 Know the different stages of the cell cycle

 describe the relationship between DNA, chromatin and chromosomes

 Identify the different parts of a chromosome
 Understand the importance of mitosis
 Understand the processes involved in mitotic cell division
▪ In the nucleus, DNA is packaged
into thread-like structures called
chromosomes
▪ The chromosome consist of DNA
coiled around proteins called
histones which serves to support
its structure
▪ For all members of the same species, the number of chromosomes present in each
body cell is usually the same
▪ In most plants and animals, the cells of the body contain 2 sets of chromosomes
called homologous pairs
▪ Each pair of chromosomes contain alleles of the same genes in its same order and
are therefore usually similar in size and shape
▪ A cell which contains homologous pairs of chromosomes is said to be in the
diploid condition (represented as 2n)
▪ A cell which contains only one of each type of chromosome is said to be in the
haploid condition (represented as n)
▪ Some simple organisms contain cells with haploid nuclei; however, in higher
organisms only the gametes (sperms and eggs) are haploid
“ A series of activities through which a cell passes from the
time it is formed until it reproduces. It is the growth and
division of a single cell into two daughter cells.”
Tortora and Grabowski, (1996)
The cell cycle consists of:
1. A period of chromosomal replication
and cell growth
2. A period of chromosome segregation
3. cytokinesis (cell division).
 STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle consists of:

• G1 Phase - growth and preparation for
chromosome(DNA) replication

• S Phase - DNA replication

• G2 Phase - preparation for mitosis

• M Phase - mitosis and cytokinesis

Following cytokinesis
and DNA replication,
cell often undergo a
period of growth at
which time organelles
are replicated, mRNAs
and proteins are
produced. These
periods are termed G1
and G2 (or Gap 1 and
Gap 2).

G1, G2 and S-phase

are together called
interphase.
 The cytogenetic events associated with the
cell cycle

M-phase consists of all stages of mitosis and

cell division. S-phase occurs towards the
end of interphase and consists of a period of
DNA replication.
▪ Proto-oncogenes stimulate cell division
▪ Tumour supressor genes slow down cell division.
▪ Oncogene – a mutated proto-oncogene. Oncogenes are believed to be one of the
causes of cancers.
 Adapted from NLM, 2006

Note: The length of DNA in a cell is about 2meters

▪ In eukaryotes linear DNA is complexed to histones (proteins) to form
highly dense secondary structures.

▪ Chromosomal DNA just under 5cm in length is packed into chromosome

of length 1-10um.

▪ levels of packaging:
▪ nucleosomes,
▪ loops of fibers (or beads-on-a-string), and .
▪ 30nm fibers.
▪ The complex of densely packed DNA and chromosomal proteins
make up the chromatin of the chromosome.
▪ The most important chromosomal proteins are histones (H1, H2A, H2B,
H3, and H4).

▪ Note: DNA must be unpacked in order to be expressed.

▪ Basic units of Eukaryotic Xsome
structure

▪ Four pairs of protein monomers (H2A,

H2B, H3, and H4) make up the histone
core (octamer).

▪ The nucleosome core particle

consists of a histone octamer and
about 146 base pairs of DNA

▪ Each nucleosome is made up of a

core particle plus histone (H1) and
linker DNA

▪ Linker DNA consists of about 54 base Peter J. Russell, iGenetics: Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc.,
pairs. publishing as Benjamin Cummings.

▪ Histone H1 binds to the core particle

and to linker DNA.
▪ This represents the 1st
level of chromosomal
packing

▪ Beads = core nucleosome

Peter J. Russell, iGenetics: Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc.,
publishing as Benjamin Cummings.

▪ String = DNA

▪ Nucleosomes are
connected together by
linker DNA and histone
(H1)
 Nucleosomes packed
together into compact
chromatin fiber

 Packed on top of one

another, generating a
regular array.
Peter J. Russell, iGenetics: Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc.,
publishing as Benjamin Cummings.

 The resulting fiber is

about 30nm in
diameter.

 Makes DNA even more

highly condensed
▪ Human chromosome 17,
as seen in a G-banded,
400 band preparation.

Strachan and Read, 1999. Chp.2

▪ DNA stores an organism's genetic information
▪ Controls the production of proteins and is
thus responsible for the biochemistry of an
organism.
The way our body forms, the way we look
and the way our body functions are all as a
result of our DNA

How?
▪ DNA Codes for proteins and these proteins:
○ Make up tissues
○ Help regulate growth
○ Carry out metabolism
○ Are part of the immune system
○ Synthesize fats
○ Synthesize pigments
▪“Each time a cell divides its nucleus
divides first and then the cytoplasm
divides to give two new cells, each with a
nucleus” Fosbery et. Al (2012).

▪ Mitosis occurs in somatic cells and

ensures that all somatic cells have the
same genetic makeup. It maintains genetic
stability.
▪ What is a stem cell?
▪ An unspecialized cell characterized by the ability to self-renew by mitosis while in
an undifferentiated state, and the capacity to give rise to
various differentiated cell types by cell differentiation.
▪ Pluripotent. totipotent
▪ Mitosis is involved in

▪Growth
▪Repair of damaged cells
▪Replacement of cells and tissues
▪Asexual reproduction.
▪ End result of mitosis

▪ Two daughter nuclei are produced

▪ The genetic composition of the
daughter nuclei is the same as the
parent nucleus.(Genetic stability)
▪ The daughter nuclei contain the
same number of chromosomes as the
parent.
▪ There is no variation.
▪ Centriole – only found in animal cells,
made of protein.
▪ Microtubule - fibrous, hollow rods,
that function primarily to help
support and shape the cell.
▪ Kinetochore - a specialized structure
on the centromere to which the
spindle fibres attach during mitosis
and meiosis
Picture taken from http://www.sparknotes.com
• Prophase: Chromatin
condenses and nucleolus
disappears

• DNA is packaged into

chromosomes. Centriole moves
to opposite poles of the cell.
Nuclear envelope breaks up.
Picture taken from http://www.sparknotes.com
▪Metaphase
Chromosomes line up along the
metaphase plate.

- Microtubules attach to the

centromere.
Picture taken from http://www.sparknotes.com
▪Anaphase
Microtubules shorten and
pull sister chromatids to
opposite poles of the cell.
Picture taken from http://www.sparknotes.com
▪Telophase
Chromosomes arrive at the poles
and uncoil. Chromatin reappears.
The nuclear envelope reforms.
Picture taken from http://www.sparknotes.com
▪ Cytoplasm divides. This may occur
during or after telophase.

▪ Cleavage occurs by the contraction of

a thin ring of actin filaments that form
the contractile ring.
▪ Two types of chromatin are evident in a cell that is in interphase
▪ Heterochromatin – Stains more deeply because this DNA is tightly coiled. This types of
DNA is not used in transcription.

▪ Euchromatin – It is actively being transcribed and as a result it is not tightly packed,

hence its staining is lighter than in heterochromatin.
▪ Interphase encompasses 3 stages within the cell cycle. G1, S & G2
▪ When a cell is in interphase it’s DNA is in not condensed and chromosomes are not
visible. In this state it is referred to as chromatin.
▪ Chromatin is formed from DNA that is associated with histone proteins.
▪ All cells, including stem cells, do not remain in the cell cycle indefinitely.
Eventually they die.
▪ Apoptosis – this is programmed cell death. This occurs after about 50 mitotic
divisions for most cells.
▪ Necrosis – this type of cell death is related to trauma.
▪ Enzymes break down the cell cytoskeleton.
▪ Cytoplasm becomes dense.
▪ Chromatin condenses and nuclear envelope breaks. DNA breaks into fragments.
▪ The cell breaks up into vesicles which are taken up by phagocytosis.
There are two types of cell death: apoptosis and necrosis

Apoptosis Necrosis
*Chromatin condensation *Nuclear swelling
*Cell shrinkage *Cell swelling
*Preservation of organelles *Disruption of organelles
and cell membranes *Rupture of cell and release
*Rapid engulfment by of cellular contents
neighboring cells *Inflammatory response

Biochemical Hallmark:
DNA fragmentation
1. Describe what happens to nuclei, nuclear envelopes, centrioles and the cell
membrane during one complete mitotic cycle. Tabulate your answers.

2. List what happens to a chromosome throughout a complete mitotic cell cycle.

3. Outline the stages of mitosis and indicate clearly how this process ensures that
EACH daughter nucleus receives a full set of chromosomes. [CAPE 2005 Qu.
7(a),adapted]

4. Explain how mitosis maintains genetic stability.

 Prophase Meta- Ana- Telo- Cyto-
phase phase phase kinesis
Nuclei One nucleus is No No visible Two partially Two fully
Present but visible nuclei formed nuclei formed
disappears as nuclei Are visible nuclei are
the envelope visible
disintegrates.
Nuclear Disintegrates Absent Absent Reforms around Present
envelope each set of
chromosomes
centriole Move to
opposite poles
Cell Remains intact Remains Remains Begins to furrow Divides
membran intact intact but into two
e stretches as giving two
the new cells
chromatids
separate.
▪ Mitosis is the type of division that occurs when it is essential that the daughter cells
have the same genes as the parent cell and each other

▪ Mitosis therefore forms an essential part of asexual reproduction

▪ Cells of the parent divides by mitosis to form the offspring

▪ Asexual reproduction takes place when a new individual is produced from one
parent without the formation and fusion of gametes
▪ The offspring is genetically identical to the parent
▪ If several offspring are produced this way from the same parent, they are members of a
clone
Photo taken from:
https://biotechnologysociety.files.wordpress.com/2015
/03/info_telomeres.gif
“Cancer is the name given to a
collection of related diseases. In
all types of cancer, some of the
body’s cells begin to divide
without stopping and spread
into surrounding tissues.
Cancer can start almost
anywhere in the human body,
which is made up of trillions of
cells. Normally, human cells
grow and divide to form new
cells as the body needs them.
When cells grow old or become
damaged, they die, and new
cells take their place.” - National
Cancer Institute
▪ Cancer is a condition which may arise if a cell’s control mechanisms break
down
▪ The cell may divide repeatedly to produce a mass of undifferentiated cells
known as a primary tumour
▪ These may grow at different rates and in different tissues
▪ They remain as intact growths which can easily be removed by surgery
▪ These tumours are called benign
▪ Sometimes cells are shed from the primary tumour and are carried around
the body, often in the lymph or blood systems
▪ They keep on dividing wherever they are and form secondary tumours
throughout the body
▪ These are called malignant
▪ Haploid cells are produced by meiosis
▪ Meiosis is the process whereby a diploid nucleus (2n) divides to produce
four haploid daughter nuclei (n) which are not genetically identical to each
other are the parent nucleus
▪ Meiosis is part of sexual reproduction
▪ Even in flowering plants undergoing self-fertilization the offspring is
genetically different to the parent
▪ The result of meiosis is genetic variation which is necessary for the
survival of a species
▪ Sexual reproduction is the production of a new individual by the fusion of
two haploid gametes, usually derived from separate parents. The offspring
differs genetically from the parents and each other
▪ Meiosis follows the G2 stage of interphase, after the DNA has replicated
▪ It is a continuous process consisting of two distinct divisions:
▪ Meiosis 1
▪ Meiosis 2
▪ DNA already replicated but not
coiled, so no chromosomes visible
▪ Nuclear membranes present

▪ Two centrioles present (No

centrioles in plant cells)
▪ Nucleolus present
▪ DNA condenses, each
chromosome becomes
stainable and can be seen
as two chromatids attached
at a centromere
▪ Nuclear membrane present
▪ Centrioles begin to move
towards opposite poles of
the cell
▪ Microtubules assemble
around each centriole
▪ Nucleolus disappears
▪ Homologous chromosomes
pair up and lie alongside
each other
▪ This is called synapsis
▪ Each double structure is
called a bivalent
▪ The centrioles move
further towards opposite
poles
▪ The chromatids in a bivalent
tangle and pass over each other at
points called chiasmata (singular
chiasma)
▪ The chromatids may break at this
point and rejoin with a different
chromatid
▪ If a portion of chromatid becomes
attached to a chromatid of the
other chromosome, then a new
combination of genes is produced
and crossing over has occurred
▪ The reformed chromosomes are
called recombinants
▪ The nuclear membrane
breaks down
▪ The nuclear spindle forms
▪ The bivalents move to the
equator of the spindle and
each chromosome
becomes attached to a
spindle fibre by its
centromere
▪ Movement and
contractions of the spindle
fibres causes whole
chromosomes to move
towards opposite poles

▪ Homologous
chromosomes separate
▪ A nuclear membrane
forms around each group
of chromosomes
▪ Spindle fibres disappear
and centrioles divide into
two
There may or may not be a short pause following
cytokinesis
▪ Centrioles
move
towards
opposite
poles
▪ The nuclear membranes
disappear and nuclear
spindles form at right
angles to the plane of
the first spindle
▪ The chromosomes move
to the equator and attach
to spindle fibres by their
centromeres
▪ The
centromeres
divide and
sister
chromatids
move towards
opposite poles
▪ Each chromatid is now
called a chromosome
▪ A nuclear membrane
forms around each group
of chromosomes
▪ Spindle fibres disappear
and the centrioles may
divide in two
▪ Four daughter cells are produced

▪ Each cell genetically different from the others

During the formation of gametes, genes for different traits segregate
independently

▪ At metaphase 1:
▪ Homologous pairs of chromosomes lie in these pairs at the equator of the
spindle
▪ How they line up occurs purely by chance
▪ The following formula can be used to calculate the possible assortments of
maternal and paternal chromosomes in a gamete:

▪ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒 = 2𝑛 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =

ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠)
▪ If a diploid cell (2n =6) divides by meiosis, how many different combinations of
chromosomes would it be possible to find in a gamete produced from this cell?
▪ List 3 similarities between mitosis and meiosis
▪ Tortora Gerard J. and Grabowski Sandra R. (1996) Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology, Eight Edition
▪ Fosbery Richard, La Place Stuart, McPherson Lorna (2012) CAPE Biology A CXC
Study Guide
▪ Hocking et. Al (2008), OCR A2 Biology
▪ http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/cellreproduction/mitosis/section1.rhtml
▪ http://www.biology-online.org/