Mechanical Penetration of Liquid Steel in Sand Molds APS Research KD. Hayes 1.0. Barlow DM. Stefanescu T.S, Piwonka University of Alabama ‘Tuscaloosa, Alabama ABSTRACT ‘The investigation af mechanical penetration in ferrous castings hhas been extended to steel castings. A mechanical penetration prognosticator for steel castings has been developed and vali- dated for a number of experimental castings. A data base required for the model was also developed It meludes contact ‘angles measurements for « number of steels (carbon-stee, high Inanganese steel and statless see!) on different molding aggre gates (silica, zircon, alumina, mullite, chromite, magnesite, plivine, bausite). Nr was demonstrated that the causes and eure fof mechanical penetration in steel are similar in narure with those previously discussed for cast iron. INTRODUCTION Metal penetration is defined as a surface condition in castings in ‘which metal or metal oxides hove filled the voids between sand grains without displacing them."Tis defects responsible for major feeavomic losses to the foundey industry, mostly because of the requited rework ‘Based on the major mechanisms for metal penetration into the solding nggregete, to types of penetration have been identified: mmechsnical and chemical penetration. Mechanical penetration es Seatislly oceurs when the metallostatie and dynamic pressures ex feted by the stool exceed the pressures that oppose penetration, The capillary pressure resulting from the interaction between the steel land the molding egeregate isthe major factor that opposes penetra tion, An example of mechanical penetration of steel castings is shown in Fig. 1. In tis figue, the steel (ight phase) has penetrated {nto the sand grains (gray phase). The darkareas, located between the sand grains, are small voidsthateould note ile by the liquid steel Ihecause of capillary forces, There are no other phases present, jndicating that no reaction has taken place. Previous work at the University of Alabana concentrated on the penetration of easton into sand molds + There was na evidenes of any chemical reaction taking place between the metal andthe mold ‘oF the mold atmosphere. It was thus concluded that, For the case of| ‘east iron, penetation i mechanical. Tt can be counterected by changing some of the mold variables (hardness, gf), the metal fcompenition and the temperature of the metal and by altering the tating system to reduce the velocity ofthe metal against the mold wal. Chemical penetration oecurs shen a chemical reaction takes place between liquid steel and ether the atmosphere or the molding AFS Transactions aggregate. Figure 2 is a photomicrograph showing a region of chemical penetration for a steel casting. lo this figure, the reaction prodhcts—iron oxide (FeO) and fayalite (Fe,Si0%)—ean easly be seen. tis thus apparent ha, fr stel, both chemical and mechanical penetration are possible. While both types of penetration were ‘Studied for steel castings, only te findings on mecinanieal pevetra- tion wil be reported bere, We will also discuss a simple softvare-— ‘The Mechanieal Penetration Progrosticator fr Steel Castings —that |was developed to assist the foundyman in finding solutions inthe case of mechanical penetration occurrence. ‘SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL PENETRATION PHYSICS "The contact angle between molten metal and a substate is an inherent material property. Bach metal-substate combination can havea different contact angle, but this contact angle is considered a ‘constant fora given combination under given conditions. In other ori, if two metals ofthe exact composition were melted on two ‘entical substrates ner the samme conditions, then their measured (700%) Fio. 2. Photomicrograph showing chemical penetration region (400%) 98-156 789contact angles would be exsetly the same. This contact angle wil be referred to asthe actual contact angle @y.), which is a function of Femperature and composition, 1 F composition, temperature) ® the actual eontact angle is fess than 9, then the metal is said {to “wet” the substrate Ifthe actual contact angle is farger than 90°, then the metal is“"nonwetting” tothe substrate. When the metal wets the substrate, penetration occurs spontaneously. Hf the metal is ronveting, then extraneous forces acting on the metal aa ease penetration to occur. When either of these cases age the cause for penetration itis called mechanical penetration, ‘The mechanism of mechanical penetration canbe represented by pressure balance athe mold-metal interface, Tis pressure balance is shown in Fig. 3. The governing equation is Pat Paya =Pyt Pow + Pr e ‘The sate pressure (Py) and the dynamic pressure Pay) promote penetration, whereas capillary pressure (P,), gs pressure Pp) and {ietional pressure (P) oppose it These pressures were quantified by Stefaneseu et al.’ From these equations, critical contact ange, ®,, ca be calculated according t the following equation: de 2. P 1& is the acceleration due to gravity 1b isthe metallostati head height Vis the velocity of metal against the mold wal 6, is the equivalent capillary diameter ‘yx isthe liquid vapor surface energy [A penetration index (PI) is defined as the ratio of the actual contact angle between the molten steel and the mold aggregate and the critical coniaet angle calculated from Equation 3 PL Gu! a “The penetration index isthe variable used to determine whether ‘or not penetration will occur. This evaluation is made as follows + ICPT> 1, penetration isnot likely to occur + IFPT< [, penetration i ikely, ‘The driving force for the present experimental work was to ‘generate data forthe actual contact angles requited in Fquation 4, EXPERIMENTAL WORK Methodology ‘The most common method of determining the contactangle between the molten metal and a substrate is the sessile drop method. This method involves melting a small pioce of metal on top of a substrate in a controled atmosphere. The molten metal forms a drop a the ‘contact angle is measured directly from pictures ofthe experi! ‘The experimental method used is similar to that used by Stefanescu tal for determining the contact angles for cast itoa on varions substrates. The substrates used in this work were cther molding sggregates or monolithic ceramic materials, ‘The experimental apparatustsed forthe sessile drop experiments is Ceotore Model 15 vacuum Furnace tht is eapable of obtain, ‘vacuum of 10% to 10% Torr, ag described ia previous works The ‘atmosphere canbe elther vacuum or an inert gas, a the maximnuca ‘operating temperature is approximately 250, casting surface penetration front Py + Pyast Pr Fig. 3. Representation ofthe machanical penetration mechanism Tablet. Compositions of Sive! Samples Used for Sessile rep Experiments Composition, wer. Sample © Si wm PS cro AL OV ON Sn Mo Gu) COther 76PanC2 0.75 057 072 0.023 OO1T 008 0.04 0.008 003 0003 0.006 0.080 0002 — 76PianG-4 076 063 0.73 0023 0.016 0.08 0.05 0.009 0.02 0,002 0.005 0.050 O00 9.0018 OAPhinc 0400.40 0.48 0.019 0.011 008 0.04 9003 003 — 0.004 0.020 9.008 o.0o1z 027Plino2 027 038 O77 0.015 DO 014 0.07 o.001 008 0.005 0.0% 0.060 O00 = — High ttn 108 078 1923 00 — os 0 — — — = = — = Staines 008-2015 0.04 ook tw — Stee! max max max max max Balance: Fe 70 AFS Transactions"The molding aggregate substrates wore prepared forthe expe ‘ment. This consisted of compacting the molding ageregate into a cizoular alumina dish (20 mm dia. x 6 om in height) and shen flattening its surface with a ra2oe blade, Some of the particulate substrates also required a sintering and grinding operation, das to deformation of the substrate upon heating, which prevented an acura measurement of the contact angle. The sintering operation consisted of heating the substrate in 9 tube furnace to a temperature ‘of approximately 1525Catarate of 200°Cf,holdingfor 45 mi.and cooling to roars temperature at arate oF 100°Chhr. The sintered dite was ten removed fromthe alumina dish and ground in successive steps feom 120 grit to 600 grit, using silicon carbide grinding paper. ‘The ground dises were thea cleaned, using compressed ait For monolithic substrates, one-quarter of a 40-mm dis. ise or ‘whole 20-mm dia, die of the substrate was used, depending on availability. The substrate was placed onto the specimen stage and leveled by placing a bull’s-eye level onthe subsiate surface Samples of steel were obtained from the industrial sponsors. “These samples were then ture on a Tate 0 obtain 5-ram diameter ods, These rods were sectioned into $-rmmlong cylinders on a ow- speed diamond saw. The steel cylinders were hand-ground on 240- Table 2 ‘Substrates Used in Sessile Drop Experimonts _titsilicon carbide (SIC) paper, to remove any machine marks. Any ‘oxidation was removed by hand-polishing on 600-grit SiC paper followed by 4/0 emery paper, both under 975 isopcopy! alcohol. A cylinder was then immediatly placed on the substrate and sealed in the furnace. The furnace chamber was pumped down to less than 2,104 Tore, and then filled with 4 8-grade argon. The argon was allowed to flow for S min. This process was repeated twice, to ensure (at most ofthe air was removed from the chamber ‘The furnace teaperature was then increased tothe melting point ‘with the azgon flowing), and this temperature was recorded, The temperature was raised {0 the prescribed superheat (based on the ‘melting point obtained forthe experiment) inapproximately 5-7 min. Pictures were taken every 3 min for 33 min using a 20X lens ona 3. ‘ni carnera that was leveled using the ball’s-ee level onthe tripod. ‘The temperature was recorded for each photograph. ‘The normal variation in temperature wos approximately 41°C. The photogzaphs were scanned into a computer and roagniies! approximately 6X, The eootact angles ofboth the left andthe right sides oft drop wore measured using ClarisDraw software. This was done by drawing a reference lin atthe botiom ofthe drop and thena angen line fom the apex ofthe angle and obtaining the angle ‘ofthe line. The computer software displays the angle ofthe line. Materials Tested co Fema Awa i in peer ee baie i ‘composition and different refractory substrates were performed. The Magnesite Flour MgO 146 shown in Table 1. Cnmstmgrose so. 388 | Te rg pie at wae erie yt Grenia sind ROCHA cba fora Ala e mae ope Peer ee - 4 ments were performed with cither a superheat of 150C ar SOC, and {(Mullite Sand) ALSIO5 316 ot bi ae viceaooses Ti st, as — | Expat Rete sera Som oom, atk ot |_—_Sepespias me ned me ena fesieoan eect corte rea ‘Substrate. ‘AiO; SiO. TiO, Muleoa 60 m2 973 Dat Mulcoa 70 692 266 277 Cabined Bowie = BS BZ BS. igh Donsty Alumina 99:5 [AFS Transactions Compositions of Solected Substrates Tested ‘Composition, Wi%e FeO; CaO gO Na-K. 148 008 0.07007 G04 122 008 0.08 007 0.05 | 13 mTable 4. Experiments or Which Contact Angles Were Obtained Alloy Substrate AKC O.27%C 0.76%0 CFAM Hitte (Quarz(150 suporneat) x x (Quartz (60 superheat) icon (Fine) Zireon (Coarse) Mulite Fleur Muleoa 60-20 Muleoa 60-325 Mulcoa 70-20 Muicoa 70-325 Baunite 20 Bava 325, ‘Alumina Olvine Four vine Sand (Chromite Flour Chromite Sand Coarse Magnesite Magnesite Flour ‘The results of each sessile drop experiment were plotted as a function of time. Typically, the value of the contact angle decreases, With ime, as shown in Fig. 4, These plots were fic toa second order polynomial ofthe form: O=AsBLICE o Where A, B and C are constants and tis ime. This equation allows cealeulation of the contact angle at any time after the melting of the sessile drop. From Fig. 4 and/or Equation 5, either tbe maxismam contact angle or the steady-state contact angle can be evaluated. Since large casings take longer to solidify, the steady-state value should be used when calculating the penetration index . For small, castings, the maximum angle should he used, MECHANICAL PENETRATION PROGNOSTICATOR, ‘The Mechanical Penetration Prognosticator for Steel Castings is ‘designe to predict the occurence of mechanical penetration of steel castings in Sand molds. Iti written in the Visual Basic software language for use with Microsoft Excel version 7.0, Microsoft Excel, isthe only software needed to ron the program. The prograi wtlizes, user-input variables tordetermine the likelihoed for penetration to ‘occur. These variables are those in Equations 3 and 4 Program inputs “The variables that are aocepted es input by the software ae: type of steel, typeof substrate and mold variables, m O12 x2 - 0.844 x + 108,32 o 5 10 15 20 2 30 Time, min. Fig. 4. Graph exemptiying calculation of sacond order polynomial ‘equation for sassile drop experiments ‘Type of Steel ‘The mechanical penettation proguosticatr software is designed to ‘be used for the carbon, stainless and manganese steels, for which sexsiledrop measurements were performed, Several assumptions are ‘mage for this program: 1) the supecheatng temperature is assumed tobe 150°C above the melting temperature: 2) the contact angles are a linear fonction of earbon content for earbon steels; and 3) the contact angles for stainless and manganese sels do not vary with, ‘composition The inal two assumptions are limited in seope, but are necessary because of the limited amount of data generated in the sessile drop pat of the study. The progposticator is only valid for carbon steels containing between 0.1 und 0.76% carbon. ‘Type of Substrate ‘The mechanical penetration prognosticatr is designed to operate with nine different molding aggregate chemisres, They ar listed in ‘Table,2. These substrates ean be either sand grains or reractory coatings. ‘Mold Variables “The user must input several mold variables or accept the default values. These variables ar the metallostaic head height, the met velocity against the mold wall, and the equivalentcapillary diameter measurement Orain fineness number (fn), old quality indicator (MQD, mold hardness orcoating particlesize ae the choices for this Jost variable. The ML numbers are valid between 1103nd375, The equivalent capillary diameter for sand) mold with wo coating is calculated from these variables, as wasdove for cast iron. The values, for metalostatie head and the meta velocity against the rnold wall are in British units, to comiply with sponsors’ suggestions ‘To determine the equivalent capillary diameter for sand molds witb refractory coatings, several assumptions were made, Firs, the coating is applied evenly, with no vacancies. Second, the coating puticles are splirical in shape. Finally, the coating particles are assumed tobe al ofthe same size, The derivations similar to that of ‘Stefanescu etal, for sand molds, The final equation forthe capillary diameter forthe costing is: = 0.7028 © where d isthe average coating particle diameter. Penetration index ‘The mechanical penetration prognosticstor uses the variables de seribed above to ealeulate the penetration index (PI). The interpre tation ofthe data is as described earlier. AFS TransactionsOperation of Program ‘The mechanical penetration prognosticator is designed to be user {iendly.ThemainsereenisshowninFig. 5. Theprogramisactivated by selecting one of the six buttons shown on this sereen. Bach button Js explained in detail in the following paragraphs. Instructions Selection ofthe Instructions button results in an- other serean being shovia, This greet is simply a detailed list of instuetions on hov to operate the prograra (Fig, 6) Calculate Penetration Index—This button prompts the user 10 center every variable used inthe program. Fitst the usr is asked to select the typeof stel. the sce type is carbon stel, then the user is asked to enter the carbon content ofthe steel. Secand, the type of molding aggregate and its chemistry are selected, Then the wer is asked whether or nat he wishes to enter the Foundey Variables. yes, iat Terssostaue Heat Go) Averoge Particts fixe en Hata wesocity in Mold fin'eec) _ AFS Transactions Fig. 6. Instactions screen of mechanical penetration prognosicator, theneach value sented, I7no, then default valuesareassigned. The calculated penetration index is shown on the main sreen, as isthe prediction of penetration Change Sand/Cocsing—This buttonallowsthe usertochange the type of molding aggregate. All foundry variables are maintained. However, it should be checked thatthe correct value for calclation ofthe capillary diameters iste, [fnot, then the comteetvalueshould be entered. This bution allows comparison between differeat mold ing aggregstes, ‘Change Stee?—This button allows the ste! to be changed. This ‘canbe ether changing the carbon content, oe changing the type of ‘eel. Because ofthe way the program is writen, its necessary (0 reselect the molding aggregate, All other values are retained. ‘The earbon content should never be changed directly on the maEEE EH EEE EEE EEC Eee Eee eee eee Cee eee rc Last 5 Results~This bution displays the screen with the last five results. The list can be used to compare the different molding aggregates on sereen, Also, it allows forthe influence of different variables, such as metalostatic head and metal velocity, to be seen ‘This sereea is shown in Fig. 7. This example shows how the Felationship between metllosatc head athe penetration index for ‘carbon steal (0.354 C) and zircon coating caa be established. ‘Addo List—This baton allows the data onthe main sreen to be aude to te lis that nelodes the lst five results MODEL INTERROGATION AND VALIDATION ‘The mecanieal penettation prognosticatoreaa be use to establish relationships between certain variables end the penetration index. One example of this is shown in Fig. 8, Ie is seen that, ss the ‘metallostatic head inereases, dhe penetration index decreases. Also shown is the advantage obtained by using = coating to prevent pPenettation. The penetration index is at approximately 115 forthe ¥scon coating and 0.90 forthe zigeon sand without coating, for 8 Imetallestatic head of 30 inches, Ths reveals that a coating substan tially ipereases the acceptable metallostatic hea height, without the "isk of penetration. ae ee uate Cet eccrine TG o 68 10 15 20 25 Metallostatic head, inches Fig. 8. nfteonoo of motallostatc head height on the penetation {index for both zircon sand and zircon coating. Metal velocity = 2 in 90 ™ Another relationship that can be established is te inueace of carbon conteot onthe penetration index. This is a direct result of the change in the contact angle values forthe different carbon conten, Because ofthis, the relationship is dferet foreach metalfmolding aggregate combination. Figure 9 ie an example ofthe influence ot carbon content on the penetration index for earbon steel in a zinsya sand mold, The change in the capillary diameter wil also have an effect on ‘he penetration index. Ths isrepresentedin Fig. 10. The decrease of the capillary diameter decreases the penetration propensity, and ‘erefore increases the penetration index. The MQ vate increases Witt lower capillary diameter. Therefore, as MQ incteases, the penetration index inereases, The mechanical penctration prognosticator was used to predict the occurrence of penetration in 20 test castings produced in the University of Alabama Metal Casting Laboratory and a patich Pating foundry. The results of these experiments ate summmatized in Table 5. ‘Wisseenthat the mechanical penetration prognosticatorcoreecty predicted penetration in 16 of 20 steel eastngs. One cae in which it Incomectly predicted penetration is UAL. te this cas, the pouring box ‘Carbon content, wi% Fa 9. Intuence of carbon content an penetration index in zircon sand mold (metastatic head = 20, metal voioey = 2in see, ‘mots harcnass = 80) AFS TransactionsTable 5 Results of Penetrstion Prognosticator Predictions > 50 100 150 200 mai 250 200 Fig 10. Elfct of MQt on the penetraion indox for 0.4%C steel on Daunte sand (metallostatic head = 20%, gfn = 85) temperature was lows therefore, the penetration index would be higher ifthe program accounted for different soperbeating tempera tures, Two cases in which penettation was not predicted but it ‘occurred areforcastings UA7 and UAI0, Bothof these castings were ‘coated with magnesite, In these instances the coating used Was not applied correctly: the wash was oo thin. Therefore, the only case in which the error cannot be explained is UA16. The penetration index retuened for this case was 0.96, Tisisclose tothe value 1.0, which would indicate penettation occuring, Iis believed that an extended uray of sessile drop experiments fr calculation of the contact angle ‘would result in increased accuracy in penetration predictions. CONCLUSIONS Sessile drop experiments were run to evaluate the effet of steel chemistry on the contact angle for different substrates. The sess Urop data was used to develop a mechanical penetration mode! simlato the one produced previously for cast ron. The Mechanical Penetttion Prognosticator for Stecl Castings corectly predicted penetration in 16 of 20 test castings poured at the University of ‘Alabannaand participating foundry. The prognosticstoralso returns the expected results For the effects of differen vaiables on penetra tion (eg. the higher the aeallostatc head, the higher the cance of penetration). ‘The mechanical penetration model should be expanded to in crease the database for evaluation ofthe aetvaleontaetangle. Thisean, be done by performing a statistical array of sessile drop experiments ‘This array should include Factors sueb as chemical compesition (C, Si, Mo, , S, NiCr, ete), superteating ané section size. The seation size can bo used to determine the solidification time of the casting, ‘und thi time can be inserted in the second order polynomial equation forthe contact angles, The major effort would be the completion of ‘statistical array on all the substrates, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research has been funded by a consortium of foundries and foundry suppliers and by the Metal Casting Competitiveness Pro fram of the U.S, Department of Energy (DoE Cooperative Agree ‘ment DE-FCO7-941D13324), However, any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed herein are those of the authors and da not necessarily reflect the views of DOE, Tho authors ‘ucknossledge the assistance of M, Owens in preparing te castings, and of D. Jablonski forthe analysis of parle size. AFS Traneactions No. Coating WIE Penetration PI Predlated True just ine 28 toon No | or oN Yo om oN Yas on No tar NoYes 07m Yu 097 You Yo om Notas rs om No 1988 or) You a9 Yor Yo8 om Ym Noo ore Yn 099 Yor_— Yes oye No 193 No an om No 108 No oe oa Yes 090 Yes Yow 02s es ogee Ye 02 «Neat og ves 099 Yes Yew ry ‘APPENDIX There isa wide numberof methods available for megsuring particle size of granular material. These include sieve analysis, sediments ion, electrozone seasing and laser difraction. In dis research program, laser diffraction? was used to measure the grain size and distribution of the particulate molding aggregates Laser diffraction, ot laser particle analysis, bas been used 10 ‘evalutt patel size and distribution fora wide nomber of applic tions including (© monitor air-purty in cleaning rooms and 10 characterize the powders used in pharmaceutical research. A typical setup is showin in Pig. Al. Tt consists of four main elements: 1, Laser Source—A He-Ne laser, which proves ligt with a ‘wavelength of0,633 pm,"The lasers focused ontothe sample with the use of lenses 2, Sample Presensation—The particulate samples contained ia 1 liquid suspension of water, hence the name “wet laser particle size characterization.” The suspension is contin ‘ously pumped across the path of the laser beam, daring analysis, 3. Detector—The scattered light focuses onto a photosensitive silicon detector consisting of a number of different cells. The signal passe fom each cel is proportional to the amount of Tight tha has fallen onto it 4, Daa Collection and Analysis —The detector relays data to a ‘computer, which then uses the Frauahofer and Mie theories of light scattering to calculate the particle size and dstibution, ‘The use of laser diffraction to characterize particles is superior to ‘ther methods in that it takesinvo account regular patiles shapes ‘By passing the sample through the laser beam a numberof mes, the pantcles ean be measured at different angles, This allows @ more aceurae representation ofthe particle size and disibstion, com pared fo other methods 15Laser Particle suspension Scanning receiver as Computer ‘Ampitior Detector Fig, At. Lasor dracon sotup for measuring part size and istrbuton, REFERENCES ASM Handboot 1Orhelion, Vol. 15 Casing, ASM Intereatiol, 1992 JIM, Sot apd O..Geiges, “Mechs of Metal Penetration in Foundry Molis? AFS Transactions, vol 77, 1969, p23. JIM. Svobods, "Mechanisms of Meal Penetration im Foundry Met Silver Anniversary Paper, APS Transactions, vo 102, 1994, 9461-47 DIM, Stefancsen, SR, Giese, .S,Piwonka and A.M, Lane, "Catton enctation a Sand Molds Pat” APS Pansetions, vol 14, 1996.99 1733-1288, SR. Giese, DM, Steines, J. Bulow ant ES, Pion, “Css lo Penetation in Sand Molds! Pat I," APS Tronsccions, vol 10, 1996, 9p 1219-1257 R. Palabhi, A.M, Lane and, Pion, “Cas Iron Penetration in Sud Molds: Part I,” AFSTranstdons, vol 14,1996, 0 1259-268, DM, Stetarese, 7.8, Piwonks, SR Giese and A. Lane, "Meal Pen etration in Sand Molds—A Fundameatal Approach 10 Solving the Palen,” AES Temsncrions, vol 101, 1993, pp 789-756 DM. Stefnescu,P-DelanaoyandS. Piwonks, “An investigation ia the Role of Sand-Metal Contec: Angle in the Fomation of Casting Popevatioe Detects,” AFS Transactions vo! 98,1991, 9p 761-780 Masterszen, Maver fastument pp 315, AFS Transactions