destination computer.
• When network expansion is expected and when the greater
reliability is needed, star topology is the best.
Advantages:
1) It is easy to modify and add new computers without disturbing the
rest of the network.
2) The center of the star network is a good place to diagnose the
faults.

3) Single computer failure does not necessarily bring down the whole
star network.
Disadvantages:
1) If the central device (or the host node) fails the whole network fails
to operate.
2) Star networking is expensive because all network cables must be
pulled to one central point, requires more cable than other network
topologies.
Ring Topology
• This topology is a simple design and consists of a single cable
that forms the main data path in the shape of a ring. Each
device is connected to a closed-loop of cable. Signals travel in
one direction from one node to all other nodes around the loop.
• In this type, each computer is connected to the next computer
with the last one connected to the first.
• Each retransmits what it receives from the previous computer.
The message flows around the ring in one direction.
• The ring network does not subject to signal loss problems as a
bus network experience.
• There is no termination because there is no end to the ring.
Advantages:
1) Each node has equal access.
2) Capable of high-speed data transfer.
Disadvantages:
1) Failure of one computer on the ring can affect the whole network.
2) Difficult to troubleshoot the network.

NETWORK APPLICATIONS
A network is a collection or set of computing devices connected to

one another to establish communication and also share available
resources. A network will comprise of software and hardware devices.
You can have a network even if you are not connected to the internet.
Computer networks make it possible for people to transfer files from
one place to another and to communicate taking the shortest time
possible.
Computer network applications are network software applications
that utilize the Internet or other network hardware infrastructure to
perform useful functions for example file transfers within a network.
They help us to transfer data from one point to another within the
network.
There are 2 types of network applications:
1. Pure network applications
2. Standalone network application

(A) Pure Network Applications

These are applications created to be used in networks; using pure
network applications on a single computer doesn't make sense. They
help us to transfer data and communicate within a network. Such
applications have a separate and distinct user interface that users
must learn for instance:
1. Email programs
They allow users to type messages at their local nodes and then
send to someone on the network. It is a fast and easy way of
transferring mail from one computer to another. Examples of
electronic mail programs (Clients) are:
• Pegasus mail
• Outlook express
• Eudora Windows mail
• Fox mail
• Opera
• Mozilla Thunderbird
• Windows mail
2. File transfer protocol (FTP)
This application facilities transfer of files from one computer to
another e.g. from a client to a server. There are 2 common
processes involved in FTP
Downloading: This is the process of obtaining files from a server to
a workstation or a client (for example when you download
programs and music from a server).
Uploading: This is obtaining of files from a workstation to a server
(for instance when you attach documents and upload them to a

server, a good example being when you upload photos to

Facebook).
Examples of FTP programs are:
• FTP in Unix
• FTP in Linux or
• FTP in Windows
3. Terminal Emulation (TELNET)

It allows a workstation to access the server for an application
program. This enables you to control the server and communicate
with other servers on the network. The workstation appears as a
down terminal that is directly attached to the server. The user feels
like he/she is using the server directly. TELNET enables PCs and
workstations to function as dumb terminals in sessions with hosts on
inter-networks.
4. Groupware
These applications are used to automate the administration functions
of a modern office for instance video conferencing and chatting. They
facilitate the work of groups and improve on their productivity; they
can be used to communicate, co-operate, coordinate, solve problems,
compete, and negotiate among others.
i. Video Conferencing
This is the process of conducting a conference between two or more
participants at different sites by using computer networks to transmit
audio and video data. For example, a point-to-point (two-person)
video conferencing system works much like a video telephone.
Each participant has a video camera, microphone, and speakers
mounted on his or her computer. As the two participants speak to
one another, their voices are carried over the network and delivered

to the others speakers, and whatever images appear in front of the

video camera appear in a window on the other participant’s monitor.
ii. Chatting
It is a real-time communication between two users via computer.
Once a chat has been initiated, either user can enter text by typing on
the keyboard and the entered text will appear on the other user’s
monitor. The two must be online for a chat to be initiated. Most
networks, cybers and online services offer a chat feature which
enables computer users to chat as they go on with their work.
(B) Stand Alone Applications

These are applications that run on standalone computers (computers
not connected to any other). In order to extend their activity, they are
rebuilt to run on network environments e.g. word processors,
spreadsheets, database management systems, presentations
graphics, project management etc. They function even when the
computer is offline.

TYPES OF NETWORK
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other

that enables the computer to communicate with another computer
and share their resources, data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer
network is mainly of three types:
1. LAN (Local Area Network)
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3. WAN (Wide Area Network)
LAN (Local Area Network)

• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each
other in a small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers
through a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial
cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as
hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in the Local
Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a
larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and
private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame
Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than the Local Area Network (LAN).

Uses of Metropolitan Area Network:

• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite a bigger network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it
spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
fiber optic cable, or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
Examples of Wide Area Network:

• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region
or country.
• Last-mile: A telecom company is used to provide internet
services to the customers in hundreds of cities by connecting
their home with fiber.
• Private network: A bank provides a private network that
connects the 44 offices. This network is made by using the
telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large
geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a
different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The
internet provides a leased line through which we can connect
with another branch.
• Centralized data: In the case of the WAN network, data is
centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files,
or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server.
Therefore, the programmers get the updated files within
seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are
transmitted fast. The web application like Facebook, WhatsApp,
Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In the WAN network, we can
share the software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do business over the internet globally.
• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then
this gives the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the
data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our
company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as
compared to LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are
combined together that creates the security problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on
the internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so
the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus
in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high
as it involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the
problem is difficult.

NETWORK CONFIGURATION HARDWARE
Network configuration is the process of setting a network’s controls,

flow, and operation to support the network communication of an
organization and/or network owner. This broad term incorporates
multiple configuration and setup processes on network hardware,
software, and other supporting devices and components.
Node
Any system or device connected to a network is also called a node.
For example, if a network connects a file server, five computers, and
two printers, there are eight nodes on the network. Each device on
the network has a network address, such as a MAC address, which
uniquely identifies each device. This helps keep track of where data is
being transferred to and from on the network.
A node can also refer to a leaf, which is a folder or file on your hard
disk. In physics, a node, or nodal point, is a point of minimum
displacement or where multiple waves converge, creating a net
amplitude of zero.
In communication networks, a node is an active electronic device that
is attached to a network and is capable of sending, receiving, or
forwarding information over a communications channel.

Server
• A computer or application, that provides a service to client
software on other computers. Servers are used for web hosting
and other web applications
• A high-end computer with specific software that allows other
computers to use its facilities for connection to data drives,
email, printers, the Internet, or other services.
• A computer or device on a network that manages network
resources. For example, a file server is a computer and storage
device dedicated to storing files. Any user on the network can
store files on the server.
A server is a computer program or device that provides a service to
another computer program and its user, also known as the client. In a
data center, the physical computer that a server program runs on is
also frequently referred to as a server. That machine may be a
dedicated server or it may be used for other purposes as well. In the
client/server programming model, a server program awaits and fulfils
requests from client programs, which may be running in the same or
other computers. A given application in a computer may function as a
client with requests for services from other programs and also as a
server of requests from other programs.

Types of servers
Servers are often categorized in terms of their purpose. A few
examples of the types of servers available are:
• A Web server is a computer program that serves requested
HTML pages or files. In this case, a Web browser acts as the
client.
• An application server is a program in a computer in a distributed
network that provides the business logic for an application
program.
• A proxy server is a software that acts as an intermediary
between an endpoint device, such as a computer, and another
server from which a user or client is requesting a service.
• A mail server is an application that receives incoming e-mails
from local users (people within the same domain) and remote
senders and forwards outgoing e-mails for delivery.
• A virtual server is a program running on a shared server that is
configured in such a way that it seems to each user that they
have complete control of a server.
• A blade server is a server chassis housing multiple thin, modular
electronic circuit boards, known as server blades. Each blade is a
server in its own right, often dedicated to a single application.
• A file server is a computer responsible for the central storage
and management of data files so that other computers on the
same network can access them.
• A policy server is a security component of a policy-based
network that provides authorization services and facilitates
tracking and control of files.

CHANNEL
A Channel can take many forms, including ones suitable for storage
which can communicate a message over time as well as space. A
connection between initiating and terminating nodes of a circuit. A
single path provided by a transmission medium via either physical
separation, such as by multi-pair cable.
Types of Channel
Fiber optic “cable”
Coaxial Cable Types
Twisted Pair
Fiber optic cable

• Speed: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds – up into
the gigabits
• Bandwidth: large carrying capacity
• Distance: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to
be “refreshed” or strengthened.
• Resistance: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as
radios, motors or other nearby cables.
• Maintenance: Fiber optic cables cost much less to maintain.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, or coax, is a cable consisting of an inner conductor,
surrounded by a tubular insulating layer
typically made from a flexible material, all of which is then
surrounded by another conductive layer and then finally covered
again with a thin insulating layer on the outside.
The Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency
signals, in applications such as connecting radio transmitters and
receivers with their antennas, carrying internet connections, and
distributing cable television.
Twisted Pair
A type of cable made by intertwining two separate insulated wires
together. There are two types of twisted pair: shielded and
unshielded. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) has a fine wire mesh
surrounding the wires to protect the transmission;
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) does not. Shielded cable is used in
older telephone networks, networks, and data communications to
reduce outside interference.

HUBS
A Hub is a networking device which receives a signal from the source,

amplifies it and send it to multiple destinations or computers. If you
ever some across subject 'Computer Networking' then you must hear
this word. Sometimes, hubs are also called Ethernet Hub, Repeater
Hub, Active Hub, and Network Hub. Basically, it is a networking device
which is used multiple devices like Computers, Servers etc to each
other and make them work as a single network segment. Hubs are
used in 'Physical Layer' of OSI Model.
Types of Hub: On the basis of its working methods, the Hubs can be
divided into three types, given as:
1. Active Hub
2. Passive Hub
3. Intelligent Hub

Active Hub: As its name suggests, Active Hub is a hub which can
amplify or regenerate the information signal. This type of bus has an
advantage as it also amplifies the incoming signal as well as forward it
to multiple devices. This Bus is also known as Multiport Repeater. It
can upgrade the properties if incoming signal before sending them to
a destination.
Passive Hub: Passive Hub works like a simple Bridge. It is used for
just creating a connection between various devices. It does not have
the ability to amplify or regenerate any incoming signal. It receives a
signal and then forwards it to multiple devices.
Intelligent Hub: This is the third and last type of Bus. It can perform
tasks of both Active and Passive buses. Also, it can perform some
other tasks like Bridging and routing. It increases the speed and
effectiveness of total network thus makes the performance of the
whole network fast and efficient.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without

which a computer cannot be connected over a network. It is a circuit
board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated network
connection to the computer. It is also called a network interface
controller, network adapter, or LAN adapter.
Purpose
• NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.
• NIC allows communications between computers connected via
local area network (LAN) as well as communications over the
large-scale network through Internet Protocol (IP).
• NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it
provides the necessary hardware circuitry so that the physical
layer processes and some data link layer processes can run on it.
Types of NIC Cards

NIC cards are of two types −

Internal Network Cards

In internal network cards, the motherboard has a slot for the network
card where it can be inserted. It requires network cables to provide
network access. Internal network cards are of two types. The first
type uses the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection,
while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).
External Network Cards

In desktops and laptops that do not have an internal NIC, external
NICs are used. External network cards are of two types: Wireless and
USB based. Wireless network card needs to be inserted into the
motherboard; however, no network cable is required to connect to
the network. They are useful while traveling or accessing a wireless
signal.

ARCNET
ARCNET is a widely-installed local area network (LAN) technology that

uses a token-bus scheme for managing line sharing among the
workstations and other devices connected to the LAN. The LAN server
continuously circulates empty message frames on a bus (a line in
which every message goes through every device on the line and a
device uses only those with its address). When a device wants to send
a message, it inserts a “token” (this can be as simple as setting a
token bit to 1) in an empty frame in which it also inserts the message.
When the destination device or LAN server reads the message, it
resets the token to 0 so that the frame can be reused by any other
device. The scheme is very efficient when traffic increases since all
devices are afforded the same opportunity to use the shared
network.
• ARCNET is a widely-installed local area network (LAN)
technology that uses a token-bus scheme for managing line
sharing among the workstations and other devices connected
on the LAN
• ARCNET can use coaxial cable or fiber-optic lines.
• ARCNET is one of four major LAN technologies

Ethernet
Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting wired local area

networks (LANs), enabling devices to communicate with each other
via a protocol — a set of rules or common network language. As a
data-link layer protocol in the TCP/IP stack, Ethernet describes how
network devices can format and transmit data packets so other
devices on the same local or campus area network segment can
recognize, receive and process them. An Ethernet cable is the
physical, encased wiring over which the data travels. Any device
accessing a geographically localized network using a cable — i.e., with
a wired rather than wireless connection — likely uses Ethernet —
whether in a home, school, or office setting. From businesses to
gamers, diverse end users depend on the benefits of Ethernet
connectivity, including reliability and security.
Compared to wireless LAN technology, Ethernet is typically less
vulnerable to disruptions — whether from radio wave interference,
physical barriers, or bandwidth hogs. It can also offer a greater degree
of network security and control than wireless technology, as devices
must connect using physical cabling — making it difficult for outsiders
to access network data or hijack bandwidth for unsanctioned devices.

How Ethernet works

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE)
specifies in the family of standards called IEEE 802.3 that the Ethernet
protocol touches both Layer 1 — the physical layer — and Layer 2 —
the data link layer — on the OSI network protocol model. Ethernet
defines two units of transmission: packet and frame. The frame
includes not just the payload of data being transmitted, but also:
• the physical media access control (MAC) addresses of both the
sender and receiver;
• VLAN tagging and quality of service information; and
• error correction information to detect transmission problems.
Each frame is wrapped in a packet that contains several bytes of
information to establish the connection and mark where the frame
starts.
Engineers at Xerox first developed Ethernet in the 1970s. Ethernet
initially ran over coaxial cables, while a typical Ethernet LAN today
uses special grades of twisted pair cables or fiber optic cabling. Early
Ethernet connected multiple devices into network segments through
hubs — Layer 1 devices responsible for transporting network data —
using either a daisy chain or star topology.
If two devices that share a hub try to transmit data at the same time,
however, the packets can collide and create connectivity problems.
To alleviate these digital traffic jams, the IEEE developed the Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol,
which allows devices to check whether a given line is in use before
initiating new transmissions.

Later, Ethernet hubs largely gave way to network switches, their more
sophisticated and modern counterparts. Because a hub cannot
discriminate between points on a network segment, it can’t send data
directly from point A to point B. Instead, whenever a network device
sends a transmission via an input port, the hub copies the data and
distributes it to all the available output ports.

NETWORK SOFTWARE
Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for

the design, implementation, and operation and monitoring of
computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware-based with
software embedded. With the advent of Software-Defined
Networking (SDN), the software is separated from the hardware thus
making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the
computer network.
Functions of Network Software

1. Helps to set up and install computer networks
2. Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless
manner
3. Allows administrations to add or remove users from the
network
4. Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to
access that data
5. Helps administrators and security system to protect the network
from data breaches, unauthorized access and attacks on a
network
6. Enables network virtualizations

SDN Framework
The Software-Defined Networking framework has three layers as
depicted in the following diagram:
• Application Layer: SDN applications reside in the Application
Layer. The applications convey their needs for resources and
services to the control layer through APIs.
• Control Layer: The Network Control Software, bundled into the
Network Operating System, lies in this layer. It provides an
abstract view of the underlying network infrastructure. It
receives the requirements of the SDN applications and relays
them to the network components.
• Infrastructure Layer: Also called the Data Plane Layer, this layer
contains the actual network components. The network devices
reside in this layer that shows their network capabilities through
the Control to data-Plane Interface

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1st Semester Computer – UNIT 1.

INFORMATION CONCEPTS AND PROCESSING

Data processing Concept

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The cycle of activities performed by a computer is referred to as the

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ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

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On The Basis Of Purpose

On The Basis Of Size

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• A single user can interact with this computer at a time.

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On The Basis Of Functionality/ Data Handling

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Some of the limitations of the computer are as follows:

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HARDWARE FEATURES & USES

The below section describes briefly all the computer components in a

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Example of Input unit devices: keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick,

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Central Processing Unit

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Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

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Computer’s Primary and Secondary Storage

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Secondary storage media

About Memory Size

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Data Entry Devices/ Input Devices

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• Wireless Mouse: It is a mouse without a cable. This mouse

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• Barcode Reader (BCR): A barcode reader is an electronic device

Data Output Devices

Visual Display Unit

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output could be projected on to a screen in a larger form for

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• Non-impact printers: In these printers, the print head does not

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type is moulded around the edge of a wheel. A golf ball

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virtually never used with personal computers and have now

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instructions of the operating system to messages that the device

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• Information Worker Software: Addresses individual needs

Types of Computer Language

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computer language is bound by rules known as the SYNTAX of the

High-level programming language

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Low-level programming language

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3. Error-prone: For writing programs in machine language, a