Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-021-03496-w (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV)

Fog computing in enabling 5G-driven emerging technologies

for development of sustainable smart city infrastructures
Siddhant Jain1 • Shashank Gupta1 • K. K. Sreelakshmi1 • Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues2,3

Received: 17 April 2021 / Revised: 23 September 2021 / Accepted: 21 November 2021 / Published online: 7 January 2022
 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
The usage of 5G-enabled IoT devices is rising exponentially as humans tend to shift towards a more automated lifestyle. A
significant amount of IoT devices is expected to join the network as IoT has allowed interconnection and transmission
among global devices which has resulted in generation of enormous diverse data. There is a requirement for a real-time,
latency-specific, and network efficient computing paradigm in 5G-enabled smart city infrastructure. Fog computing pre-
sents trustworthy solutions to tackle these issues by combining edge users. They store, control, communicate, configure,
measure, and manage big data produced by IoT devices. In this survey, the authors have performed a comprehensive study
on fog computing and have classified various such paradigms. The authors have performed an extensive evaluation of
features, along with the algorithmic and architectural packages deployed in the framework. This survey covers various 5G-
enabled Industrial IoT (I-IoT) application settings and unleashes various fog framework-based solutions for numerous real-
world application challenges in sustainable smart city infrastructures. Numerous contributions of fog computing towards
latency-sensitive applications like healthcare 4.0, smart conveyance, smart waste management, smart energy handling, etc.
has also been discussed. Fog computing framework apart from the abilities, also inherits various security flaws from cloud
computing paradigm, and these flaws needs to be rectified in the interest of the end user. This survey presents a com-
prehensive review of state-of-the-art literature schemes to preserve the integrity of data in sustainable smart city infras-
tructure. Diverse phrases employed for investigating numerous security and privacy concerns in 5G enabled technologies
are discussed in a sophisticated approach.

Keywords Fog computing  Internet of things  Latency  Architecture  Algorithms  Applications  Security 
Privacy

Abbreviations ANN Artificial neural networks

ACI Access control issues ANU Abuse and nefarious use
AH Account hijacking API Application programming interface
AHP Analytic hierarchy process APT Advance persistent threats
BCI Brain-computer interaction
& Shashank Gupta BD Big data
shashank.gupta@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in CBSRS Cold and hot backup service replacement
Siddhant Jain strategy
f20180282@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in CIA Confidentiality, integrity and availability
K. K. Sreelakshmi CPS Cyber-physical system
h20180130@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in DB Data breaches
Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues DHT Distributed hash table
joeljr@ieee.org DL Data loss
1
DoS Denial of service
Department of Computer Science and Information Systems,
Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, Pilani,
ERGOT Efficient routing grounded on taxonomy
Rajasthan 333031, India FC Fog computing
2
Senac Faculty of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
FN Fog node
3
HS-DRT High security distribution and rake technology
Instituto de Telecomunicações, Covilhã, Portugal

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1112 Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154

IA Insecure APIs workgroups involved in developing a framework for the

IaaS Infrastructure-as-a-service Fog to allow compatibility and expandability [6]. Huawei,
IDD Insufficient due diligence Ericsson, and Cisco offer the hardware components. The
IoT Internet of things present literature indicates the enormous research prospects
IRR Incidence rate ratio in the Fog framework. Figure 1 schematically demon-
MI Malicious insider strates the historical developments in the fog computing
MiTM Man-in-the-middle paradigm.
PaaS Platform-as-a-service This survey presents a sophisticated categorization of
PCS Parity cloud service technique the correlated state-of-the-art published contributions.
RAN Radio access network Figure 2 sketches the details in the proposed scheme. This
SaaS Software-as-a-service scheme categorizes the plan into two major groups, the
SAV System and application vulnerabilities future architectures, and future algorithms in Fog Com-
SSL Secure socket layer puting (FC). These two groups are the most happening in
STI Shared technology issues recent times due to the researchers’ outlook on handling the
UI User interface issues from either viewpoint. The first group, architectures,
VANET Vehicular Ad-hoc NETworks proposes two subcategories, generalized and application-
VM Virtual machine particular architectures and the second group, algorithms,
WPA Wi-Fi protected access proposes algorithms for storage, dissemination, computing,
and energy utilization. The grouping of the state-of-the-art
literature in FC streamlines the readers’ contact with lit-
erature handling a specific constraint.
Many researchers and industrial developers have a
strong belief that Fog computing architecture will be
1 Introduction established and circulated in the upcoming years to deliver
uninterrupted and enriched services for a better user
The advancement of IoT, CPS, and Mobile Internet has led experience. A trusted infrastructure needs to be set up in
to a vast network of objects, which includes people, devi- order to tackle the increment in the amount of connected
ces, machines, into the virtual communication space [1]. devices. The disseminated fog framework exposes the data
The diversity in the configuration and hardware of the and the user devices to cyber-attacks, which is intensified
devices involved in this network leads to heterogeneous due to the developer’s preference for functions over secu-
data. The rapid increase in data generation demands rity. Researchers and academia are adopting a security-
enormous storage and processing power, which we cannot focused design attitude [7] for developing secure
meet at present [2]. Conventional computing frameworks applications.
like the Cloud and distributed computing are being used to The key contributions of this paper, in addition to other
process the data. The Cloud has enormously impacted the survey papers, on the fog computing framework are the
Internet by eradicating direct investment necessities, following:
expandability, and costs. As the devices continue to con- • It gives an extensive review of fog computing archi-
nect over the Internet, time-sensitive use cases have started tecture and compare it with other existing computing
to take a hit due to the delay in response. Portability and paradigms.
location awareness are another disadvantageous aspect of • The authors have performed a complete assessment of
conventional frameworks. To tackle these issues, a new the existing state-of-the-art literature in the architectural
computing framework, known as Fog computing, was and algorithmic aspects of fog computing. It also
introduced in 2012 [3, 4]. discusses various unacknowledged issue and have
The fog is a virtual framework that assists networking, provided deployable solutions to tackle them.
computing, and storage services among the Cloud layer and • It discusses various Industrial IoT use cases along with
the edge devices. The Fog is different from the Cloud due the real-world challenges that arise from them. Some
to its decentralized processing, storage, and support for implementable solutions have been put forward to
heterogeneity [5], closeness to the users, compressed enhance the functionality of the framework. The
topological dissemination, and portability assistance. Var- authors also highlight the role of fog computing towards
ious firms, including Intel, Cisco, ARM, Microsoft Corp., latency-specific applications.
Dell, have set up research teams to develop fog framework. • This paper also covers various security and privacy
OpenFog Consortium, founded in 2015, are interest-based concerns caused by the implementation of fog

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Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154 1113

Fig. 1 History of the fog computing

Fig. 2 Plan of the state-of-the-art classified according to the categorization

computing architecture. Various prospective solutions Figure 3 schematically illustrates the composition of
are discussed to eliminate the threats and make fog this survey. Section 2 presents FC and other additional
reliable. concepts. It also presents a comprehensive comparison of

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1114
Fig. 3 Outline of the survey
the various computing paradigms in use at present. This
section also concentrates on the implementation of the FC
architecture. Section 3 presents an evaluation scheme for
the fog framework. This section considers the fog archi-
tecture as a combination of architectural elements and the
enabling algorithms that make the fog framework function
properly. Then, Sect. 4 reviews various use case scenarios
which are being benefitted from the fog architecture. This
section also brings into light the constraints of using fog
framework in real-world applications. It also suggests
deployable solutions to tackle these constraints. Section 5
consists of a complete review of various unacknowledged
security issues in the fog computing architecture. This
section introduces both present and future solutions to
these security threats. Some open research opportunities in
this regard have also been highlighted. Finally, Sect. 6
concludes the paper.
1.1 Related works
Numerous state-of-the-art articles have been released that
comprehensively explains the fog computing paradigm, its
use cases and the challenges associated with it. Yi et al. [8]
describes the fog computing and various related computing
paradigms along with their applications and the challenges
connected with it. Chiang et al. [9] compares fog, edge, and
cloud computing to bring to light the advantages of using
fog computing. They also indicate various research chal-
lenges associated with the field. Mukherjee et al. [10]
comprehensively reviews recent works in the fog assisted
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Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
network frameworks and enlists various use cases of FC.
Similarly, Perera et al. [11] highlights device configuration
and connectivity settings in context with the FC framework
and put forward various important features of the platforms
built over fog architecture necessary to create novel
infrastructure for industrial IoT applications and provi-
sioning sustainable smart cities. The authors also review
current state-of-the-art literature that are put forward in
order to deal with challenges that arise in provisioning
smart cities. Additionally, state-of-the-art works [12–15]
have been released to provide different perspective to
VANETs, RANs, and industrial IoT. Table 1 provisions
details on the various types of publishers per each evalu-
ated paper in this survey article.
However, these literature works are unable to deliver a
comprehensive assessment of the underlying contribution
in the context of definitions and some parameters like use
cases, energy consumption, expandability, federation,
diversity, portability, QoS management, and compatibility.
For an instance, algorithmic facets are not highlighted in
any of these works, in spite of the fact that algorithms play
an important role in industrial use cases of FC. Moreover,
this survey exhaustively reviews the computing paradigm
from both algorithmic and architectural facets. An
exhaustive review has been performed, in contrast with the
sketchy discussion done in the existing surveys. This paper
also brings into light various unaddressed matters and put
forward to pact with them. This exhaustive discussion is
followed by narration of several lessons comprehended in
context with the industrial use cases of fog paradigm while
reviewing the existing state-of-the-art literature.
2 Fog computing and related paradigms
The cloud, fog, and the edge layer combine to form a
contemporary computing architecture popularly known as
the fog architecture [16]. In Fig. 4 the authors deliver a
thorough study of fog architecture, with the cloud servers
located at the uppermost level, the fog stratum in the
centre, and the edge device users at the lower level. IoT or
user devices are connected through a fog node [17, 18].
Table 1 Number of evaluated
ACM 16
papers per publisher
Elsevier 26
IEEE 109
Springer 10
Wiley 3
Others 37
Grand total 201
Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
Fig. 4 Comprehensive fog architecture
The Cloud Layer The cloud layer involves various ser-
vers and storing equipment with huge computation capa-
bilities. These devices are responsible for broadcasting, big
data analysis [19], etc. High-speed wired and wireless
solutions are used to exchange data in the cloud layer.
The Fog Layer This layer comprises of a mesh network
of fog nodes [19]. It is responsible for geological assis-
tance, heavily reduced latency, and instant computation
along with location awareness. Fog nodes act as a resource
hub for temporary storage. The fog layer’s roles include
network transformation, collection of data, networks, data
upload, storage, calculation, and management. In case, the
fog layer requires computation, which is beyond the
capabilities of fog nodes, the task is sent to the cloud layer
through FNs with the help of various high-speed
telecommunication channels available.
The Edge layer This layer includes various IoT-enabled
devices, edge devices facilitated with global recognition
and communication abilities [19]. These devices have a
huge number of diverse sensors that produce different types
of data. Each device is linked to at least one fog node.
2.1 Classification of various computing
paradigms
This subsection briefly reviews various existing computing
paradigms. The authors have explained major features of
the paradigms along with the features that differentiates
them from other paradigms. While Tables 2 and 3 arrange
common attributes of FC and related paradigms, while the
same have been figuratively demonstrated in Fig. 5 that
represents overlapping features to enhance reader’s
experience.
1115
2.1.1 Cloud computing (CC)
This computing paradigm fosters universal, instant network
request access to pooled computing assets [20]. The pres-
ence of many access-ready virtualized assets that allow
active reconfiguration facilitates the upscaling of the
amount of work done in cloud data centers. Cloud provides
services such as IaaS, PaaS, SaaS, which developers can
utilize according to the requirements of the employed
application. Cloud computing can be deployed in four
ways: private, public, community, and hybrid cloud [20].
The growing requirement for large bandwidth, topological
dissemination, reduced latency, and confidential data pro-
cessing has become apparent. To focus on these require-
ments, the FC paradigm is put forward by various academic
institutes [21].
2.1.2 Fog computing (FC)
This framework facilitates computing, storing, connecting,
and data handling on FNs present in the surrounding of
user devices. Computing also takes place while the data
transmits from the user devices to the uppermost server
facility. OpenFog Consortium [21] describes FC as ‘‘a
horizontal system-level architecture that distributes com-
puting, storage, control, and networking functions closer to
the users along a cloud-to-thing continuum.’’ Disseminated
computing is facilitated by the ‘‘horizontal’’ platform and is
distributed over various platforms and industries [22]. FC
aims to provide huge assistance for IoT devices and fulfil
the data-propelled requirements of users. The size of
hardware components involved with CC and FC attributes
the major distinction. CC also provides a huge scope for
larger computing resources usage, while FC facilitates
medium utilization of resources at low power usage.
2.1.3 Mobile computing (MC)
This computing paradigm comes into play when computing
takes place from portable devices such as cell phones,
laptops, etc. This paradigm enables us to create reminders
based on geological location. MC aims to solve computa-
tional issues associated with lesser processing capabilities,
weak network connectivity. MC facilitates computation
through vigorous caching, compression algorithms, and
transmission hardware and protocols [23].
2.1.4 Mobile cloud computing (MCC)
This computing paradigm involves both storage and pro-
cessing and implements both of these out of the
portable device, which assists computing applications to be
available for a wide variety of mobile endorsers [24]. Some
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Table 2 Aspects of fc and

Aspects CC MC FC EC MCC MACC MEC DC mist
associated paradigms
Portability No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Industrial use provision Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes
Real-time use provision No No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes
Systematized Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No
Diversity provision Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes
Location assistance No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Numerous IoT use cases Yes No Yes No No No No Yes Yes
Framework needs Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes
Virtualization support Yes No Yes No No No Yes No No
Delay Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No Yes No
Topographically distributed No No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes

use cases of this paradigm are in the field of wellness and
health, sensor data processing, crowdsourcing, and task
offloading [25]. Enormous computation is done in the
cloud layer that makes MCC paradigm rich in terms of
computational resources, unlike resource-deficient MC.
2.1.5 Mobile ad-hoc cloud computing (MACC)
This paradigm involves nodes that create a short-term,
ever-changing network via transmitting protocols, and
hence this is recognised as largely disseminated network
paradigm [26]. The portable devices involved in this
paradigm generates as well as process data. They are self-
sufficient as they are liable for routing data among them-
selves. MACC is suitable for large, disseminated networks
as compared to FC.
2.1.6 Edge computing (EC)
EC is defined as ‘‘computation done at the edge of the
network through small data centers that are close to users’’
by OpenEdge Computing [27]. EC connects edge devices
with the cloud layer by sorting, managing, and accumu-
lating data quickly through cloud services implemented in
the vicinity of IoT devices [28]. EC can handle privacy,
delay, and network connectivity. According to OpenEdge
Computing, EC is often misinterpreted as FC; and it
mentions the difference as FC is hierarchical and can
facilitate computation anywhere between cloud and devi-
ces unlike EC which is restricted to edge computation [21].
Figure 6 schematically shows the location of various
paradigms and their distance from the cloud layer. In recent
times, the term ‘‘edge’’ used in the IoT domain indicates
the network mesh to which different sensors and edge
devices are linked locally [28].
2.1.7 Cloudlet computing
Nearby portable devices use this group of reliable resource-
wealthy computer systems having a good source of high-
speed Internet as mini-data centers also known as
‘‘miniature clouds’’. Figure 7 comprehensively demon-
strates cloudlet computing architecture. These are at a one-
step distance from portable devices. Cloudlets aims to
reduce computation from portable devices and shift it
towards VM-based cloudlets at the edge of the network
[29].
2.1.8 Mist computing
In this paradigm, computing occurs at the endpoints of
linked devices [30]. It assists distributed computing at the
extreme edge i.e., IoT devices. It can be considered the first
location in IoT-fog-cloud architecture where computation
occurs. Nearby portable devices can be used to create CC
atmosphere for performing various functions [31]. Mist
computing aims to safeguard users’ privacy [32, 33].
2.1.9 Dew Computing (DC)
Dew computing is foreseen to depend on the microservices
in largely disseminated, vertical style. It utilizes central-
ized-virtualization-free computational resources, which
ultimately aims to achieve distribution of data to user
devices. Ray et al. [34] and Pan et al. [35] states this
computing paradigm to evolve in a prospective computing
paradigm which can be a revolution towards data avail-
ability without the internet accessibility. This paradigm is
obliged to cover all the current network protocols and
computing paradigms in order to possess a wide range of
characteristics ranging from mobile data collection to
collaborative use cases.

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 Table 3 Characteristics of FC and associated paradigms
Features CC MC FC EC MCC MACC MEC

Assistance Worldwide Regional Less worldwide Regional Regional Regional Less worldwide
Framework Concentrated/ Disseminated Decentralized/ tiered Regional/ Disseminated Central cloud with Disseminated Regional/tiered
tiered Disseminated
mobile
devices
Applications Big data Traffic control, IoT, Smart cities, smart Remote sensor systems, Social networking, Unmanned Content dissemination,
analytics, file credit card grids, agriculture Local video surveillance, Remote storage, vehicular portable BD analytics, video
storage, verification, technology, surveillance, augmented reality, eCommerce, surveillance, caching, cooperative
Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154

backup, infotainment, connected vehicles, heat circulated information eLearning, online battlefields, computing, associated cars,
virtualised emergency cases control stockpiling gaming disaster smart spots
apps, recovery
Hardware Massive data Portable gadgets Servers, routers, access Edge gadgets with Portable gadgets or Portable gadgets Small data servers with
requirements centres points computation ability massive data centres gadgets with virtualization
with virtualization
Key Academic Academic World Academic World/Industry Academic World/Industry Academic World Academic World Academic World/Industry
contributors World/
Industry
Computation High Limited Average Average High Relatively less Average
Availability limited
Users Usual Portable Usual Usual Portable Portable Portable
Remoteness Far Away Located in the Relatively adjacent Adjacent Far Away Located in the Located in the vicinity
from users vicinity vicinity
Latency Relatively Average Less Less Relatively High Average Less
High
Server site Mounted in – At the edge or in dedicated Near devices Mounted in huge – Near devices
huge locations structures
structures
Operators Cloud service Personal Consumers, cloud service Network providers or Consumers, cloud Personal Network
providers providers regional service providers
shops providers
Internet Compulsory Needs low Needs no or low Needs no or low Discrete Self-reliant or Self-reliant or sometimes
connectivity connectivity connectivity connectivity requirement of may need no or connect to Internet
Internet for irregular
performing tasks Internet
Power High – Less Less Less for Less High
expenditure portable gadgets
Security Along cloud to At At participant nodes At edge devices Along cloud-to- At At network edge
provision edge portable gadgets edge and portable gadgets
portable gadgets
1117

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Fig. 5 A categorization of extent of FC and its associated paradigms
Fig. 6 Evaluation of FC and other paradigms based on their location
and distance from the cloud layer
Fig. 7 Architecture of cloudlet-based computing
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2.1.10 Cloud of things (CoT)
This computing paradigm aims to create a cloud by pooling
resources of edge devices. This paradigm utilizes this cloud
for computation and storage in the vicinity of edge devices.
Abdelwahab et al. [36] proposes CoT for SaaS, which takes
assistance from edge nodes placed near IoT nodes. It
facilitates remote sensing, and in-network disseminated
handling of data. CoT structure is expandable to provide
assistance to IoT devices and it also takes into account
diversity of edge devices and gives power to the base of
SaaS service using FC.
2.2 Architecture implementation
A fog system consists of IoT/edge devices, orchestration
layer and distributed message bus [37, 38] and these three
layers are demonstrated in Fig. 8.
• IoT/edge devices IoT/edge devices are used by edge
users to perform various types of computation in order
to achieve a certain result [39].
• Orchestration layer The assignment and operation of
virtualized assets is defined by FC framework using
orchestration layer. This layer keeps a check on the fog
architecture’s real-time state, and it instantaneously
responds to any modifications in the settings [40]. The
main concerns, limitations, and scope of research in
orchestration layer are summarised in [41].
• Abstraction layer It is responsible for standardization of
diverse attributes present in the fog architecture through
Fig. 8 Fog architecture implementation
Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
tailored APIs and UIs. Basic APIs raises security and
privacy issues to many users.
In Fig. 8, a few security and privacy concerns can be
raised by monitoring fog nodes in orchestration layer
where we should identify how and what services should be
ordered before the release. Reliable service providers must
be consulted in order to run the complete service. In the
abstraction layer, these concerns can be associated with
segregation of data in multi-user mode. A fog gateway was
put forward to solve this issue in [42] and a five-layer
framework of the FN gateway is demonstrated in Fig. 9
[43]. These five layers are located on top of any fog
atmosphere: monitoring layer examines events, power,
reactions, and services when tasks take place; pre-pro-
cessing layer inspects, screens, recreates and reduces data;
temporary storage layer empowers data dissemination,
duplication, and storage. The data is transferred to cloud
layer via FN, where the data was already stored. Mean-
while, the security layer keeps a check on personal data
generated by the user devices; and the transport layer is
responsible for transmitting data to the cloud. Subse-
quently, the data stored in FN is erased upon successful
transmission of data to the cloud.
Some security and privacy concerns can be noticed from
Fig. 9:
• Storage has its own advantage and disadvantages
associated with it. A mixed storage method for IoT
data is put forward in PaaS cloud group [44].
• The need to insure cost-efficiency and flexibility during
malfunctioning in important use conditions [45].
• Fake fog gateways can take over reliable fog gateways
acting as FNs.
Fig. 9 The architecture of a fog node gateway Fog
1119
It is important to filter unwanted data and users in fog
architecture. Hence, the requirement of fog gateway is vital
for massive and diverse IoT domain, which assists various
crucial applications [46]. Therefore, a IoT-fog gateway is
needed to carry out many functions as shown in Fig. 10
[47, 48].
Datta et al. [49] put forward a OneM2M fog gateway
which consists of an intermediary node carrying three
activities: data assessment, resources’ detection, and device
handling. The DHT algorithms in P2P networks detect
surrounding devices and services in [50]. Application of
CC and FC to the gateway layer plays a vital role in
managing services. BETaaS is presented in [51] and a
intelligent gateway architecture is proposed which carries
out collection, management, segregation, and recreation of
data [52].
An abridged pictorial representation of how gateways
present in the fog layer helps nodes while taking changes in
topological devices into account is shown in Fig. 11.
Device identification assists in the detection of an incoming
node into the domain. Authors have defined identification
and portability accounting mechanisms in [30] while
keeping compatibility in mind.
3 Fog architecture evaluation
and parameters
The authors in this paper put forward a set of parameters to
examine and validate the efforts made in this field so far.
The efforts made in architectural and algorithmic dimen-
sions are considered for evaluation. In the past, comparable
parameters have been put forward in [53]. An outline of the
evaluation parameters is provided in Table 4.
3.1 Evaluation parameters
The requirement for expandability is the first parameter
(P1). FC framework is meant to fulfil requirements of bil-
lions of edge devices and they should be able to incorporate
many use cases, and FNs. These use case systems can have
millions of devices. Architectural dimension must guar-
antee this expandability and algorithms such as elasticity
manager should manage it by upscaling or downscaling the
load generated by devices.
The requirement for federation is the second parameter
(P2). Due to topologically disseminated operation of fog
system over a large scale, there is a possibility that distinct
service providers can operate both fog and cloud domain.
This leads to cooperation requirements among service
providers to safeguard efficient working of fog and cloud-
based use cases. It also provides flexibility to the system.
Federation comes with its own challenges which needs to
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be resolved within the service providers frequently. Out-
sourcing and insourcing decisions are one of the major
issues in federation.
The requirement to assist diversity is the third parameter
(P3). A huge amount of heterogenous data is generated
from large variety of user devices and FNs with different
configurations. Fog computing architecture should be able
to handle this heterogeneity and must device a proper
mechanism to decide the most viable deployment mecha-
nism for different applications.
The requirement to assist portability is the fourth
parameter (P4). The fog architecture and algorithms must
take into account the portability of edge devices and FNs.
Architectural and algorithmic solutions such as mobility
engine that runs programs by an algorithm prove promising
in this regard.
The requirement to meet QoS is the fifth parameter (P5).
Due to presence of fog nodes in the vicinity of devices, fog
system aims to provide quality services to users especially
in real-time use cases. These decreases delay as well.
Architectural and algorithmic packages are required to
guarantee QoS maintenance.
The requirement for compatibility is the sixth parameter
(P6). Similar to issues which led to federation, operation of
fog devices provided by different service provides demands
architectural and algorithmic packages which can assist
them to operate over different interfaces while meeting the
above-mentioned requirements as well.
3.2 Architectural packages for fog stratum
These architectures outline particular architectural aspects
while keeping in mind the large number of edge devices.
Architectural aspects like resource handling, communica-
tion problems, usage provisioning, and cloud-fog federa-
tion have drawn attention of researchers. Researchers have
mainly centered their findings on improving health care,
connected automobile technology and smart lifestyle
management. The authors have reviewed important ele-
ments of research works related to architecture and algo-
rithms involved in FC framework. Table 5 highlights use
case-based generalized architectures while Table 6 high-
lights architectures involved in above mentioned
applications.
3.2.1 Use case-based generalized architectures for the FC
framework
(1) Resource Handling Architectures: Resource handling
becomes crucial concern when cloud layer, fog layer
and the edge devices are incorporated into a single
framework. Resource allotment architecture is put
forward by Agarwal et al. [54] and it employs an
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Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
algorithm to divides workload amongst the fog and
cloud layer. Kapsalis et al. [55] proposed an archi-
tecture which is accountable for allotment and han-
dling resources. They also put forward the concept of
stable and portable edges. Task scheduling archi-
tecture was put forward by Cardellini et al. [56].
(2) Architectures for Communication: Extensive
research has been performed in both intra and
inter-stratum transmission because both types of
transmission are crucial in FC. Decision architecture
is put forward by Krishnan et al. [57] which permits
the device to choose between execution of a program
in the fog and cloud layer. The authors focus on
inter-layer transmission between the fog and the
cloud layer. Aazam and Huh [43] focus on inter-
stratum transmission. The authors have put forward
an architecture which minimizes the count of packets
transmitted between communication layers. Slabicki
et al. [58] brings into light the intra-stratum trans-
mission in the edge layer devices. The authors have
considered following three types of connections
among devices, (a) direct connection, (b) through
the fog architecture, and (c) through the cloud
architecture. The authors concluded that the trans-
mission is fastest via cloud, followed by fog, and
then by direct connection.
(3) Architectures for usage provisioning: Creation,
implementation, and handling and execution are the
three main phases in the lifecycle of usage provi-
sioning [77]. Giang et al. [59] put forward first
architecture that uses DDF and it represents regional
usage anatomy as directed graph having nodes with
each one of them linked to a component. Hong et al.
[60] put forward second architecture known as
mobile-fog which permits handling of components
disseminated over edge, fog, and cloud layer. While
execution takes place, the application extracts data
about the FNs. This data is then used to determine
the instructions that should be executed. A common
architecture is put forward by Yangui et al. [61].
(4) Cloud-Fog Federation Architectures: As far as we
know, the concerns aroused due to federation have
only been addressed by Zhankieev et al. [62] as they
put forward an architecture known as CVP.
3.2.2 Use case-specific architectures for the FC framework
(1) Health care Architectures: Healthcare use cases for
delay sensitive as it demands high amount of data
processing in real-time by edge/IoT devices. Fog
systems are being deployed in this sector to tackle
the delay issues.
Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
Fig. 10 IoT gateway
functionalities
Fig. 11 Node mobility in fog
computing
(a) Healthcare at large: The fog system assists personal
healthcare services by providing related alerts. An
architecture was put forward by Stantchev et al. [63].
This work has verified their proposed architecture by
testing an application for sensor-based framework.
1121
(b) ECG and EEG characteristic abstraction: ECG
(electrocardiogram) is linked with heart while EEG
(electroencephalogram) is linked with the brain.
Biomedical sensors are positioned in the healthcare
field to supervise the heart and the brain. An archi-
tecture for health supervision assisted by IoT has
been put forward by Gia et al. [64]. It is benefitted
from QoS maintenance, real-time urgent notification.
BCI-based game known as ‘‘EEG Tractor Beam’’ has
been developed and demonstrated in work done by
Zao et al. [65]. It is a gamified approach to monitor
state of the brain which takes help of an app running
on a smartphone.
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Table 4 Evaluation parameters’ review

Parameter Meaning Algorithmic aspect Architectural aspect

Expandability Fog systems are meant to tackle numerous
P1 IoT devices. They may be required to
handle various applications as well, each
application consisting of large number of
end-user components. In these cases, fog
system is needed to handle large number
of devices. They must scale up and down
frequently according to the requirements
Federation Geographical distribution of fog system
P2 deployment where FNs and cloud owned
by different providers requires federation
among all the providers to execute the
sections of the fog system
Diversity Fog stratum and cloud stratum consists of
P3 nodes which are diverse with storage and
processing abilities. Fog framework must
be capable to handle this diversity
Portability Application layer of the fog system
P4 architecture consists of mobile devices.
Fog system must be capable to handle
this mobility
Quality of Fog system proves to be advantageous as
service compared to other architectures in real
management world use cases because of closeness of
P5 FNs with devices. Though, QoS
management needs to be considered since
latency depends largely on where the
application layer is located
Compatibility As a part of federated system, different
P6 components of applications might be
hosted over architecture provided by
various providers. Thus, fog system
needs to be compatible with different
architectural modules and should be
operable over different levels of
providers
Algorithms must be capable to make
quick decisions for scaling up and
down
Algorithms should work efficiently
even while working over large
scale
Collaboration algorithms are
responsible for outsourcing and
insourcing decisions taken at the
ends of different providers
Algorithms must consider the
constraints of various fog nodes in
the models and operations
Algorithms are required to manage
and improve the mobility handling
QoS management algorithms are
required to ensure that QoS
benchmark is met
Algorithms must consider the
requirements of a fog node on
which it is deployed in their models
and operations
Architecture components should be
deployed in a way to ensure
expandability like elasticity engine
There is a need for mutual understanding
between all the service providers to
guarantee better management of
communications between application
sections
There is a need to take into account the
diversity while deciding which
components should be deployed and
where
Need of architecture packages such as
mobility engine to guarantee stability of
service
Need of architecture modules such as
migration engine to ensure good QoS to
the user
Appropriate signalling, control devices
and data interfaces are needed to ensure
compatibility

(c) COPD Healthcare: The architecture put forward by
Fratu et al. [66] assists people suffering from COPD.
Fog frameworks prove to be promising because these
diseases require assistance with minimal delay. It
takes assistance from eWALL observing frame-
work [78]. F2C is an architecture put forward by
Masip-Bruin et al. [67], which also targets people
suffering from COPD. This architecture covers
components ranging from cloud layer to the fog
layer. This helps is real-time observation and data
collection generated by edge sensors associated with
the patient.
(d) Speech and Parkinson’s disease ailments healthcare
assistance: FIT architecture has been put forward by
Monteiro et al. [68] which handles the speech data
generated by edge sensors associated with the patient.
An architecture for telehealth use cases has been put
forward by Dubey et al. [69] in which filtering pro-
cedures takes place over speech data.
(2) Connected Vehicles Architecture: Various authors
have utilized the fog framework for connecting
vehicles in real-time. VFC architecture has been put
forward by Hou et al. [70] for use cases related to
automobile. Vehicle acts like infrastructure for
transmission and computation. Computational capa-
bilities of vehicles have been considered to record
the effect of portability on transmission and

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Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154 1123

Table 5 Major aspects and constraints for the architecture for generalized applications of fog systems
Field State-of- Performance metrics Major contribution Parameters
the-art
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6

Resource Agarwal Reaction time Put forward a framework for resource distribution which N N Y N N N
Handling et al. [54] Server request, consists of an algorithm which divides work layers
processing time
Server loading and
net expenditure
Kapsalis Regular execution Put forward a framework for resource management and N Y Y N Y N
et al. [55] time and delay workload balancing between cloud and the fog
Number of tasks
Cardellini Application delay Proposed an addition to Storm to implement a QoS-aware Y Y Y Y Y Y
et al. [56] Average delay scheduler
Traffic between
nodes
Average node usage
Communication Krishnan Delay Put forward a process to shift computation from cloud N N N N N N
Problems et al. [57] Internet stream of server to fog stratum
traffic
Aazam Uploading data and Put forward a framework for FC within a gateway N N N N N Y
et al. [43] organization delay
in the cloud
Slabicki Transmission delays Analyse the intra-layer transmission among user devices N N N N Y N
et al. [58] in: in edge layer
Direct transmission
Transmission from
fog
Transmission from
cloud
Usage Giang – Put forward a prototype for IoT use case assistance, in Y N Y Y Y Y
Provisioning et al. [59] which the geology is shown as directed graphs
comprising of nodes
Hong et al. Delay Put forward an advanced programming model for IoT use Y N Y Y N Y
[60] Workload case assistance
distribution
Network traffic
Yangui End-to-end delay Put forward a layer-based architecture covering both cloud Y Y N Y Y Y
et al. [61] variation and fog. It focuses on two principles i.e. use REST for
interactions, extend the existing PaaS
Cloud-Fog Zhankieev –– Put forward an architecture that enables federation N Y Y N N Y
Federation et al. [62] between fog and the cloud

computational ability. Similarly, FSDN has been put
forward by Truong et al. [71] for VANETs. It
empowers fog framework and SDN.
(3) Smart Living Architectures: Similar to healthcare use
cases and vehicle connectivity through fog system,
various authors have utilized the fog framework to
enhance people’s lifestyle by making it more auto-
mated. It assists people to live in smart environment.
Li et al. [72] put forward an architecture that
enhances the smart living use cases like energy,
waste management and travel. The edge layer
comprises of smart sensing devices which filters
data and guarantees live interaction. Smart observa-
tion architecture has been put forward by Brzoza-
Woch et al. [73] which assists telemetry systems.
They can provision a computerized flood alert
system.
(4) Miscellaneous Use Cases Architectures: Similar to
the use cases discussed above, many usages like
WSNs, industrial and large-scale IoT, big data

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Table 6 Major aspects and constraints for the architecture for specific applications of fog systems
Field State-of- Performance metrics Key methodologies Parameters
the-art
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6

Heathcare
usage
Healthcare at Stantchev – Put forward a framework for aged people wellness. N N N N N N
Large et al. It consists of a methodical view of wellness use
[63] cases using BPMN
ECG and EEG Gia et al. Data rate and latency Put forward an IoT-aided health tracking N N Y Y N Y
feature [64] comparison framework to assess ECG to aid in treating
extraction diseases associated with heart
Zao et al. – Put forward a framework which consists of fog and N N N N N N
[65] cloud in physiological signal processing and data
handling
Focus on Fratu et al. – Put forward a framework for use cases that aids N N N N Y N
COPD [66] COPD patients
Masip- Oxygen levels vs portability Put forward a framework known as F2C to aid N N N Y N N
Bruin IRR for re-admittance rate and COPD patients
et al. respiratory death
[67]
Focus on Monteiro Speech signal Put forward a framework called FIT which analyses N N N N N N
speech- et al. Zero-crossing rate the medical voice data of patients
related [68]
Short-time energy
diseases
Dubey Efficiency attained in different Put forward an architecture for telehealth N N Y N N N
et al. situations by processing on applications. They study a patient’s voice samples
[69] fog in terms of time with speech disorders
Connected Hou et al. – Put forward an architecture for applications like N N N Y N N
vehicles [70] Vehicular Fog Computing. In this, automobiles
act as infrastructure for transmission
Truong – Put forward a framework that leverages fog N N Y Y N N
et al. computing and SDN
[71]
Smart living Li et al. Latency Put forward a framework for applications that aids N N N N N N
[72] smart living
Brzoza- – Put forward a framework for smart supervision to Y N N N N N
Woch assist computerized flood threat assessment
et al. system
[73]
Miscellaneous Aazam Uploading data and Put forward an architecture for emergency alert N N N Y N N
use cases et al. organization delay in the
[74] cloud
Gazis Packet number Put forward AOP in which the fog is located at N N N N Y N
et al. CPU Usage gateway
[75]
Xu et al. Overcrowding space Put forward a framework for data analysis using N N N N Y Y
[76] Data SDN

analysis, energy handling gets benefitted from the maintenance of store equipment by considering
fog system. Aazam and Huh [74] have put forward qualities and configurations of each machine, while
E-HAMC architecture. It takes assistance from a Xu et al. [76] also put forward an SDN-based
mobile application that runs on smartphone of a user architecture for big data analysis.
consenting to contact the government emergency
helplines. Gazis et al. [75] put forward an architec-
ture to assist industrial IoT that permits analytical

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3.3 Algorithms deployed in the fog stratum
In this subsection, generalized as well as use case-definite
algorithms have been put forward for the FC. These con-
siders calculation, storage, dissemination, and energy uti-
lization. Table 7 highlights the state-of-the-art to propose
various general as well as use case-definite algorithms.
3.3.1 Computing algorithms in the fog framework
A handful of algorithms have been outlined in the survey
amongst the numerous algorithms proposed for computa-
tion in the fog framework. Firstly, resource distribution,
then task planning and after that workload balancing and
content dissemination algorithms have been discussed.
(1) Resource Division: Resource division and collabo-
ration amongst the FNs are among the most impor-
tant factors involved in determining the
computational abilities of fog framework. Abedin
et al. [79] put forward an algorithm that enhances the
resource division capabilities in the same domain to
meet the end user’s computational demands. Nishio
et al. [80] also addresses the same problem for a
portable fog system.
(2) Task Planning: The ambiguity which arises while
allocating a FN to execute a particular task at a given
time has been addressed by Zeng et al. [81] and
Inthrawijitr et al. [82]. They consider fog and the
edge layer comprising of the IoT devices
concurrently.
(3) Workload Balancing: Task planning involves reduc-
tion of delay, energy utilization as well as task
impeding probability. This might unbalance the
workload on a particular node. This problem
demands algorithms that work towards balancing
the workload amongst FNs. To tackle this, Ningning
et al. [83] and Li et al. [84] have put forward
algorithms that can provide assistance while alloca-
tion of tasks in a balanced manner.
3.3.2 Content dissemination algorithms in the fog
framework
Content dissemination is a crucial characteristic in the fog
framework and the issues related to it must be considered
to improve the end user experience. In the previous works,
Do et al. [85] and Chen et al. [86] have put forward
algorithms to ensure the fog system’s proper working.
1125
3.3.3 Energy utilization algorithms in the fog framework
The ever-increasing demand for energy has concentrated
research works towards efficient energy utilization in
computing frameworks especially the fog framework.
Sarkar et al. [87, 88] have examined the energy utilization
in the framework while Deng et al. [89] has addressed
design flaws and introduced some strategies which target
reduction in energy utilization.
3.3.4 Specialized use case algorithms in the fog framework
A few research attempts have been put together to provide
the use of case-specific algorithms for fog framework.
Here, the authors have discussed the algorithms which have
been proposed aiming at healthcare and some miscella-
neous applications.
(1) Healthcare Usage Algorithms: Gu et al. [90] and Cao
et al. [91] have reviewed the part of fog framework
in healthcare usage. While the former focuses on
increasing the efficiency of resource distribution and
usage in the fog layer to reduce the transmission and
VM distribution cost, the latter put forward an
algorithm for fall determination and assessment for
alleviating strokes. They considered the distribution
of components over the fog and cloud layer.
(2) Miscellaneous Usage Algorithms: Various applica-
tions such as UV radiation measurement and control,
video streaming, smart parking management, and
gaming have been covered by Mei et al. [92], Tang
et al. [95], Kim et al. [93], Lin et al. [94]
respectively. Mei et al. [92] focus on detecting the
UV radiation with the help of IoT-enabled cameras
located in the vicinity of a radiating device. Tang
et al. [95] review collaboration amongst IoT devices
to improve QoE during watching videos in the
mobile network. Kim et al. [93] put forward an
algorithm to improve the collaboration between
motor cars and parking slots. Lin et al. [94] put
forward a gaming system also known as CloudFog
which utilizes FC to enhance QoE.
A schematic representation of association between var-
ious schemes for handling fog resources and service pro-
visioning is shown in Fig. 12.
3.4 Research opportunities and challenges
This section highlights the architectural and algorithmic
challenges and research opportunities that have not been
discussed yet in the previously mentioned works in
Tables 5, 6, and 7.
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Table 7 Major aspects and parameters for algorithms for fog

Field State-of-the-art Key methodologies Parameters
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

Computing in
the fog
system
Resource Abedin et al. Put forward an algorithm to allow resource sharing between fog nodes N – Y N N
division [79]
Nishio et al. Put forward an algorithm to optimize resource sharing along with improving N N Y N Y
[80] corresponding utility
Task planning Zeng et al. [81] Put forward image placement and task scheduling algorithm to minimize overall N N Y N Y
runtime
Intharawijitr Put forward three policies to choose fog nodes to run tasks N N N N Y
et al. [82]
Workload Ningning et al. Put forward dynamic work balancing algorithm in the fog layer that helps in N – N Y Y
balancing [83] managing entry and exit points of fog nodes
Li et al. [84] Put forward an algorithm to handle sluggishness in computation in FC N N Y N Y
Content Do et al. [85] Put forward an algorithm to improve the dissemination of content over FNs N – Y N N
dissemination Chen et al. [86] Put forward a new algorithm to effectively share resources to distribute content to Y N N N Y
users
Energy Sarkar et al. Examine the performance of FC-based gadget, considering energy utilization, Y – N N Y
utilization [87, 88] service delay and CO2 discharge
Deng et al. [89] Put forward an algorithm to balance workload between cloud and fog layer at N N Y N Y
minimum power cost
Healthcare Gu et al. [90] Put forward an algorithm to handle medical systems N – Y N Y
usage Cao et al. [91] Put forward a system to identify individual falls – – – – Y
Miscellaneous Mei et al. [92] Put forward an algorithm to measure UV radiations N – – – N
use cases Tang et al. [95] Put forward a cooperation model among users for video streaming N – Y N Y
Kim et al. [93] Put forward an algorithm to match vehicles and parking slots N – – Y N
Lin et al. [94] Put forward an algorithm to improve the gaming experience in fog computing Y – Y N Y

3.4.1 Architectural research opportunities and challenges
This subsection reviews crucial architectural research
opportunities and challenges that need to be brought into
light to improve the fog framework. Table 8 gives an
outline of these opportunities and challenges along with the
related literature, prospective solutions, and setup ideas.
(1) Expandability: Some state-of-the-art literature has
already reviewed the expandability parameter. The
(3)
edge devices along with various domains involved in
the fog system must be compatible with the resources
that have been expanded to take into account the
issues arising while and after the expansion. Dis-
seminated and mixed cloud resolutions can be
implemented to solve the issue. Some of them have
been reviewed in [96].
(2) Federation: Some state-of-the-art literature has
already reviewed the federation parameter. The
solution that has been put forward is compatible
with mixed clouds and is stretched to also take into
account the fog framework. Various suitable mecha-
nisms for the use cases are developed for various
domains which have attracted a lot of research
works. ‘‘Choreography’’ and ‘‘orchestration’’ [97] are
one of the most important mechanisms, where the
former permits cooperation in a disseminated man-
ner, and the latter permits a centralized system to
regulate the interaction between various parts.
Diversity: Some state-of-the-art literature has already
reviewed the diversity parameter and most of them
have expected developers to regulate the diversity in
their applications. The appropriate definition of the
semantic set of terminology used in a domain [98]
and representing the links between them is crucial to
span various kinds of FNs and IoT devices in the fog
and edge layer assisting in handling diversity. The
definition of such semantic sets has attracted various
researchers and some state-of-the-art literature
related to multiple and diverse cloud service

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Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
Fig. 12 Association of schemes for resource handling and service distribution in FC
providers [99] can act as a setup point for the
definition of related sets for the FC.
(4) Portability: Some state-of-the-art literature has
already reviewed the portability parameter and one
prospective resolution of this issue could be the
expansion of the current state-of-the-art architecture
to span across all the portable devices. The author in
1127
[71], the VANET framework that is strengthening
the fog framework, can be expanded to assist IoT and
edge devices’ portable nature. Dissemination of large
number of portable FNs to enhance the collaboration
[70] poses a challenge in the implementation of the
framework, which ultimately helps in minimizing
delay during movement of FNs.
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Table 8 Review of architectural and algorithmic constraints and research prospects

Evaluation Architectural aspect Algorithmic aspect
parameter
Experimentation Known Prospective Experimentation Known constraints Prospective
constraints solutions and solutions and
outsets outsets

Expandability Design systems that Does not suggest Make and Authenticate Authenticate over Use machine
support scaling of a general combine algorithms small quantities learning
resources of involved solution or only upstream over huge in unreal techniques to have
domains in fog layer tackle one part modules with quantity in environments a clear vision of
and devices in of the whole global aspect of real-world real-world
application layer system fog stratum for environment evolution of usage
along with scaling Supports healthcare and service
resources from cloud expansion of Expand present consumption at
either fog or cloud service the end of IoT
application providers for fog devices
layer resources
reporting and
recognition
Federation Make Absence of Make a Design Possibility of Consider dynamic
suitable composition architecture or disseminated algorithms for working inside strategies and
mechanisms for the prototype composition federation in federated game-theoretic
applications’ implementation engine fog system systems is not approaches to
components consisting of taken into make suitable cost
multiple intra- account and insourcing/
communication outsourcing
enabled local algorithms
engines
Adaptation of
cloud
choreography-
based solutions
Diversity To compose a fully Put the load of Expand object- Have a clear Absence of Study computing
comprehensive and managing oriented perspective of agreement on the and resource
flexible definition diversity on principles of the extent of extent of usage of current
application cloud diversity with diversity among nodes
developers architecture respect to nodes and IoT Plan the
while defining computing and devices with dimensioning and
common terms storage power respect to placement of extra
for the diverse computing and nodes in the fog
fog system storage power system
resources
Portability To design systems that Does not suggest Modify current Confirm the Absence of real Take into account
considers portability a general work on fog to continuous portability real-world
of IoT and fog nodes solution and handle all the working of models portability traces
along with cloud supports portable items in offered Did not consider Make portability
nodes mobility of a fog stratum services fog node prediction models
either fog or (e.g. the despite the portability Handle fog domains
application VANET system) movement of
with respect to fog
nodes Use MCC and fog nodes and
node portability
routing systems IoT devices
(e.g. expand
and adapt clustering models
placement and from WSN)
handling
techniques to
fog system
specifications

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Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154 1129

Table 8 continued
Evaluation Architectural aspect Algorithmic aspect
parameter
Experimentation Known Prospective solutions and Experimentation Known Prospective solutions and
constraints outsets constraints outsets

Quality of To compose Extend a Modify pure cloud SLA to Consider Mostly Combine various QoS
service suitable SLA simple include more elements different focus on parameters in the
management management cloud- like energy-limitation, Quality of the limitations and motive of
techniques based portability-sensing, and Service latency problems and take into
schema that resource limitations of parameters account multi-objective
aims at the fog nodes improvement strategies to
explaining solve them
latency
Does not
include all
the service
providers
within the
fog
ecosystem
Compatibility Design signalling, Absence of Develop cloud depiction – – –
control, and data inter- paradigm to describe and
interface domain cover the descriptions of
between many agreement the FNs
domain parts of No working Describe management,
the fog stratum interfaces’ transmitting and edges
standards using prototype for
using such regulatory interfaces
an
agreement

(5) Quality of Service Management: Some state-of-the- is to expand and implement ODBAPI to incorporate
art literature has already reviewed the QoS regulation the assistance of the fog layer.
parameter and a prospective research opportunity is
SLA handling, while a possible resolution that can be
3.4.2 Algorithmic research opportunities and challenges
implemented is a cloud-assisted SLA. This solution
is applicable only for SLA owned by the same cloud
This subsection reviews crucial algorithmic research
service provider [100]. Modern multi-cloud sup-
opportunities and challenges that need to be brought into
ported SLA is supported by aggregation of the
light to improve the fog framework. Table 8 gives an
agreements. The literature [101] puts forward a
outline of these opportunities and challenges along with the
prospective solution to multi-cloud supported SLA
related literature, prospective solutions, and setup ideas.
handling and negotiation related to VNE and this can
act as a setup point. (1) Expandability: Some state-of-the-art literature has
(6) Compatibility: Some state-of-the-art literature has already reviewed the expandability parameter. A
already reviewed the compatibility parameter. prospective research opportunity is to execute appli-
Though, none of them satisfy the two constraints cations and assess them over a huge scale. This is
discussed below [102–104]. One of them is the inter- impracticable because of the costs incurred. We can
domain contract and the other one is the working accomplish such a description by assessing the
interfaces’ guidelines deploying such contracts. A related real-world applications, through various ML
prospective research opportunity for enhancing com- techniques [105, 106].
patibility is the development of signalling interfaces, (2) Federation: Some state-of-the-art literature has
regulatory interfaces, and data interfaces among already reviewed the federation parameter and they
various fog and cloud layers. A possible resolution have indicated that the federation amongst various
service providers is an issue that is largely

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overlooked. Therefore, a large number of opportuni- regulation parameter. Though the delay is a crucial
ties are available in this regard. Some questions aspect in enhancing QoS, other metrics such as
remain unanswered, the first being that in the same bandwidth allocation and resource allocation should
federation, how are the leasing prices decided by the also be taken into consideration. These metrics have
service provider? Second, at which point of time created new research opportunities and some works
does the service provider determine outsourcing and of literature [81, 109] have incorporated some
insourcing concerning additional service providers algorithms and put forward some possible solutions
linked with the federation? A few possible resolu- based on them.
tions that can be implemented are dynamic schemes (5) Portability: Some state-of-the-art literature has
[107], and game-theory assisted solutions as they can already reviewed the portability parameter. Most of
help to develop appropriate outsourcing/insourcing them have overlooked practical portability proto-
algorithms and resource pricing models. types. Thus, a prospective research opportunity is to
(3) Diversity: Some state-of-the-art literature has already develop practical prototypes. We need to incorporate
reviewed the diversity parameter. A few prospective VM migration [110] in models after performing the
research opportunities can be found while answering necessary assessment. Apart from this, precise fore-
the following two questions. While the first is to casting models can assist algorithms in real-time.
determine the extent of diversity due to the current
edge/IoT devices and FNs present in the fog
3.5 Present research challenges and potential
framework, the second is the determination of
opportunities
dimension, computational capabilities, and place-
ment position of the additional FNs to assist the
In this subsection, the authors have reviewed some research
existing edge devices acting as FNs. Some possible
challenges and future opportunities. Table 9 provides an
solutions are reviewed in [108].
outline of these challenges as well as prospective
(4) Quality of Service Management: Most of the state-
opportunities.
of-the-art literature has already reviewed the QoS

Table 9 Review of challenges and opportunities

Concerns Explanation Purpose Impact Experimentation

Cache or Sharing of available resources Find efficient method Steiner tree method to analyse To take into account the
resource should be done to give to share resources sharing of resources in delay caused due to
sharing permission to user with minimal FNs [113] transmission and
expenditure computation
Data centre with multi-level server Satisfy requirements Stackelberg game model is put Various factors should be
framework is taken into account for all fog nodes with forward to find best sharing studied while developing
diverse framework of among multiple fog nodes the model between advisor
the data server and follower
Energy Energy can be saved using nano- Detect type of uses Determined criteria like amount Detect energy saving use
consumption DCs (nDCs) in TN premises by which saves energy of downloads, updates and the cases while being executed
applications which generate and Develop complete loading of data for the use on disseminated nDCs
distribute data regularly energy utilization cases that can use nDCs inspite of central nDCs
prototype for content
dissemination
DC’s power Carbon emission of DC is Find a method to FC-aided architecture has been Fog resource organization
consumption noticeable as it works for a large develop a framework put forward for functional
amount of time and runs huge to decrease carbon application
data discharge
Load Edge nodes enters and exits any Cloud quantization Graph division of VMs Enhance the performance of
Balancing or FC state regularly method on FN active workload assessing
Service algorithms
Allocation Assist various latency-restrictions Decrease delay to QoS-aware service allotment The effect of time taken by
access services challenge is articulated as job allotment
optimization challenge Highest permissible latency
to access assets

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(1) Application Offloading: The offloading provision in
the fog framework aids the use cases that are not
efficient while executing them on EU’s devices.
Although, it is not always effective considering the
bandwidth, latency, and energy utilization [111].
Thus, prior to offloading, it is crucial to determine
the metrics that are impacting the performance.
Forecasting of the performance after offloading will
result in better decision-making capabilities.
(2) Real-time Assessment Position: A real-time assess-
ment is crucial for offloading [109] in FC. Maximum
effectiveness and minimized traffic can be achieved
by solving a major challenge in the determination of
applicable position of real-time assessment [111].
(3) Resource Handling: Effective resource distribution is
a crucial research topic due to the reduced availabil-
ity of FC computing resources in contrast with CC.
(4) Virtualization: Placement of minute DCs nearer to
the network edge prove to be promising in offloading
the task and storage needs, along with the reduction
in traffic over the network and cost incurred in
infrastructural setup.
(5) Standardization: Standardization assists in efficient
communication for security, handling, and testing.
OpenFog Consortium [112] is aiming to standardize
the FC.
Fig. 13 Smart conveyance
1131
4 Fog computing applications
and challenges
This segment deals with different real-world applications
of FC [11, 114]. These applications will bring into light the
necessities and attributes related to FC architecture
deployment over real-world use cases.
4.1 Industrial use case settings
In this subsection, the authors have discussed some
industrial applications and have highlighted the role and
assistance provided by the fog computing architecture.
Some of these applications are (1) smart conveyance, (2)
smart farming, (3) smart energy management, and (4)
smart waste organization.
Every conveyance vehicle is equipped with sensors and
various transmitters to send signals. These sensors can
perform large number of functions ranging from location
tracking to pollution measuring through IoT devices. Fig-
ure 13 demonstrates the role of fog framework in smart
transportation. The IoT devices use Wi-Fi and 4G com-
munication technologies to connect with the FN in order to
perform task equivalent to ICOs. The FNs and gateways
are majorly fitted at the bus stops, so that, whenever a
vehicle reaches a stop, the data is transferred to FN for
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Fig. 14 Smart farming

Fig. 15 Smart energy management

further analysis. Various institutes then use this data for

various research and development purposes.
Smart farming till date, majorly involves the use of the
following projects: Phenonet [115] and OpenIoT [116].
Phenomobiles, static sensors, and blimps are deployed in
the edge layer of the fog framework. Figure 14 demon-
strates the role of fog framework in smart farming, where
use of fog can prove to be revolutionary for the whole
agriculture sector. These devices generate data which is Fig. 16 Smart waste organization
then sent to FNs for further usage and analysis.

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Smart energy grids are crucial to guarantee depend-
ability, readiness, and productivity in the large-scale pro-
cess of electricity supply. Figure 15 shows the use of fog
architecture in energy management. This will help to make
the production, transmission, and utilization efficient.
Additionally, this will assist in reduction of carbon foot-
print by increase in focus on renewable energy alternatives.
Smart waste organization [117] involves the collection
of garbage along with the data related to it through various
sensors equipped at the IoT-bases garbage bins and net-
work points. These IoT-aided sensor devices then transmit
the recorded data to FNs located in the vicinity. Figure 16
shows the assistance provided by fog architecture in
organization of waste. The data is then processed and sent
to various institutes for research and development
purposes.
FC architecture is potentially seen as a game changer in
the context of energy consumption and latency as com-
pared to higher energy consumption and latency in cloud
computing architecture. The authors in [88, 118] have
performed a comprehensive analysis of latency and energy
consumption. They have taken into account the operational
cost incurred due to CO2 discharge in the environment and
have considered fog computing facet of the same. Jalali
et al. [111] put forward a system that considers things like
kind of access medium, fraction of working to non-working
time of connected edge and fog devices, number of
updates, hops, downloads, and pre-loaded data. Ultimately,
the motive is to deploy nDCs for use cases that produce and
disseminate enormous data at end user level.
4.2 Challenges in real-world applications
Fog computing aids numerous use cases in the real-world,
as the FNs gives storage capabilities to host applications.
Additionally, features like configuration, quality of service,
privacy, and security help fog architecture manage massive
applications at the network edge. Thus, FC can provide
solutions to various limitation posed using computing
frameworks far away from the edge. These solutions and
challenges have been reviewed in Table 10. The detailed
discussion is as follows.
4.2.1 Remote gaming
In distant gaming environments [119], the end users have
an option not install game on local device, and they can
fetch the game in real-time from a server accessible
through the Internet. One way to reduce the load is by
using portable-clients and managing all the computational
requirements at the server. GamingAnywhere [120] is a
gaming platform constructed for high mobility, and it can
also be reconfigured.
1133
4.2.2 Smart conveyance system
FC could be very crucial while implementing ITS [121].
This uses cloud computing to execute the application [122]
and the data is gathered systematically through network of
interconnected vehicles. However, the delay caused due to
the use of cloud computing is a major setback for this kind
of application. FC is more efficient in VANET [12] due to
the topological assistance, live workload handling, and
localized decisive methods. Vehicles and other roadside
infrastructure are vital for the efficient functioning of fog-
based architecture. These act as FNs and thus bring the
computational capabilities near the end user, resulting in
the reduction of delay and increase in privacy. Some state-
of-the-art literature [123, 124] reviews various features and
prerequisites of the FC based transportation systems.
4.2.3 Smart energy management
Compatibility, interactivity, and efficient performance
metric measurement among the different devices in the
edge layer; implementation cost; provision to provide
customizable services are the major challenges in efficient
handling of energy-based application systems. These
challenges were discovered by Al Faruque et al. [125].
Cloud computing assists energy management through
provisions such as IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS. However, fog
computing proves to be promising by giving crucial reli-
able services [126] for the power handling platforms. It
also provides pre-processing feature while fulfilling the low
delay demand.
4.2.4 Large-scale wireless sensor networks
Industries generally deploys various types of robotic fix-
tures, machines, chemical reactions, etc. to perform a
plethora of large-scale activities like production, assem-
bling, etc. With the emergence of Industry 4.0 [127],
machines and robots have become an inseparable part of
the smart factories. They have a key role in making the
industries more automated and aids human in production
and safety. The use of many machines leads to the gener-
ation of enormous data transmitted to large cloud servers
for processing, analysis, and storage. In fog-based indus-
tries [128], the data servers are in the vicinity of the end
users or the factories which makes the process faster. Fog
gateway nodes are used to communicate directly with the
FNs.
4.2.5 Smart cities
The different use case scenarios reviewed in Sect. 4.1
highlights various features of fog computing in required in
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Table 10 Classic use cases of fog computing

Use cases Attributes and challenges Contribution of FC to solve the challenges

Distant gaming Offload the data requests quickly A gaming platform with mobility support,
rearrangement and high expandability should come
into place
Smart Confidentiality, trust issues Vehicular FNs provide regional service by improving
conveyance numerous vehicular networks criteria
model Numerous confidentiality issues have been addressed
and solutions have been suggested
Trust challenges in crowdsensing applications are put
forward
Application development and maintenance is tough due to Requirements of use case model and programming is
disseminated behaviour of fog computing discussed but a concrete model is still not into place
To handle high communication and computation for vehicular use Vehicular FC is put forward which uses automobiles to
cases expand transmission. Connectivity, transmission, and
portability of automobiles is taken into account and
the issue is addressed
Access control in facilities to defend the confidentiality is Characteristic-based management is tackled
important because there is large amount of penetration between
human-vehicle interface
Smart energy Energy management platforms must be capable to customize, Power managing-as-a facility is proposed, FC gives
management adapt, scale for different types of uses and infrastructure freedom, compatibility, data confidentiality and real-
Compatibility among diverse gadgets in power handling platforms world aspects needed for power handling
Large-scale Large data pool and handling ability, less energy usage, real-world Power effective and latency-aware web coverage
wireless sensor usage service is put forward
networks Handles different protocols and data layout from extremely Adaptive operations platform is proposed to maximise
different records operational efficiency
Decision making A model targeting to lessen traffic by using computing
services near the network edge
Large-scale systems consist of cloud and edge that pose different Constant computing framework permits endless
software environment computing across multiple domain use cases
Smart cities Location tracking and low latency use cases, where most of the Stack4Things is put forward to execute SassS method
code is run on edge layer
Smart waste management which consists of various steps like FC helps to minimise data transmission by smartly
waste compilation, shipping, segregation, treating and observing sending information to cloud
waste generation
Monitor plant growth, tree cover and climate keeping in mind the Intelligent arrangements to conserve energy by
time and location removing unimportant sensing and communication
Due to relation between edge gadgets, target search requests can Cyber peers’ social virtual objects (SVO) can be setup
be executed in an optimized way in the fog framework
Health and To reduce latency in response time A FC-aided BCI is put forward, data is pre-processed in
wellness mobile devices acting as fog nodes

the smart city model. A framework based on fog archi-
tecture to deploy and implement many short-range, loca-
tion-based, and low-delay devices is proposed in [129].
Another approach assisted by sensing and Stack4Things
[130] has been put forward. A system to track live status of
many vehicles at a time using a specific algorithm is pro-
posed in [131].
4.2.6 Health and wellness
A FC-aided BCI application was put forward by Zao et al.
[65] which processes the EEG data to minimize the delay.
Some delay-sensitive features like emergency notifications
are hosted on this application [132]. Cloud computing
proves to be promising to store and analyse enormous
amount of data. Aazam and Huh [74] put forward a
smartphone-aided application service, known as E-HAMC

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Table 11 Review of FC in healthcare-IoT

State-of-the- Applications and Suggestions Result Aim
art

Vora et al. A fog-based platform for application Enhanced response, power utilization Decrement in latency, energy and
[134] adaptation layer and lessen traffic bandwidth consumption
Wu et al. Multiple modal fusion schemes for wellness Decreased latency and platform for Decreasing latency; multi-radio
[135] and nursing monitoring data coexistence
Ullah et al. De-duplicated information supply in H-IoT Decrease in network traffic and Data protection; decrement in delay,
[136] response time, improved security power and bandwidth use
Rahmani et al. Fog-architecture based H-IoT system for a Reducing the delay by 48.5% Decrement in delay; power utilization;
[137] initial phase caution device bandwidth consumption
Siddique et al. CS based data compression algorithm 59% savings in energy for 40% Improved energy efficiency
[138] estimate
Rias et al. Cloud and fog based Ipv6 assisted Decreased traffic flow and increased QoS development; Enhanced power
[139] architecture bandwidth consumption productivity
Ramalho et al. MeCA scheme by means of a related Decrement in traffic production, Enhanced resource productivity
[152] approach battery, and CPU consumption
Jangra et al. Multiple layer architecture for Healthcare Energy saving by employing a fused Improved power efficiency
[140] and wellness IoT compression model
Muhammed UbeHealth is a Healthcare and wellness IoT Decreased delay and power Improved QoS
et al. [141] architecture consumption
George et al. Information sorting at fog node Enhanced bandwidth consumption Improved QoS
[142]
Azimi et al. Mixed tiered model for H-IoT Enhanced precision using Improved QoS
[143] convolutional neural network

evaluates various state-of-the-art literature present in the

healthcare and wellness paradigm of FC [133].

4.3.1 Categorization of FC in healthcare 4.0

This subsection discusses categories of FC in the field of

health and wellness. Figure 17 demonstrates various cate-
gories for FC in health and wellness.

4.3.1.1 Health data This category comes into play when

Fig. 17 Categorization of FC in healthcare 4.0
where FC assists in offloading and makes the use of
location and context-awareness to increase the efficiency.
4.3 Job of fc in healthcare 4.0
In this section, the authors briefly review the categories and
working of fog-based healthcare architecture. This section
also covers the role of fog layer in the implementation of
latency-sensitive healthcare architectures. Table 11
data is generated by various end user devices by sensing,
observing, analysis, and simulation of illness. This stage
has two major steps namely, data collection and data
analysis.
• Data collection: The sensors deployed in the edge layer
generate huge amount of data by utilizing minimal
power and cost. These are responsible for taking data as
input from the user owing to their edge deployment.
Vora et al. [134] reviews the features of FC in health
and wellness.
• Data analysis: At this substage, data is analysed and
according to the configuration and capabilities of the
framework, it is distributed to various cloud servers for
further processing, and simulation [144, 145].

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4.3.1.2 Fog node configuration This layer includes ser-
vers and various networking protocols along with cloud-
lets. To manage all these protocols and devices, Peralta
et al. [146] put forward a MQTT which is an IoT protocol
for communication. He used a less complex computational
layer.
4.3.1.3 Security and privacy
• Security aspect A running prototype which gathers
ECG data from a device using FNs was evaluated by
Akrivopoulos et al. [147] for steadily transferring them
to some organizations. He et al. [148] put forward a
framework for safe transmission [149].
• Privacy aspect To safeguard privacy of a patient,
Elmisery et al. [150] put forward a cloud-aided service
to create accurate conclusions.
4.3.1.4 eHealth services
• Biomedical devices: A health and wellness betterment
fog-aided framework was put forward by Tasic et al.
[151] which consists of wearable device sensors,
tailored biomedical devices, and transmitters to com-
municate to the cloud which then feeds the analysed
data to various institutes.
• Applications: Ramalho et al. [152] put forward a
comprehensive framework known as MeCa, which is
Fig. 18 Three-layer FC-aided health framework
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a hub made of various revolutionary services. There are
various innovative solutions that still need to be
addressed in FC and its role in healthcare.
4.3.2 Healthcare system framework
In this section of the survey, the authors review a three-
layer fog-aided health framework. Figure 18 simulates this
framework and clearly shows that the major three layers
are MDL, FL, and CL. This covers everything from data
collection to processing, and analysis to cloud layer.
4.3.2.1 Medical device layer (MDL) Different IoT-aided
biomedical devices strengthen the patients’ data collection
in healthcare 4.0. This data assists doctors to monitor the
patients through remote sensing [153].
4.3.2.2 Fog layer (FL) The collected data then reaches FL,
where it is processed and transmitted for more analysis.
This layer consists of various FNs and they are further
connected to various edge layer located biomedical devi-
ces. Time sensitivity increases with FNs’ use and helps to
generate accurate and quick alerts in case of emergencies.
Figure 19 shows various challenges resolved by the pres-
ence of the fog layer.
Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
Fig. 19 Assistance provided by
FC in healthcare 4.0
4.3.2.3 Cloud layer The cloud layer consists of resource-
rich computing data centers, which help control and
observe patients throughout the city. The presence of
resources in this layer allows complex computation to
occur, resulting in better monitoring of patients. It has
different internal layers, which are mentioned below:
• Connectivity layer: This layer assists in creating
connections among devices, fog nodes, and the cloud
layer.
• Data management layer: This layer assists in linking the
cloud data from various sources, primarily fog nodes.
• Application layer: This layer provides different services
like alert systems and big-data analytics.
4.3.3 Communication between layers
Figure 19 demonstrates that the data received from various
biomedical sensors and other edge devices is transferred to
FNs, which then processes it and then transfer it to the
cloud for further complex computation. FNs gives
1137
instruction to control the framework. FC primarily pushes
data, switch network, and completes main tasks. It sys-
tematically collects and filters the gathered data.
4.3.3.1 Pushing service It is the process of receiving and
uploading the data to/from the cloud. The fog layer acts as
a moderator among the MD and CL.
4.3.3.2 Switching network The data is available in vari-
ous formats, which incentivizes the use of different transfer
protocols. An essential task for FC is to switch networks
among cloud and edge layers.
4.3.3.3 Core service The two general works help FC
perform minute storing tasks and computation related
tasks. The most important task is to process the data on a
local machine.
4.3.3.4 Aggregation and filtering Once edge layer is
linked with IoT to generate data, sometimes there is no
need to upload data to the cloud after some time. To
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Fig. 20 Roles and fog-assisted
IoT applications
manage this challenge, fog layer should have a feature to
perform collection and filtering. To do this fog layer needs
temporary storage and the availability of storage results in
provision of aggregation and filtering in the fog layer.
4.4 FOG-aided IoT use cases
This subsection introduces FNs’ crucial role, which helps
the framework support live services, persistent storage, and
data distribution. This survey article also provides some
classic use case examples to showcase FC’s role in IoT, as
demonstrated in Fig. 20.
4.4.1 Live services
With various kinds of storage and computational abilities,
FNs act as a group of mini private clouds in the vicinity of
IoT devices. Thus, many time-sensitive use cases can be
created to achieve quick, decisive characteristics based on
gathered data. Some of the examples of live services are
smart traffic lights [17], healthcare and wellness [154],
vehicular navigation [155], home power handling [126],
and network handling [156].
4.4.2 Temporary storage
FNs are provided with some storage amount responsible for
the temporary maintenance of data gathered by end devi-
ces. This storage permits users to keep frequently used data
near to the edge. It helps to fetch data in an improvised
manner quickly. Some classic use cases of temporary
storage are caching [13], shopping cart handling [157], and
credential management [158].
4.4.3 Data dissemination
FNs transfer data gathered from edge to cloud servers and
disseminate it from cloud to edge devices, which creates
network connectivity among the cloud and edge layer. The
presence of fog nodes has enhanced the process of
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collection and distribution significantly. Some use case
applications of data dissemination are energy utilization
monitoring [154], local content dissemination [159], and
fog-aided computer security [160].
4.4.4 Decentralized computation
The availability of storage and various other resources has
enabled multiple FNs to jointly execute data calculation.
Computation offloading [157, 161–163] and big data ana-
lytics are some general use cases of decentralized
computation.
Apart from the major fog based IoT applications men-
tioned above, some important use cases have also been
mentioned figuratively in Fig. 21.
5 Security and privacy concerns in fog
computing
FC inherits its characteristics from cloud computing, and
this results in the inheritance of the security and privacy
concerns as well. In this section, the authors have raised
various concerns in fog computing related to security and
privacy. With the quick increment in user base, there is an
increase in the number of attacks as well as the ways of
attacking the fog framework. The improvement in fog
framework will lead to addition of more advanced security
features.
5.1 Fog framework security: problems
and solutions
In this subsection, the authors have reviewed various
problems related to fog framework security and how to
tackle these problems. Table 12 shows various security-
related problems in FC and their solutions in FC-aided use
cases.
Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154 1139

Fig. 21 Fog-aided IoT

applications in smart city

Table 12 Security concerns and their solutions in FC

Task Threats Solutions

Real-world services Resistance to Sybil Attacks
Interference Recognition
User validation
Lightweight Protocols Plan
Confidence Managing
Entry Supervision
Decentralized Reliable Assisted Computation
Computation Reliable Data Assessment
Certifiable Computation
Data Distribution Safe Search
Privacy-protecting Packet
Transmission
Privacy-protecting Data
Accumulation
Safe Content Dissemination
Temporary Storage Safe Data Sharing
Confidential Data Recognition
and Security
Data integrity security
Mobile and cryptographic Sybil Defence
Network and host-aided entry discovery techniques, Distributed entry discovery
techniques
Character, anonymous, and collaborative validation
Trivial cryptologic schemes
Monitoring and evidence-aided confidence prototype, Reputation management
Position, feature, and gadget key handling policy
Server-assisted encryption, validation, key exchange, and function evaluation
Encryption, Discrepant confidentiality
Confidentially and Openly certifiable computation
Symmetric and Asymmetric Searchable Encoding
Privacy-protecting Packet Transmission
One-way trapdoor permutation, Homomorphic encryption, Homomorphic signature,
Key distribution and Key agreement
Broadcast encryption, Anonymous encoding, Key handling model
Attribute, key, and proxy encoding
Symmetric encryption, asymmetric encryption
Provable data possession

5.1.1 Real-time services
FC has enabled various low delay IoT use cases. However,
the presence of security issues affects the smooth func-
tioning of the fog framework. The users hold themselves
back from full-fledged usage of the architecture. In this
work, the authors review these problems and propose some
methods to tackle these issues.
• Resistance to Sybil attacks: FC’s decentralized frame-
work makes it challenging for the existing defence
methods against the Sybil attacks. The unavailability of
storage results in insufficient data to detect a Sybil
attack. Cryptographic and homomorphic encryption of
data to prevent privacy leakage requires considerable
computational supplies to analyse data in a Sybil attack.
• Interference Recognition: The discovery of suspicious
users in the fog framework can uncover malicious Fn
events. However, this is not always possible because of
the various features of IoT devices. The issues in
creating interference recognition and inhibition

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methods are still large in number [164]. A localized
security protocol is crucial in safeguarding the fog
framework against possible attacks.
• User validation: Decentralized and low-delay services
of FC has imposed a massive hurdle on user validation.
The portability and attacks focusing on user identity
revelation constitute a significant threat to the frame-
work’s functioning. Cooperative validation and other
such tactics can support users’ portability and latency
constraints and validate users effectively.
• Lightweight protocols plan: Due to the constrained
availability of computational resources, planning light-
weight protocols is crucial for the framework to deliver
low-delay secure services and cryptographic keys can
be game-changing in reducing usage of computational
resources, however, this might result in a minor
increase in delay due to extra computation.
• Trust management: The decentralization of fog archi-
tecture makes it challenging to assess the reliability of
the collected data and create a trust assessment plan.
Designing of low delay, decentralized, and scalable
trust assessment model still requires many research
efforts.
• Entry management: The decentralization feature leads
to many users using the same FN simultaneously, which
results in dynamic in and out users’ movement. The FN
should allow multiple devices of a single user to access
data without delay. Simultaneously, it is also respon-
sible for revoking services to idle devices with proper
handling of users’ data.
5.1.2 Decentralized Computation
FNs are at risk of being controlled by the attackers. The
attack can result in users’ data exposure, and the compu-
tation results might be manipulated. Here, the authors
review these problems and propose some methods to tackle
these issues.
• Reliable Assisted Computation: FNs’ cooperation can
help execute much more complex tasks, even more
complicated than encryption and exponentiation. Ni
et al. [165] used FNs to deduplicate collected data and
accumulate the homomorphic keys by the IoT devices.
• Reliable Big Data Assessment: The decentralized
architecture of FC results in a large amount of
heterogeneity in the collected data, making it challeng-
ing for FNs to analyse, especially when there is an
extensive data set. The computation overload due to the
encryption keys also makes it more difficult for the FNs
to analyse it.
• Certifiable Computation: Many theoretical solutions
have been put forward to accomplish certifiable
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computation. In FC, the FNs cooperate and perform
assigned distributive tasks. The fault in a node might
propagate in results calculated by other FNs. The results
must be certified to ensure accuracy and detect any fault
in a node or a group of nodes.
5.1.3 Data distribution
While transmitting data amidst the two-way communica-
tion through fog node, it is unavoidable to reveal confi-
dential data considering FC’s security and privacy
problems. Secret point-to-point communication can assist
in the inhibition of attacks.
• Safe Data Search: Various encryption methods [166]
can help in protecting privacy. However, leakages still
prevail in FC while searching encrypted data. The
matching flag value of users’ data can reveal private
data to outsiders. Therefore, protecting the privacy of a
user is crucial.
• Privacy-Protecting Packet Transmission: The FNs have
access to packets being transmitted worldwide, and they
can observe the flow of packets in their areas. The
attacker can establish a relationship among the senders
and the receivers using their locations, henceforth
revealing the user’s privacy.
• Privacy-Protecting Data Accumulation: FNs are
allowed to accumulate data to minimize communication
overload without revealing data on the communication
packet in FC. Data accumulation methods are crucial to
describe and create data accumulation features (e.g.,
linear and polynomial accumulation, multiplication,
and addition).
• Safe Content Dissemination: Dynamic infrastructure of
FC makes the management of keys in safe service
detection and transmission encryption complex to a
great extent. The assessment of the methods in dynamic
surroundings is crucial for bettering the localized
dissemination mechanism in FC.
5.1.4 Temporary storage
The temporary storage of data collected from IoT devices
in FNs helps minimize data handling complexity. How-
ever, various security problems arise due to the availability
of confidential data in the FN. The leakage of private data
is one of the significant problems. To attain the CIA in
temporary storage, authors in [167] put forward various
problems and their prospective solutions incorporated in
fog framework.
• Safe Data Sharing: The majority of the methods are
designed by time-consuming bilinear combination. Key
Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154 1141

management is useful to share data safely, which results
in the problem of handling decryption keys. This
indicates that sharing data, along with the maintenance
of confidentiality is a complicated task.
• Confidential Data Recognition and Security: The classic
method to protect data is by encrypting whole data.
However, this imposes a heavy computational load on
the fog framework along with the IoT devices. Hence,
we need only to encrypt confidential data. Besides all
the efforts, data leakages are bound to happen.
• Data Integrity Security: Some protocols are designed to
test the possession of data with a user, which can, in
turn, help us to identify suspicious users. However,
these methods are not directly deployable due to two
reasons. First, data is stored temporarily in the FN,
which is then uploaded to cloud data storage facilities
or permanently deleted. Second, owing to the users’
portability, multiple FNs have confidential data of a
user. Therefore, this process is unproductive to assess
the reliability of data on each FN. Due to these reasons,
the authors put forward creating safe and effective data
possession protocols to ensure integrity.
Table 13 explains our observations about why the pre-
sent solution mechanisms are not directly deployable to
rule out the security threats which prevail in the FC.
5.2 Issues and prospective research paths
This section discusses various unsolved issues in FC, as
illustrated in Table 13. The authors believe that this will
initiate and describe some research paths on these
problems.
5.2.1 Location privacy leakage
Real-time services are assisted by the FC framework’s
location awareness feature. Huo et al. [168] put forward a
location-aided proximity discovery protocol to permit users
to detect user’s friends in the exposure area. Yang et al.
[169] put forward an FN location authentication algorithm
to inhibit a security attack from suspiciously attaining a
license to access data. Due to the FC framework’s local-
ization feature, the user’s location is obviously revealed in
FC. A user’s identity can be revealed with an accuracy of
90% with four spatial–temporal points [170]. Therefore, it
is crucial to preserve users’ locations, as the attacker can
quickly identify users if the location is revealed.
5.2.2 Discovery of rogue FNs and edge devices
The compromised FNs and edge devices can act like a
normal one and attract users to utilize them. Roman et al.
[164] illustrated that FNs are exposed to various DoS
attacks. Stojmenovic et al. [171] illustrated the practicality
of MiTM security attacks in FC when the fog gateway had
been hijacked. The key to a user can be obtained from the
digital license. Even if the FNs are not hacked, they might
become a rogue node due to personal motivations. There-
fore, building safe and robust interference discovery
algorithms is crucial for each FN and edge device.
5.2.3 Privacy disclosure in data pattern
In IoT use cases, edge devices generate and process data
confidential to a user. The data can be combined in various
forms, which can spark various security issues. This issue
is worsened by the use of IoT, as one of FC’s aims is to

Table 13 Relationship between characteristics and security concerns in FC

Characteristics Challenges
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

Industrial Applications 8 8 4 4 4 8 8 4 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 4 8 8 4 4
Decentralization 4 8 4 4 4 4 8 4 4 4 8 8 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 4
Topographic distribution 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 8 8 4 8 8
Low latency 4 4 8 8 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 8 4 4 8 4 8 4 4
Incompetency of devices 8 4 4 8 4 8 8 8 8 4 8 4 8 8 8 8 4 8 8 8
Device Portability 8 8 8 4 4 4 8 4 8 8 4 8 8 4 4 8 8 4 4 8
Location awareness 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 8 8 4 8 8
TM
Here, (a) Entry Management, (b) Certifiable Computation, (c) Reliable Big Data Assessment, (d) Resistance to Sybil Attacks, Safe Data
Search, (f) Data Integrity Security, (g) Location Privacy Leakage, (h) Trust Management, (i) Discovery of rogue FNs and edge/IoT devices,
(j) Reliable Assisted Computation, (k) Safe Content Dissemination, (l) Lightweight Protocols Plan, (m) Confidential Data Recognition and
Security, (n) Privacy-protecting Data Accumulation, (o) Decentralized and scalable, secure infrastructure, (p) Privacy exposure in Data com-
bination, (q) Safe Data Sharing, TM Privacy-protecting Packet Transmission, (s) User Validation, (t) Interference Recognition

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allow the cooperation amongst the FNs and process com- • Jamming: In this attack, the malicious user creates
plex data near the network edge. This has given rise to numerous spurious messages to block the transmission
various techniques that needs to be deployed to eliminate channels and over-utilize the resources. This inhibits
security threats in combining data. These methods are in legitimate users from routine functioning.
the development phase, and research attempts are needed • Eavesdropping: This type of attack generally occurs if
to create privacy-protecting models. the data is unprotected or can be easily decrypted. The
attacker can snoop on the transmitted data and obtain
5.2.4 Scalable and decentralized safe infrastructure some packets from the channel to read data.
• Denial-of-Service: DoS attack takes place when a FN is
FNs can be easily corrupted due to the unavailability of a flagged as busy by the hacker who overloads the FN by
party to standardize network functions, stability, and malicious requests. The most vulnerable component of
dependability. Apart from this, classic attack prevention the fog framework amidst a DoS attack is an FN.
methods are ineffective as they need to work in FC’s • Collusion: Collusion is the grouping of malicious users
decentralized and volatile framework. The dissemination of to cheat other users. The collusion of resources
computation over FNs is easy, but data integration becomes increases the attack potential of the attackers.
challenging to monitor. One prospective solution to • Man-in-the-Middle: This attack involves an attacker in
building reliable infrastructure in FC is blockchain [172], a the transmission channel of two legitimate users who
disseminated database keeping a record of dynamic lists. can access and edit the data. However, routine users are
Implementing a blockchain layer will increase users’ trust unaware of the presence of the middleman.
in the fog framework. • Impersonation: A suspicious user imitates a routine user
to use the services presented by the fog framework.
5.3 Types of security attacks
The privacy of a legitimate user is at stake as various
security threats loom over the fog computing framework.
The FC framework inherits massive amount of security and
The below-mentioned features are four characteristics of a
privacy concerns from the cloud architecture. The service
user’s privacy. Figure 22 demonstrates the security and
providers install fog and cloud frameworks to provide
privacy concerns in play related to the FC framework.
services while maintaining confidentiality to the maximum
These always demand efficient and scalable security fea-
extent. However, the service providers’ members have
tures that should be incorporated in the fog architecture.
access to personal data, which they can easily extract from
the system. This results in privacy leakage. Apart from this, • Identity Privacy: The personal details of a user consti-
hackers can target FNs, and they might manipulate the FN tute the identity of a user. These characteristics can
for their benefit. A hacker can attack FNs in the following uniquely determine and expose a user to the attacker.
ways [164] to destroy the fog framework.
• Forgery: Mischievous attackers can forge characteris-
tics and create bogus profiles in order to deceive other
users or FNs. This results in unnecessary utilization of
resources, which increases the workload on the fog
framework.
• Tampering: In a tampering type of attack, a hacker
might delete, create latency, or edit the channel’s data.
• Spam: Spam is the presence of undesirable data (e.g.,
duplicate data, garbage data) created and injected into
the framework by malicious users. This also results in
unnecessary consumption of resources.
• Sybil: In a Sybil attack, an attacker always tries to gain
control over the network to compromise the functioning
and decrease efficiency. They also inject malicious data
into the network by creating false crowdsensing details,
which decreases the reports’ authenticity. The Sybil
attacker could extract the user’s confidential data as
well. Fig. 22 Types of security and privacy attacks

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Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
• Data Privacy: A malicious user can extract the data of a
user while it is being transmitted over the fog frame-
work. Data assessment can reveal confidential infor-
mation about the user’s preferences, addresses, health
conditions.
• Usage Privacy: The pattern of usage of fog resources
and services can reveal the usage privacy of a user.
• Location Privacy: Location privacy leakage can result
in the detection of the path, position, and identity.
Unfortunately, location privacy is the most challenging
type of privacy due to the widespread network of
location-aware FNs.
6 Security threats in use cases
In this section, the authors have reviewed numerous types
of security threats persistent among various use cases.
Various solutions to overcome these threats have also been
discussed.
• Software-defined and virtualized radio access networks:
FC allows users to gain complete control of the network
by giving NLV. They can also enjoy real-time services.
The deployment of cloudlets enhances the performance
of SDN and VMs. A project called Elijah carried out by
Carnegie Mellon University [173] deployed various
features. Multi-level verification, interference discovery
protocols, personal networks, and data isolation can
eradicate virtualization-aided attacks.
• Web optimization: Various websites’ performance can
be enhanced by the use of FC [174]. FNs are being used
to retrieve, group, and run programs in a single cycle.
MAC address helps FNs identify users uniquely,
perform caching, detect network status, and check user
requests. In a similar state-of-the-art [57], the fog
framework decreased the reaction time substantially.
Unsafe and malicious web APIs are one of the most
common security threats to an architecture that allows
hackers to damage cookies and send fake data to the
servers. Drive-by-attacks [175] and unsafe pointers to
objects assists hackers in manipulating the fog archi-
tecture that results in leakage of confidential data.
• Collection and pre-processing of speech data: Most
security attacks are propelled because a smartphone
user has granted permission to access personal data
[176]. The majority of the hearing aid mobile applica-
tions are installed on a smartphone. Malware attacks
manipulate the user’s data and affect the CIA of
communication channels and the data. Some possible
solutions to cover up the threats include anti-virus
software, firewall, interference detection algorithms,
backups, patching, and creation of restore points [177].
1143
• Provisioning 5G mobile networks: The heterogeneous
and geographically distributed mesh network amongst
mobile networks, FNs, and cloud servers make FC
advantageous for 5G network technology, SDN, and
NLV [3]. The fog framework’s workload balancing
feature gives it an edge over other computing
paradigms [109]. The deployment of the Oauth2
protocol can eliminate various threats on the 5G
network [178].
• Saving energy in Cloud computing: Researchers
deployed call graphs to reduce computation workload
by efficiently handling and assigning resources [179].
This assisted in decreasing energy utilization in
portable phones. In this use case, FC can prove
promising by localizing data processing in the FNs,
which minimizes lag and expense. However, security
threats arise due to the existence of data in the FN.
These threats can be eliminated using various encryp-
tion techniques, validation, categorization, and data
masking [180].
• Managing resources in micro data-centers: FC can
handle, estimate, and reserve computational resources
in multi-level systems. A prospective security issue is
the violation of access control on specific levels.
Resource misuse, account hacking, and DoS attacks
are other threats to the fog framework. NIST [181]
recommended the deployment of character-based con-
trol protocols and profile-based encryption systems
[182] to enhance security.
• Enhancing healthcare facilities and their performance:
Healthcare and wellness programs are significant use
cases of the fog computing framework. Confidential
patient records are stored in the system, and it can be
hacked at various points in the fog framework.
Biomedical sensor devices record data and simultane-
ously transmit it to the nearest FN. Due to the simplified
availability of patients’ confidential data, attackers
target FNs by various security attacks such as DoS,
distraction, and partial transmittance [183]. Proper
encryption and multi-level validation protocols should
be implemented to eliminate these security threats.
• Smart food tracking: FC is deployed as a potential
solution for tracking food and proper handling, remov-
ing low-quality food from the manufacturing chain
[184]. This chain could be compromised by hackers,
which will result in the safe passage of low-quality
food. This will decrease the quality of manufactured
goods. Resonance attack is a primary security threat
looming over the food grain supply chain. Several
integrity assessments can prevent resonance attacks.
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1144
• Vehicular networking: Shared technology in 5G net-
works and fog framework has resulted in similar
security threats to the architecture. The presence of
multiple and portable FNs makes it next to impossible
to handle them through a centralized approach [185].
DoS attacks and data leak threats are prominent in
vehicular networking. A practical solution to prevent
these attacks is to enable validation, encryption
strongly. Regular health assessments should take place.
• Surveillance video stream processing: The computation
of each video generated by CCTV cameras is a tedious
task. This computation needs to be performed in a
disseminated way, and only the final output needs to be
stored in the cloud server to produce a much quicker
output. Industrial video streaming can also take place
by implementing multicriteria AHP techniques [186]
among FNs. The confidential video feed needs to be
protected from frequent APTs, which can view,
manipulate, and even disrupt the framework. To
guarantee security against threats, FNs must ensure
safe transmission between all the devices involved in
this process. Complex encryption, management of
access, new link generation, and an upper cap on the
connections could help prevent threats.
• Augmented brain-computer interaction: In the modern
world, telehealth systems [69] are widely used in
healthcare and wellness programs. This involves an
assessment of various human body parameters collected
through biomedical sensors. The collected data is of the
utmost confidentiality and needs to be protected at all
costs. TLS protocol [187] is a prospective solution to
protect the CIA of data.
CSA [188], along with some researchers [171, 189],
have detected twelve vital security threats. These threats
immediately affect disseminated and on-demand charac-
teristics of the cloud and fog framework. The authors have
reviewed these twelve threats to put together an organized
study. Table 14 also talks about these potential security
threats keeping in mind various use cases implemented
using fog computing architecture.
• APTs are strikes to conduct confidential data theft by
manipulating the company’s foundation.
• ACI occurs when a malicious user can access data and
deploy software packages and edit configurations.
• AH is another form of phishing. The attackers are
motivated to hijack user profiles for carrying out
suspicious events.
• In a DoS attack, genuine users are inhibited from
utilizing a system’s services by overloading the avail-
able computational resources.
• DB takes place when personal and secure data is
circulated or robbed by the attacker.
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Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154
• DL takes place when potentially important data is
suspiciously removed from the system. DL can occur
even without the involvement of an attacker.
• Ias can result in a security attack instantaneously.
Service providers introduce APIs as a product for
clients.
• SAV are vulnerable bugs in a software package caused
due to a configuration error. An attacker might trespass
the security perimeter using these bugs.
• MI is a validated user who is determined to execute
applications suspiciously.
• IDD occurs when a company has deployed a system
without proper design and security checks.
• ANU occurs when some users use freely available
resources to conduct a mischievous event.
• The root cause of STI threats is sharing resources,
interfaces, or applications.
7 Prospective security solutions in fog
computing
In this section, the authors have reviewed various secure
and deployable procedures to improve security in the FC
framework. Table 15 provides an outline of the threats and
their prospective solutions associated with fog computing.
• Network monitoring: The fog framework needs to
deploy effective network observing algorithms. The
primary goal of the algorithms should be to flag
suspicious events in the architecture according to the
policies. Some packages like CLOUDWATCHER
[190] can be implemented. The categorization of
firewalls, interference detection systems, and anti-virus
packages [191] is necessary. ANNs [192] can be
utilized for the detection of security issues.
• Wireless security: The encryption of data generated by
wireless sensors, especially the confidential ones, is
crucial for the data’s CIA. WiFi security solutions like
WPA, WPA2 [193] can be deployed for encryption of
data. Wireless communication protocols such as
802.11, 802.11a, and 802.11 g or are used to eliminate
MiTM type of attacks.
• Backup and recovery: Tremendous amount of capital,
time, and efforts are required for data recovery. The fog
architecture is prone to attacks and natural disasters,
and it might result in permanent or temporary data loss.
Hence, keeping a backup is crucial for data recovery.
Fibre channel, HS-DRT, PCS, ERGOT, CBSRS, SBBR
[194] enhances the process of recovering data.
• Malware protection: Implementing software packages
like FindEvasion [195], which assists in the automatic
discovery of suspicious events, can improve the defense
 Table 14 Use case based evaluation of present security solutions
Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154

Use Cases DoS DL Evil Shared Uncertain Advance Data Inadequate Account Mistreatment System and Access
Insider Technology APIs Persistent Breaches Due Diligence Usurping and Evil Use Use Liabilities Control
Concerns Threats Issues

Virtualized radio N N Y Y N Y Y N Y Y Y Y
access
Web optimization N Y N N Y N N N Y N N N
Speech data N Y Y N N N N N N N N N
5G mobile networks N Y Y Y N N Y N N Y N N
Energy reduction N Y N N N N Y N N N N N
Managing resources Y Y N Y N N N Y Y Y N Y
Healthcare facilities Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y Y
Food tracking N Y N N N N N N Y N Y N
Vehicular networking Y N N Y N N Y N N Y N N
and Road safety
Surveillance video N N N N N Y Y Y N N N N
processing
Augmented Brain- N N N N N Y Y Y N N N Y
Computer Interaction
1145

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1146 Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154

Table 15 Outline of proposed security procedures

Solution Issues solved Advantages
category

Network APT, ACI, DoS attack, MI, IDD, This can instantaneously inform about any current attack, store malicious incidents’
monitoring ANU, DB statistics for investigation and prohibit doubtful network traffic and show overall
performance of system
Wireless APT, ACI, DB, Spying attacks, FNs can expand their movement in safer way, which allows numerous edge users to
security Illegitimate bandwidth use connect from anyplace and enable the FC framework to become cost efficient
Backup and DL, IDD, malware infection, Data If natural tragedy, malware contamination or DoS attack occurs, the data will still be
recovery Integrity accessible to legitimate users and system laterally with its reliability
Malware AH, IA, SAV, STI, DL, data Elimination of known malicious use cases, guards against attacks by smart observation
protection corruption and guarantees continuous working of the framework
Data encryption MI, DB, DL, IDD, malicious events If data is penetrated at any point of time and state, data encoding will keep the original
data buried from prohibited receivers
Avoiding cache IA, SAV, data leaks, sniffing threats If a FN is pretending to be a cache server, the sensitively received data will remain
outbreaks private

against malware attacks. Apart from this, some ML instructions. In order to tackle the higher consumption
algorithms [196] can be deployed to assess security of resources due to encryption, only the confidential
attacks with better efficiency instantaneously. data needs to be encrypted. The static data can be
• Data encryption: The steps taken to safeguard data secured using the AES algorithm, which obfuscates
result in a tremendous drop in the computational data to guarantee privacy. A reliable communication
resource availability for standard fog-based

Fig. 23 FC platform and implementation of security protocols at various locations in the framework

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channel can be formed using the SSL protocol
[197, 198].
• Preventing cache attacks: Cache interruption attacks are
widely used by attackers to manipulate fog framework.
Some packages like Newcache [199], partition locked
cache, randomized permutation cache [200], and
STEALTHMEM [201] can be deployed to inhibit
cache interference-based attacks.
The deployment of all the security frameworks and
methods associated with different fog computing infras-
tructure parts is demonstrated in Fig. 23.
8 Lessons learned
Our survey article permits us to develop concrete lessons in
contrast with the fog architecture. The classification of
various computing paradigms over various parameters
validates the fact that edge network-based computing
paradigms are beneficial for the inter-communication
between IoT devices. Fog computing also facilitates
uninterrupted communication between the cloud and the
edge layer. The fog computing framework assists in the
portable computing at the user’s end while provisioning
minimal latency, disseminated workload, and virtualiza-
tion. This also helps in ensuring expandability, smooth
real-time usage, diversity, excellent quality of service, and
compatibility. The computation takes place irrespective of
the topological distribution of the framework.
The implementation of fog architecture reveals the
reason behind the reliability of IoT devices on fog com-
puting or other edge computing paradigms. For example,
Gia et al. [64] and Li et al. [72] demonstrated a latency
reduction by 48% and 73% respectively when deploying
the fog architecture. As exhibited in [61], the reduction in
latency is subjected to experimentation and is calculated by
placing the fog components over the cloud-fog system, and
in some application verticals, placing all the components in
the cloud layer is advantageous than distributing them over
cloud and fog framework. Several references have been
added to highlight various algorithms provisioning task
scheduling, resource sharing, and job offloading. The
localized data processing over a decentralized network
mesh of several fog nodes helps in bandwidth conservation
and minimizes the workload on the cloud servers. Krishnan
et al. [57] and Gia et al. [64] concludes that there is a
significant reduction in data while deploying fog frame-
work. For example, Gia et al. displayed a 93% data size
decrement when fog architecture was deployed. The fog
systems are also validated to preserve energy, which
implies low monetary requirements.
1147
The fog computing framework provisions the develop-
ment of industrial IoT use cases. These industrial use cases
range from precision agriculture, conveyance, smart city
management to smart waste and energy management. The
reduced latency assists in the real-time functioning of all
the industrial application verticals especially, healthcare
and wellness use cases. Aazam and Huh [74] demonstrated
the use of fog computing to create emergency alerts
through E-HAMC. Similarly, Phenomobile technology
[115] assists precision agriculture by leveraging big data
analytics to analyse the large amount of data generated
through various wireless sensors located in the agriculture
fields. Wireless sensors communicate with each other over
a large network of fog nodes through various secure pro-
tocols which then assists in garbage level’s monitoring and
timely collection and processing, energy level’s monitor-
ing, and vehicular communication. However, the devel-
oper’s perspective to prioritize feature rich application over
the user’s safety has led to various unfortunate cases of
security and privacy attacks.
Fog computing inherits most of the security and privacy
issues along with other attributes from cloud computing.
The decentralized architecture, and larger exposure of fog
nodes results in increment in privacy risk. Many malicious
users target the fog nodes to enter the framework and
conduct suspicious activities. As shown in [164], the
hackers get involved in various types of security and pri-
vacy attacks. Most of the times, malicious users pretend to
be a normal user and leverage fog computing to delay or
abandon services which were meant for genuine users. This
results in the decrement of quality of service and exposes
user’s data to the attacker. This survey article highlights
various problems caused due to these attacks and suggest
some prospective solutions for these issues.
9 Conclusion
IoT has revolutionized the digital era as it assists both the
industry and academia. Nowadays, manufacturing, con-
veyance, smart cities, government, wellness, healthcare,
and retail are advancing primarily due to the involvement
of IoT. This has led to a significant rise in the emergence of
new IoT and edge gadgets in the network mesh. Billions of
IoT devices have connected to the network, and fog com-
puting is reliable for tackling the big data produced by
these IoT and user devices. The decentralized framework
of fog computing expands cloud computing features to the
network edge for assisting industrial IoT use cases. In this
survey, the authors have reviewed fog computing charac-
teristics and have compared different existing computing
models. Then, the classification of various state-of-the-art
literature has been provided. A set of evaluation parameters
123
1148
is utilized to decisively review the prospective algorithms
and architectures in the field of fog paradigm. This article
also examines the task of fog gateways located in the edge
device’s vicinity in fog-assisted use cases. Fog computing
plays a vital role in assisting both the industries as well as
the academic institutions by provisioning Industrial IoT
applications such as smart conveyance, precision agricul-
ture, waste control, energy management, etc. This paper
also discusses various real-time implementation issues in
the framework. This literature quickly suggests some
solutions to protect data confidentiality, resource manage-
ment policy, validation, and encryption standards from
various types of attacks. Some basic but large-scale secu-
rity protocols for fog architecture can be created using
existing protocols with slight modifications since they have
been rigorously tested. Lastly, this review paper establishes
potential research objectives for individuals engaged in
devising, expanding, and maintaining the fog framework.
Acknowledgements This work is partially funded by FCT/MCTES
through national funds and when applicable co-funded EU funds
under the Project UIDB/50008/2020; and by Brazilian National
Council for Scientific and Technological Development – CNPq, via
Grant No. 313036/2020-9.
Author contributions Not Applicable.
Funding This work is partially funded by FCT/MCTES through
national funds and when applicable co-funded EU funds under the
Project UIDB/50008/2020; and by Brazilian National Council for
Scientific and Technological Development—CNPq, via Grant No.
313036/2020-9.
Data availability The authors confirm that the data supporting the
findings of this study are available within the article.
Code availability Not Applicable.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors do not have any conflict of interest.
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1154 Cluster Computing (2022) 25:1111–1154

Siddhant Jain is currently an K. K. Sreelakshmi received her

undergraduate student pursuing B.Tech degree in Computer
his Bachelor’s degree in Com- Science and Engineering from
puter Science at Birla Institute Cochin University of Science
of Technology and Science and Technology (CUSAT),
Pilani, Pilani Campus. He is Kerala, India, in 2017. She is
currently working as a software currently doing her Master of
engineer intern at VMware Engineering in Computer Sci-
Software India. He has also ence and Engineering at BITS
worked as a Software Developer Pilani. Her research domains
Intern at ScoVelo Consulting include Artificial Intelligence,
Limited, Chennai. His research Deep Learning, and IoT.
interests include Internet of
Things (IoT), Fog Computing,
Healthcare monitoring, Com-
puter Architecture, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning.
Joel P. Rodrigues [S0 01, M0 06,
Dr. Shashank Gupta is an
SM0 06, F0 20] is a professor at
Assistant Professor in the
the Federal University of Piauı́
Department of Computer Sci-
(UFPI), Brazil; a senior
ence & Information Systems,
researcher at the Instituto de
Birla Institute of Technology &
Telecomunicações (IT), Portu-
Science, Pilani, Pilani Campus
gal; and collaborator of
since 2017. He is an active
PPGETI, Federal University of
member of Disruptive Tech-
Ceará, Brazil. His main research
nologies (DT) Lab. He has
interests include Internet tech-
received his PhD from National
nologies, sensor networks,
Institute of Technology Kuruk-
mobile and ubiquitous comput-
shetra, Haryana in Web Security
ing, vehicular communications,
in 2017, M.Tech. (CSE) from
e-learning and e-health tech-
Central University of Rajasthan
nologies, mobile and cloud
in 2012 and B.E (IT) from
computing. He has authored or co-authored over 850 scientific pub-
University of Pune in 2009. His research interest specializes in the
lications. He is Fellow of IEEE, ACM Senior Member, IEEE ComSoc
areas of Privacy and Security, Internet of Things (IoT), Fog Com-
Distinguished Lecturer, Past-Director for Conference Development -
puting, Internet of Vehicles (IoVs) and some related areas of high
IEEE ComSoc Board of Governors, a Past-Chair of the IEEE ComSoc
performance computing. He has recently contributed his research
Technical Committee on eHealth, and a Past-Chair of the IEEE
work in the related areas of HTML5 injection attacks, IoT healthcare
ComSoc Technical Committee on Communications Software. Joel is
systems, IoT-driven precision agriculture, cryptocurrencies related to
the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of E-Health and
blockchain, etc. He has published numerous research articles in var-
Medical Communications (from IGI Global, USA). He is the Sym-
ious top tier conferences and journals such as Future Generation
posium Co-Chair leader of Several ICC/GLOBECOM conferences,
Computer Systems (FGCS), Elsevier, Journal of Network and Com-
among others. He has authored or coauthored over 950 papers in
puter Applications (JNCA), Journal of Ambient Intelligence and
refereed international journals and conferences, 3 books, 2 patents,
Humanized Computing (AIHC), Springer, NSS, Globecom, ICC,
and 1 ITU-T Recommendation. He had been awarded several Out-
FIPS, etc. He is also a Senior member of IEEE and professional
standing Leadership and Outstanding Service Awards by IEEE
member of ACM. In addition, he is a part of program/review com-
Communications Society and several best papers awards. Prof.
mittee of various top-tier conferences, transactions and journals, and
Rodrigues is a member of the Internet Society, a senior member
also served as PI/Co-PI for numerous sponsored research grants. He
ACM, and Fellow of IEEE.
has also filed a few patents related to web security.

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