FORMULAE OF PHYSICS (XI)

FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS-

 Acceleration of free fall, g= 9.8ms2

 Avogadro’s constant, NA = 6.022 × 1023mol-1
 Boltzmann constant, kB = 1.38 × 10-23JK-1
 Permittivity of free space, ε0= 8.85 × 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2
 Charge of an electron, e= 1.6022 × 10-19C
 Mass of an electron, me= 9.1 × 10-31kg
 Faraday constant, F = 96500 C mol-1
 Universal or real gas constant, R= 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
 Universal gravitational constant, G= 6.67 × 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
 Permeability of free space, μ0 = 4π × 10-7 T m A-1
 Mass of a proton, mp= 1.672 × 10-27kg
 Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.674 × 10-27
 Planck’s constant, h= 6.636 × 10-34Js
 Speed of light, c= 3× 108ms-1
 CHAPTER-3

Equations of motion- Final velocity = v, initial velocity = u, acceleration = a, displacement = s and time = t.
(1) 1st equation of motion- v=u+at
1 2
(2) 2nd equation of motion- s=ut + 2 a t
(3) 3rd equation of motion- v 2−u2=2 as

Relative velocity- it is the velocity of an object measured from another moving object. The formula for
relative velocity in one dimension is given by v BA=v B −v A ∨v AB =v A −v B.

CHAPTER-4

Resultant of vector addition is R=√ A 2+ B2 +2 AB cos θ , where A and B are magnitudes of two vectors and θ is the
Bsinθ
angle between ⃗A∧⃗B . The angle (α) between resultant and one of the vectors is tanα ¿ A+ Bcosθ .

Law of sines- Consider a triangle of vertices A, B and C. The sides of the triangle are AB, BC and AC. Let the
angles of triangle be α, β and θ. The fig. is given below- A

sinα sinβ sinθ

Law of sines states that a = b = c
α

c
b

β θ
C B
a
 Formula for the projectile motion- A projectile is an object thrown at some angle with the horizontal.

Here θ= angle of projectile with the horizontal, g= acceleration due to gravity, u= initial velocity
g 2
(1) Equation of path of projectile is y=tanθ . x− 2
x
2(ucosθ )

usinθ
(2) Time of maximum height t m= g

2 usinθ
(3) Time of flight T f = g
2 2
u sin θ
(4) Maximum height H m =
2g
2
u sin 2θ
(5) Range R=
g

Uniform circular motion- An object is said to be undergoing uniform circular if it is undergoing a

circular motion with a constant speed. The velocity of such a particle is tangential to circular path. Such an
object undergoes centripetal acceleration (acceleration towards the centre). The centripetal acceleration is
2
v
given by a= , where v= velocity of the particle and r= radius of the circular path.
r

Δθ
The angular velocity is given by ω= Δt , where θ= angular displacement (angle swept by the radius
vector). Relation between v and ω is v=ωr .
 CHAPTER-5

Friction- It is the opposing force which arises due to the relative motion between two bodies. There are
three types of friction- (1) Static friction (2) Kinetic friction, and (3) Rolling friction.

(1) Static friction- The force of friction which arises when a body is about to move. The limiting force
of static friction is defined as the force of friction which arises just before the body moves. The force of static
friction depends on the following – (1) Normal reaction (2) Nature of surface. The force of friction is directly
proportional to the normal reaction, therefore (f ¿¿ s)max =μ s N ∨f s ≤ μs N ¿ .

Angle of friction (θ) is defined as angle which the resultant of limiting force of static friction and the
normal reaction makes with the normal reaction. It is given by tanθ=μ s.

Angle of repose (φ) is defined as maximum angle that an inclined plane can make so that the body
placed on it is just about to move. It is defined by tanφ=μ s.

Maximum speed of a car on a level road is given by v max= √ μ s Rg

Maximum speed of a car on a banked road is given by v max= Rg

√ μs +tanθ
1−μ s tanθ

CHAPTER-6
1 2
Kinetic energy of a moving object is K.E. = 2 m v

Potential energy of an object due to its position is P.E. = mgh

Spring force is directly proportional to the displacement and acts opposite to it.

That is, F ∝ -x i.e. F=-kx

−1 2 1 2
Work done by the spring Ws = 2 k x . Therefore energy stored in the spring is U = 2 k x
 Note: The important fact is that the force applied is a conservative force and is negative of the gradient
−dV
of potential energy i.e. F= dx =−kx .

Power applied is given by P=⃗

F . ⃗v

CHAPTER-7
Σ mi x i
Position of centre of mass is given by X =
Σm

Moment of force is torque and is defined as rotating effect of force. It is given by the equation τ⃗ =⃗r × ⃗F or τ =
dL
rFsinθ ¿ dt where L= angular momentum

Angular momentum – It is given by the equation ⃗L=⃗r × ⃗p or L= rpsinθ also L=Iω

dL
If torque is zero (as in central force), then τ = dt =0, hence L= a constant. It means in case torque is zero
angular momentum is conserved and I 1 ω 1=I 2 ω 2

Moment of inertia- It is defined as the sum of the product of mass of the particles and the square of the
distances of the particles from the axis of rotation i.e. I =Σ mi r 2i

Theorem of parallel axis- It states that moment of inertia of a body about an axis is equal to the sum of the
moment of inertia about a parallel axis passing through the centre of mass and the product of the total mass and
the square of the distance between the two axis i.e. I =I C + M d 2, where M is the total mass of the body and d is the
distance between the two parallel axis.

Theorem of perpendicular axis-It states that moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
the body is the sum of the moment of inertia about two axes in the plane of the body and perpendicular to the
given axis i.e. I Z =I X + I Y
 CHAPTER-8

Newton’s law of gravitation states that the every particle in the universe attracts every other object with a
force directly proportional to the product of the masses of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of
mM
the distance between the two objects. This force is given by F = G
r2

M
Acceleration due to gravity g = G 2
r

Acceleration due to gravity is maximum on the surface and decreases as we go above the surface or below
−2 h
the surface. Acceleration due to gravity above the earth’s surface at a height of h metres is g(h) = g(1 R ) and
d
acceleration due to gravity at depth of d metres is g(d) = g(1- R ).

m1 m2
Potential energy of particle experiencing gravitational force is given by the equation U = -G
r

Escape velocity- It is defined as the minimum speed with which a body should be thrown so that it
overcomes earth’s gravitational field and escape to the infinity. It is given by the equation v e= √2 gR

Relation between orbital velocity and escape velocity escape velocity= √ 2 × orbital velocity
2 3
T1 R1
From Kepler’s third law of planetary motion 2
= 3
2
, as T ∝ R
3
T2 R2

2
4π
Kepler’s 2nd law of motion states that T2 = G M R3
s

K.E. of an object due to gravitational force is K . E .= 2 (

1 GMm
R )
 P.E. of an object due to gravitational force is P . E .=− ( GMm
R )

CHAPTER-9
Fl
Young’s modulus is the ratio of tensile stress to longitudinal strain. It is given by the equation Y = AΔl

F Fl
Shear modulus is ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain. It is given by the equation G= AΔθ = AΔx

− pV
Bulk modulus is ratio of hydraulic stress to hydraulic strain. It is given by the equation B= ΔV

CHAPTER-10

Pressure of a fluid P=hρg

Equation of continuity A1 v 1= A 2 v 2

Bernoulli’s principle- It states that the pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume and potential energy per unit
1 2 1 2
volume of a fluid in streamline flow is constant. The equation is given by P1 + 2 ρ v 1 + ρg h1=P2 + 2 ρ v 2 + ρg h1

√
Torricelli’s law- v1= 2 gh+
( P−Pa )
ρ
if P = Pa, then v1= √ 2 gh where h = height of water level – height of nozzle

√ 2 gh ρm A
( )
−1/ 2
Venturi-meter – velocity of fluid at wide neck v = [ −1]
ρ a

v
Viscous force, FV = ηA l

Stoke’s law- According to stokes law viscous force on an object FV = 6πaηv where a= dimension of object
 CHAPTER-11
t F −32 t c t k −273.15
Relation between Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales- It is given by the equation
180
=
100
=
100
.

Δl ΔA
Expansion due to heat – Linear expansion l =α l ΔT , Area expansion A =2 αl ΔA & volume expansion
ΔV
=3 α l ΔT where αl = coefficient of linear expansion
V

Heat capacity is the amount of heat required increase the temperature of an object by one unit. It is given by
ΔQ
the formula S= Δt .

Specific heat is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit mass of substance by unity. It
ΔQ
is given by s= mΔT , where m is the mass of the substance

Molar heat capacity is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one mole of substance by
ΔQ
unity. It is given by C= nΔT , where n is number of moles of substance.

Triple point of a substance is defined as that temperature and pressure at which all the three phases of the
substance coexist. The triple point of water is given by temperature 273.16 K and pressure 6.11 × 10 -3 Pa
Q
Latent heat is amount of heat required to change the state of a substance. It is given by L= m .

T A −T B
Heat transferred during conduction is H=KA
L
 dQ
Newton’s law of cooling is given by dt ¿−K (T 2−T 1)

CHAPTER-12

First law of thermodynamics is ΔU = ΔQ− ΔW =ΔQ−PΔV

Relation between specific heat capacities at constant volume and at constant pressure is C P −CV =R

CV = (ΔQ/ΔT)V = (ΔU/ΔT)V and CP = ( ΔQ/ΔT)P = (ΔU/ΔT) + p(ΔV/ΔT) = (ΔH/ΔT)

V2
In isothermal process PV = constant. Therefore work done ΔW = nRT ln V
1

In adiabatic process PVγ = constant, TVγ-1 = constant and Pγ-1Tγ = constant. Therefore work done
nR (T 1−T 2 )
ΔW =
γ−1

In isobaric process P= constant. Therefore work done is W= P(V2 – V1) = nR(T2 – T1)

Heat engines- Flow chart W

Q1 Working substance Q2
Hot reservoir at T1 Cold reservoir at T2

Work done W= Q1 – Q2 and efficiency η = (W/Q1) = 1 – (Q2/Q1)

W
Heat pump – Flow chart
Q2 Q1
Hot reservoir at T1 Working Cold reservoir at T2
substance
 Work done W= Q2 – Q1 coefficient of performance α = (Q1/W)= Q1/ (Q2 – Q1)

Carnot engine- In reversible and quasi-static process η = 1 – (T2/T1)

CHAPTER-13

Boyle’s law – It states that at constant temperature pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
1
proportional to its volume. That is P ∝( V )

Charles’ law – It states that at constant pressure volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to

( t
)
the temperature at absolute scale. That is V T =V 0 + 273.15 V 0

Gay Lussac’s law – It states that at constant volume the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly

( t
)
proportional to the temperature at absolute scale. That is PT =P0 + 273.15 P0

Perfect gas equation – Perfect gas equation is as follows:

pV = nRT

Pressure of gas is given by P= (1/3)mn v 2

3
For 1 mole of gas Translational energy (K.E.) = 2 RT

3R 3
K. E. per molecule = 2 N T = 2 k B T

√
Average velocity of molecule v = 8 RT , m= mass of a molecule, M= molar or molecular mass
πM
 Root mean square value of velocity v rms=
√ 3 RT
M

Most probable value of velocity v p =

√ 2 RT
M

Law of equipartition of energy states that the energy of a system in thermal equilibrium is equally
distributed to all of the degrees of freedom and the energy associated with each degree of freedom per
1
molecule is 2 k B T

3
Total internal energy of monoatomic gases is U = 2 RT

3 1 1 5
Total internal energy of diatomic gases is U = 2 k B T + 2 k B T + 2 k B T = 2 k B T

7
Total energy of a diatomic gas (not a rigid rotator) is U = 2 k B T

3 3
Total energy of polyatomic gases is U = 2 k B T + 2 k B T + f k B T

ΔU
Specific heat capacity at constant volume isC= ΔT

1
Vibrational energy in 1 dimension is E=2× 2 k B T =k B T

Mean free path λ= (1/√2nπd 2 ¿

CHAPTER-14

Periodic motion is that motion which repeats after some interval of time.

Period is the smallest interval after which the motion repeats itself.
 1
Frequency is the no. of cycles of motion that occur per unit time. It is given by the equation ν= T ( )
Displacement is the path that a particle travel or it is the change in position vector of the particle. It is
given by the equation y= Acosωt where ω=2 πν∧ A=amplitude( maximum displacement )

Simple harmonic motion is that periodic motion in which displacement is sinusoidal function of time and
acceleration is directly proportional to displacement but in opposite direction.

Position is given by x (t)= Acos ( ωt +φ )

Displacement is given by y ( t ) =Asin ( ωt+ φ )

Velocity of particle is given by v=−ωAsin(ωt + φ)

Acceleration is given by a=−ω 2 Acos ( ωt +φ ) =−ω 2 x

Force on a particle is given by F=ma=−m ω 2 x=−kx where ω= k

√ m

1 2 2
Kinetic energy in simple harmonic motion: K.E. = 2 k A sin (ωt +φ)

1 2 1 2 2
Potential energy of a simple harmonic motion: P.E. = 2 k x = 2 k A cos (ωt + φ)

Period of both K.E. and P.E. is (T/2)

The simple pendulum: Angular acceleration of a simple pendulum α = ( mgLI ) sinθ =( mgLI )θ
Time period of simple pendulum T =2 π
√ L
g
 Total force acting on a particle undergoing SHM is F=F S + F D ∨ma=−kx −bv , where damping force is F D = -
bv

Position of a particle when damping force acts on the particle x ( t )= A e−bt / 2 m cos ⁡(ω ' t +φ)

Angular frequency ω ' =

√ k
−
m 4m
b2
2
1 2 −bt /m
and energy E ( t )= 2 k A e

Forced oscillation F ( t )=F 0 cos ωd t . The force acting on the particle F=−kx −bv + F0 cos ω d t

Fo
For forced oscillations the amplitude is A= 1/ 2 , F o=¿ amplitude of external force F ( t )=F o cos ω d t ,
{m ( ω −ω ) +ω b }
2 2 2 2
d
2
d
2

ω d=¿Driven frequency

Fo
At resonanceω d=ω, hence amplitude is maximum (not infinite) given by A=
ωd b

CHAPTER-15

Wavelength is minimum distance between two points in phase λ

Displacement of wave is y ( x , t )=asin ⁡( kx−ωt )

Angular wavelength k = λ (2π )

Angular frequency ω=2 πν

Speed of travelling wave v=λν

Speed of transverse wave in a string v=

√ T
m
, where T= tension and m= mass per density
 Speed of a longitudinal wave (sound wave) v=
√ B
ρ

√ √
CP
In isothermal process B = P, hence speed v= P but in Laplace correction v= γP where γ= C
ρ ρ V

In standing waves displacement is given by y ( x , t )=2 asin(kx )cos (ωt )

nλ
Position of nodes in a standing wave is x= 2

1 λ
Position of antinodes in a standing wave x= n+ 2 2 ( )( )
Wavelength: A string of length L fixed at both ends. Let one be at x=0 and other at x=L. Now for nodes
nλ 2L
x=0 condition is satisfied but x=L should be related to λ as L= 2 ∨ λ= n . Now if the other end is antinode then

( 12 )( 2λ )∨λ= n+2 L1
L= n+
2

Beats: When two waves similar frequencies interfere we hear sound of average frequency. There is
waxing and waning of sound. Let the 1st wave be y 1=acos ω1 t and 2nd wave be y 2=acos ω2 t

Interference of two waves produces a single wave y= y1 + y 2=2acos [ ( ω 1−ω 2) ¿ t /2]cos ⁡[(ω 1+ ω2 )t /2]¿

y= {2acos ( ωb t ) }cos ⁡( ωa t ). Frequency of beat ν beat =ν 1−ν 2

Doppler effect in sound: (1) When source moving and observer stationary ν new=ν o 1+ ( ) vs
v
(source moving

towards) or ν new=ν o 1− ( vs
v )(source moving away)
 (2) When source stationary and observer moving ν new=ν o 1+ ( v ob
v ) (observer moving towards) or

(
ν new=ν o 1−
v)
v ob
(observer moving away)

v+ vob
(3) When both source and observer moving ν new=ν o { v + v }
s