Yapay Zeka Ve Iş Sağlığı Güvenliği

ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY  GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SCIENCE
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
A REVIEW OF THE APPLICATIONS OF VISION-BASED 3D AS-BUILT

DATA ACQUISITION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY
M.Sc. THESIS
MAHMOUD M. H. ABUFOUDA
Department of Civil Engineering
Construction Management Programme
JUNE 2018
ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY  GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SCIENCE
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

INDUSTRY
M.Sc. THESIS
(501141115)
Department of Civil Engineering
Construction Management Programme
Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Esin Ergen PEHLEVAN
JUNE 2018
İSTANBUL TEKNİK ÜNİVERSİTESİ  FEN BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ
İNŞAAT SEKTÖRÜNDE 3D AS-BUILT VERİ TOPLAMA

UYGULAMALARININ İNCELENMESİ
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
(Enstitü No)
İnşaat Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı
Yapı İşletmesi Programı
Tez Danışmanı: Prof. Dr. Esin Ergen PEHLEVAN
HAZIRAN 2018
MAHMOUD M. H. ABUFOUDA, a M.Sc. student of ITU Graduate School of
Science Engineering And Technology student ID 501141115, successfully defended
the thesis entitled “A REVIEW OF THE APPLICATIONS OF VISION-BASED
3D AS-BUILT DATA ACQUISITION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY”, which he prepared after fulfilling the
requirements specified in the associated legislations, before the jury whose signatures
are below.
Thesis Advisor : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esin Ergen PEHLEVAN ..............................

İstanbul Technical University
Jury Members : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Deniz ARTAN İLTER .............................

İstanbul Technical University
Asst. Prof. Dr. Gürşans Güven Işın ..............................

Özyeğin University
Prof. Dr. Name SURNAME ..............................
Gebze Institute of High Technology
Date of Submission : 04 May 2018

Date of Defense : 12 June 2018
v
vi
Dedicated to the eternal Capital City of Palestine, THE HOLYLAND, JERUSALEM.
As well, to my beloved family.,
vii
viii
FOREWORD
This thesis is written as completion to master degree of Construction Management

Department at Istanbul Technical University. The subject of the study is to provide a
research guidance for researchers and practitioners in the applications of vision-based
3D data acquisition technologies in the construction industry.
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Dr. Esin Ergen
PEHLEVAN for her great recommendation for choosing the appropriate topic and
shedding light on my way to grasp the topic. Most importantly, I would appreciate her
aid for her support and patience during the thesis period. I am also thankful to her for
her clear-cut and functional comments through the study process. This research would
have been impossible and prolonged without her assistance and guidance.
Also, I would like to thank my friends for their support, especially Hazal KAR for
helping me during my MSc period. Special thanks to my friend Ahmed Hamza who
helped me in making the infographics of the thesis.
June 2018
(Civil Engineer)
ix
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................. ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................... xi
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. xiii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... xv
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xvii
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. xix
ÖZET........................................................................................................................ xxi
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Research Goal and Objectives............................................................................ 3
1.3 Research Scope and Methodology ..................................................................... 4
1.4 Research Contributions ...................................................................................... 4
1.5 Review Limitations ............................................................................................ 5
1.6 Thesis Organization............................................................................................ 5
2. METHODOLOGY................................................................................................. 7
2.1 The Review Process ........................................................................................... 8
2.2 Selection of Articles ........................................................................................... 9
3. BACKGROUND ON 3D AS-BUILT DATA PROCESS .................................. 11
3.1 Data Collection ................................................................................................. 14
3.1.1 Range-based 3D laser scanning ................................................................ 14
3.1.2 Image-based photo/videogrammetry......................................................... 15
3.2 Data Processing ................................................................................................ 16
3.2.1 Registration of 3D collected data .............................................................. 16
3.2.2 Preprocessing of 3D collected data ........................................................... 17
3.2.2.1 Segmentation/Voxelization ................................................................ 17
3.2.2.2 Outlier removal .................................................................................. 18
3.2.2.3 Clutter and noise reduction ................................................................ 18
3.3 Object Recognition ........................................................................................... 18
3.4 As-built 3D BIM Modeling .............................................................................. 22
3.4.1 Scan-to-BIM and Scan-vs-BIM systems................................................... 23
3.4.2 D4AR system ............................................................................................ 24
4. 3D AS-BUILT DATA APPLICATIONS ........................................................... 25
4.1 Analysis of the Selected Articles...................................................................... 25
4.2 Analysis of Previous Reviews and the Originality of the Review ................... 28
4.3 Applications of Vision-based 3D As-built Data Acquisition Technologies .... 33
4.4 3D As-built BIM Model Reconstruction .......................................................... 34
4.4.1 3D as-built model reconstruction of structural elements .......................... 35
4.4.2 3D as-built model reconstruction of outdoor architectural elements ........ 42
4.4.3 3D as-built model reconstruction of indoor architectural elements .......... 46
4.4.4 3D as-built model reconstruction of pipelines and MEP Systems ............ 51
4.5 Progress Tracking ............................................................................................. 60
xi
4.5.1 Progress tracking for structural elements .................................................. 63
4.5.1.1 Image-based progress tracking approach for structural elements ...... 63
4.5.1.2 Range-based progress tracking approach for structural elements ...... 67
4.5.2 Progress tracking for MEP systems .......................................................... 69
4.5.3 Progress tracking for interior construction work....................................... 71
4.6 Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) .................................................. 73
4.6.1 QC/QA for structural elements and infrastructure .................................... 74
4.6.1.1 Dimensional QC/QA of structural elements and infrastructure ......... 75
4.6.1.2 QC/QA of Surface Flatness in Structural Elements ........................... 82
4.6.1.3 QC/QA of Deformation and Deflection in Structural Elements ........ 84
4.6.2 QC/QA for MEP and industrial pipeline systems ..................................... 86
4.7 As-damaged Assessment and Forensic Modeling ............................................ 91
4.7.1 Crack pattern and concrete spalling damage detections............................ 92
4.7.1.1 Range-based methods for damage assessment ................................... 93
4.7.1.2 Image-based methods for damage assessment ................................... 93
4.7.2 As-damaged BIM modeling ...................................................................... 95
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 99
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 103
CURRICULUM VITAE ........................................................................................ 115
xii
ABBREVIATIONS
ABRMs : As-built Bibliometric Research Maps

ACO : Ant Colony Optimization
AECO : Architecture, Engineering, Construction and Operation Industry
AI : Artificial Intelligence
ANN : Artificial Neural Network
AR : Augmented Reality
ARCam : Augmented Reality prototype (Shin and Duston, 2009)
BIM : Building Information Modeling
B-rep : Boundary Representation
CAD : Computer-Aided Design
CCTV : Closed-circuit Television
CIC : Computer Integrated Construction
CML : Construction Material Library
D4AR : Process of progress tracking using 4D CAD and Augmented Reality
D-H : Denavit-Hartenberg forward Kinematic-based Algorithm
DVA : Dimensional Variation Analysis
EM : Expectation Maximization Algorithm
EVA : Earned Value Analysis
FEMA : Federal Emergency Management Agency
gbXML : Green Building XML
GIS : Geographic Information Systems
GPS : Global Positioning System
HPAT : Hyperpolyhyedron with Adaptive Threshold
HVG : Hashing-Based Structure
ICP : Iterative Closest Point Algorithm
ICT : Information and Communication Technology
IFC : Industry Foundation Classes
IS : Information System
IT : Information Technology
LiDAR : Light Detection and Ranging
xiii
LVDTs : Linear-Variable-Differential Transform
MATLAB : MATLAB
MEPs : Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing Systems
nD : Multi-Dimensional
NURBS : Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline
P&ID : Pipes and Instrument Diagrams
PCA : Principle Component Analysis
QC/QA : Quality Control/Quality Assurance
QNR : Quasi-Newton-Raphson Algorithm
RANSAC : RANdom Sample Consensus
RC : Reinforced Concrete
RFID : Radio Frequency Identification
RGB : Red, Green and Blue
RMS : Root Mean Square Metrics
S&R : Search and Rescue Operations
Scan-to-BIM : Process of creating BIM models from as-built data
Scan-vs-BIM : Process of comparing the as-built status with regards to BIM models
SfM : Structure from Motion Algorithms
SIFT : Scale-Invariant Feature Transform
STL : STereoLithography Format
SURF : Speeded-Up Robust Features
TLS : Terrestrial Laser Scanners
TOF : Time-of-Flight
UAVs : Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
UWB : Ultra-Wide Band
WoS : Web of Science
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 4.1: Number of articles selected from each journal. ....................................... 26

Table 4.2: Previous review articles on the applications of 3D as-built data
acquisition. .............................................................................................. 30
Table 4.3: Research efforts on 3D as-built reconstruction of steel structures (data
collection and data preprocessing). ......................................................... 38
Table 4.4: Research efforts on 3D as-built reconstruction of steel structures (object
recognition and 3D Modeling). ............................................................... 38
Table 4.5: Research effort on the 3D as-built reconstruction of R.C. Structures (data
collection and data preprocessing). ......................................................... 39
Table 4.6: Research effort on the 3D as-built reconstruction of R.C. Structures
(object recognition and 3D modeling). ................................................... 40
Table 4.7: Research efforts on the 3D reconstruction of exterior architectural
elements and façade (Data collection and preprocessing). ..................... 43
Table 4.8: Research efforts on the 3D reconstruction of exterior architectural
elements and façade (object recognition and 3D modeling). .................. 44
Table 4.9: Research efforts on 3D as-built model reconstruction of interior
architectural elements (Data collection and preprocessing).................... 48
Table 4.10: Research efforts on 3D as-built model reconstruction of interior
architectural elements (Object recognition and 3D modeling). .............. 49
Table 4.11: Research efforts on the 3D as-built model reconstruction of MEP and
industrial pipeline systems (Data collection and preprocessing). ........... 56
industrial pipeline systems (Object recognition and 3D modeling). ....... 57
industrial pipeline systems (Object recognition and 3D modeling)
(contin.). .................................................................................................. 58
Table 4.14: Research efforts on image-based progress tracking of structural objects.
................................................................................................................. 66
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1: Selected Applications of Vision-based 3D Data Acquisition................... 7

Figure 2.2: Review Process......................................................................................... 9
Figure 2.3: Articles Selection process. ..................................................................... 10
Figure 3.1: 3D as-built data process modified from Volk et al., (2014). .................. 13
Figure 3.2: Classifications of the object recognition approaches modified from Volk
et al., (2014). ........................................................................................... 19
Figure 3.3: Classifications of data-driven object recognition approaches (edited and
modified from; Dimitrov & Golparvar-Fard (2015) and Volk et al.,
(2014)). .................................................................................................... 20
Figure 4.1: Total number of selected articles each year. .......................................... 25
Figure 4.2: Number of articles from each country. ................................................... 27
Figure 4.3: Authors contributions. ............................................................................ 28
Figure 4.4: A view from CiteSpace interface about the analysis of the research
articles. .................................................................................................... 28
Figure 4.5: The applications of vision-based 3D data acquisition technologies. ...... 34
Figure 4.6: ABRM of 3D Model reconstruction of both steel and reinforce concrete
elements................................................................................................... 41
Figure 4.7: ABRM of 3D model reconstruction of outdoor architectural elements
(façade). ................................................................................................... 45
Figure 4.8: ABRM of 3D model reconstruction of indoor architectural elements. .. 50
Figure 4.9: ABRM of 3D model reconstruction of pipelines and MEP systems. ..... 59
Figure 4.10: ABRM of Scan-to-BIM and Scan-vs-BIM........................................... 69
Figure 4.11: ABRM of Progress Tracking Research. ............................................... 72
Figure 4.12: ABRM of QC/QA of Structural elements. ........................................... 85
Figure 4.13: ABRM of QC/QA of Pipelines and MEP Systems. ............................. 90
xvii
INDUSTRY
SUMMARY
The proliferation of the research in the Building Information Modeling (BIM) vis-à-
vis 3D as-built data acquisition technologies in Architecture, Engineering,
Construction and Operation (AECO) industry has been dramatically increasing.
Owing to their diverse applications that encompass the whole lifecycle of the
construction project, they have become the recent research trend within the industry.
However, the ramification of the research in this area appears to be inconspicuous,
arbitrarily scattered and unorganized causing confusion for the researchers and
practitioners who are interested in this area. Therefore, the aim of this research is to
provide a lucid research guidance in the applications of the vision-based 3D as-built
data acquisitions technologies including range-based laser scanning and image-based
sensing technologies. This research is based on a critical and analytical review of the
research efforts, that have been published between 2008 and 2017, on the 3D as-built
data applications: 3D as-built BIM model reconstruction, progress tracking, quality
control and quality assessment (QC/QA) and as-damaged and forensic modeling.
Speaking of which, a systematic methodology is synthesized to compile and categorize
a total of 145 research efforts. Subsequently, analysis of each research’s targeted
applications, methods, approaches, used algorithms, accuracy, contributions, gaps and
limitations are explored. In addition to chronologically mapping and organizing the
research efforts, lines of research and built-up researches in order to create the As-built
Bibliometric Research Maps which, in turns, attend to visualize the research trails and
their relationships. Ultimately, the review will draw conclusions regarding the research
trends and future research trajectories in the 3D as-built data applications.
xix
İNŞAAT SEKTÖRÜNDE 3D AS-BUILT VERİ TOPLAMA
UYGULAMALARININ İNCELENMESİ
ÖZET
Her geçen gün giderek yaygınlaşan Bina Bilgi Modellemesi (BIM) araştırmalarıyla
paralel olarak Mimari, Mühendislik, İnşaat ve İşletme (AECO) endüstrisindeki 3D as-
built veri toplama teknolojileriyle ilgili araştırmalar da giderek artmaktadır. Bu konu
bir inşaat projesinin bütün yaşam döngüsünü kapsayan farklı uygulamalarından dolayı,
sektörde araştırmaların yoğun olduğu bir alan haline gelmiştir. Ancak araştırmaların
da artmasıyla birlikte bu konuyla ilgili bilgiler bu alanla ilgilenen araştırmacılar ve
uygulayıcılar için belirgin olmayan, kafa karışıklığına neden olan ve dağınık bir hal
almıştır. Bu nedenle, bu araştırmanın amacı, mesafe tabanlı lazer tarama ve görüntü
tabanlı algılama teknolojileri de dahil olmak üzere, vizyon tabanlı 3D yerleşik veri
toplama teknolojileri uygulamalarında açık ve anlaşılır bir rehber oluşturmayı
sağlamaktır.
Bu araştırma, 2008 ve 2017 yılları arasında, 3D as-built veri uygulamaları üzerine
oluşturulan BIM modeli, ilerleme takibi, kalite kontrol ve kalite değerlendirmesi
(QC/QA) gibi konularda yapılan araştırmaların eleştirel ve analitik bir incelemesine
dayanmaktadır. Bu amaçla oluşturulan sistem metodolojisinde toplam 145 araştırma
kategorize edilerek incelenmiştir. Daha sonra, her araştırmanın hedeflenen
uygulamalarının, yöntemlerinin, yaklaşımlarının, kullanılan algoritmalarının,
doğruluk payları, sisteme katkıları, eksikleri ve sınırları belirlenmiştir. Ek olarak As-
Built Bibliometrik Araştırma Haritalarını (ABRMs) oluşturmak, araştırma yollarını ve
aralarındaki ilişkiyi görselleştirmek amacıyla, araştırmaların ana hatları ve yapılan
bütün araştırmalar kronolojik olarak düzenlenmiştir. Son olarak 3D as-built veri
uygulamalarındaki araştırma alanları ve gelecekteki araştırma yollarını gösteren bir
takım sonuçlar ortaya konulmuştur.
Son yıllarda, Mimarlık, Mühendislik, İnşaat ve İşletme (AECO) endüstrisi, bilgisayar,
üretim ve havacılık endüstrileri gibi diğer sektörlerde yaygın olarak entegre
edilebilmiş olan teknolojik gelişmeleri ve yenilikleri kendi alanlarında kullanabilmek
için ciddi arayışlar içerisindeydi. Özünde, BIM'in var olması daha gelişmiş
teknolojilerin ortaya çıkması için önemli bir kaynak ve sağlam bir temel oluşturdu.
Örneğin, sayıca çok olan veri toplama teknolojilerinin AECO endüstrisine entegre
edilmesine yardımcı oldu ancak BIM’in varlığı hedeflenen ve plananlanan işlerin
yapılması için tek başına ne yazıkki yeterli değildi. Bu sebeple özellikle son
zamanlarda, inşaat seköründe, 3D görünüm tabanlı as built veri toplama teknojilerinde
ciddi araştırmalar yapılmaya başlandı.
3D görünüm tabanlı as built veri toplama teknojisi, nokta bulutu verileriyle önemli
ölçüde doğru bir şekilde üretme kabiliyetine sahip olmasından dolayı inşaat
sektöründe son derece faydalı olmaktadır. Temel olarak, 3D uygulanmış nokta bulutu
verileri 3D Işık Algılama ve Ölçme (LiDAR) lazer tarayıcıları (havadan, mobil /
robotik ve karasal) gibi optoelektronik cihazlar tarafından veya kameralar gibi görüntü
tabanlı algılama teknolojileri tarafından elde edilir. Bu teknolojideki cihazların
xxi
avantajları nedeniyle araştırmacılar (doğru ve hızlı sonuç alma süresi, düşük güç
tüketimi, taşınabilir ve küçük boyutlu cihazlar), AECO endüstrisinde çeşitli
uygulamalarda kullanmaya yönelmişlerdir.
AECO endüstrisinde vizyon tabanlı 3D as-built veri toplama teknolojilerinin
entegrasyonu teknolojik olarak daha gelişmiş sektörlerden bilgi aktarımını da
kapsamaktadır. Görüntü işleme, nesne tanıma, makine öğrenimi, Yapay Zeka (AI),
veri füzyonu, veri analizi, fotogrametri, videogrametri gibi çok sayıda gelişmiş
teknolojinden çeşitli yönetim süreçlerinde bilgi aktarımı bu teknolojiyle sağlanmıştır.
Yeni ortaya çıkan bu yaklaşımlar, bilgisayar ve makine vizyonları, veri bilimi,
geomatik ve imalatta direk kullanılabilirler. Sonuç olarak, önerilen bir çok araştırma,
inşaat uygulamalarının etkinliğini arttırmak amacıyla bilgi aktarımının mutlaka
uygunlaması gerekliliğini savunmaktadır.
Bu araştırma 6 bölümden oluştmaktadır. Giriş kısmında tanımlamalar, BIM hakkında
genel bilgiler, veri toplama teknoloji hakkında açıklamalar ve araştırmanın amacı
açıklamalı olarak verilmiştir. Bu araştırmanın genel olarak ana hedefleri şunlardır: (1)
Her araştırmanın uygulamaları, yöntemleri, yaklaşımları, kullanılan algoritmaları,
doğrulukları, katkıları, boşlukları ve sınırlamaları analizlenmiştir. (2) Araştırmanın
ana hattı tespit edilmiştir (3) Bu alandaki araştırmaların aralarındaki ilişkilerin
görselleştirilmesi amacıyla As-Built Bibliyometrik Araştırma Haritaları (ABRM)
oluşturulmuş ve araştırmaların amaçları ve hedefleri kronolojik sırayla gösterilmiştir
(4) 3D as-built veri uygulamalarındaki araştırmaların durumları, eksiklikleri
belirlenmiş ve gelecekteki olası araştırmalara ışık tutulmaya çalışılmıştır
Giriş bölümünün ardından ikinci bölümde önceden yapılan araştırmaları incelemesi
nedeniyle yapılan araştırmanın özgünlüğü ve incelemenin kattığı yenilikler
açıklanmıştır.
2. bölümde, kullanılan metodoloji ve seçilen makalelerin neden seçildiklerine dair
açıklamalara yer verilmiştir. İnşaat endüstrisindeki lazer tarayıcıların ve görüntü
tabanlı algılama teknolojilerinin 3D as-built veri uygulamalarında kullanımının
eleştirel ve analitik incelemesi yapılmıştır.
3. bölümde, nesne tanıma yaklaşımlarının yanı sıra 3D as-built veri edinimi sürecini
de açıklamaktadır. 3D as-built veri toplama süreci dört ana aşamaya ayrılmıştır; veri
toplama, veri işleme, nesne tanıma ve 3D modelleme. Veri toplama, farklı tekniklerden
veri yakalama ile ilgilidir
Bu sırada verilerin işlenmesi, kayıttan çıkarma, ayıklama, gürültü filtreleme,
segmentasyon / vokalizasyon ve 3D temsili de dahil olmak üzere bir dizi alt-adımdan
oluşur ve birçok farklı veri toplama tekniğinden alınan verilerin sadeleştirilmesi için
önkoşuldur. Nesne tanıma 3D olarak oluşturulan modellemenin çekirdeğidir. Son
olarak, 3 boyutlu modelleme, 3D as-built ürününü sunan son adımdır. Nesne tanıma
yaklaşımları, üç ana kategoride sınıflandırılmıştır. Bunlar; veriye dayalı, modele
dayalı ve diğer tanıma yaklaşımlarıdır. Veriye dayalı yaklaşım, farklı türdeki
eşleştirme yöntemleri kullanılarak ayırt edilebilecek yapı bilgisini çıkartmak için elde
edilen verileri kullanır. Diğer taraftan modele dayalı yaklaşım, topolojik ilişkiler gibi
önceden tanımlanmış yapıların geçmiş bilgilerine dayanmaktadır
Ardından 4. bölümde, gelecekteki araştırmalar için sonuç ve öneriler tartışılmalı olarak
değerlendirilmiştir. Günümüzde, vizyon tabanlı 3D uygulanmış veri toplama
teknolojileri ve uygulamalarına ait araştırmaların yaygınlaması her geçen gün artmakta
ve hatta diğer endüstrilerden araştırmacıların dikkatini de giderek daha çok
xxii
çekmektedir. Ağırlıklı olarak bu araştırmaların amacı, güçlü mekanizmalar
oluşturmak. söz konusu yeni yaklaşımları düzenlemek veya UAV'ler ve robotların
ortaya çıkmasında açıkça öngörülen en son teknoloji ürünü cihazları bile inşaat
sektörüne entegre edebilmektir. Bu araştırma ayrıca bu alandaki beklentileri
genişletmeyi ve inşaat süreçleriyle ilgili olan birçok karmaşayı çözmeyi amaçlamıştır.
Bu nedenle, bu teknolojilerin AECO endüstrisindeki potansiyelini keşfetmek amacıyla
uygulamaların otomasyonunda yani 3D uygulanmış BIM model rekonstrüksiyonunda,
ilerleme / üretkenlik takibinde, kaynak takibinde (materyaller, işgücü ve ekipman),
enerji modellemesinde, iş sağlığı ve güvenliği değerlendirmesinde, hasarlı ve adli
modellemede, ve kalite kontrol değerlendirmesinde (QC / QA) çeşitli araştırmalar
yapılmıştır. Bununla birlikte, bu alandaki araştırmaların sonuçlarının, AECO
endüstrisindeki araştırmacılar ve uygulayıcılar için yapılan çalışmaların son derece
dağınık olması nedeniyle bir çok karışıklığa neden olmaktadır. Bu kısımda tüm bu
karışıklıklar bir takım değerlendirmelerle toparlanmaya çalışılmıştır.
Son bölümde ise gelecek araştırmalar için öneriler verilmiştir. Sonuç olarak diyebiliriz
ki günümüze gelene kadar bir çok araştırmacı, inşaat sektörüne, gelişmiş bir çok
endüstriden ileri düzeyde bilgi akışı sağladı. Otomotiv ve imalat sanayilerinde yaygın
olarak kullanılan bir optimizasyon ve tasarım yöntemi olan Boyutsal Değişim Analizi
(DVA) gibi yeni yöntemler inşaat endüstrisine aktarıldı. Robotik kinematik teoriler de,
inşaat endüstrisindeki süreçlerin otomasyonlarını geliştirmek için kullanıldı. Diğer
endüstrilerden de ICP kaydı, RANSAC, SfM, model destekli SfM, gibi bir çok bilgi
transferinin yapılmasına rağmen inşaat sektöründeki mevcut nesne tanıma
algoritmaları, hala ilkel olarak kalmıştır ve daha fazla iyileştirmeye ihtiyaç
duyulmaktadır. Araştırmaların daha güvenilir olabilmesi için, SIFT ve SURF gibi
nokta bulutu veri kümelerinin veya veri odaklı (denetimsiz) nesne kaydeden tercihen
daha sağlam algoritmaların ve yaklaşımların entegre edilmesi gerekmektedir. Bir çok
araştırmacı nesne ve materyallerin geliştirilmiş tanımları için veri analizleri ile birlikte
bir veri tabanının ve kütüphanenin oluşturulmasını desteklemektedir. Bu sayede
şemasal 3D BIM modellerinin arşivlenmesi mümkün olabilecektir. AECO endüstrisi
inşaat sektöründeki farklı element ve materyallerin kütüphanelerinin ve
veritabanlarının oluşturulmasını özellikle tavsiye etmektedir. Bunun yanı sıra diğer
endüstrilerdeki mevcut sorunların kısmen veya tamamen çözülebilmesi için bir çok
disiplinin bir arada olduğu konsorsiyumların oluşturulması gerekli görülmektedir.
xxiii
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
During the last decades, Architecture, Engineering, Construction and Operation

(AECO) industry has been irrepressibly seeking the technological advancements and
innovations. Such of advancements have been ubiquitously integrated within other
industries such as computer vision, manufacturing and aerospace industries (Pärn et
al., 2017). The emergence of Building information modeling (BIM) vis-à-vis data
acquisition technologies in various management applications in the AECO industry is
per se a concrete evidence of keeping the pace with the technological advancements,
which haven’t solely become ad hoc to the other industries. Owing to the complexity
of its projects, AECO industry has become more reliant on the Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) (Bradley, 2016). As well as, information systems
(IS) for more ameliorated implementations and effective practices of construction
projects throughout their lifecycle which is apparent in the emergence of Computer
Integrated Construction (CIC) (Jung and Joo, 2011). This proliferation in the
computerizations has led to a revolution in the way of designing, constructing,
operating and managing facilities (Eastman, 2011).
Noticeably, BIM has received a substantial awareness in the AECO industry (Volk,
2014). Furthermore, there is a remarkable impetus toward the adoption of BIM in their
projects in order to support facilities’ lifecycle processes, from inception to facility
management and operation phases. This disruptive technology (Watson, 2011), has
altered the traditional management approaches and created a collaborative 3D virtual
model (Pärn et al., 2017). Such of transformation, BIM has shifted the paradigm in the
construction industry and provided a solid base for improved decision making by
fostering collaboration between project participants that improves the flow of
construction information from and to a centered platform (Azhar, 2011).
Essentially, the presence of BIM plays as an incubator and a rigid foundation for the
emergence of advanced technologies. Myriad of data acquisition technologies, for
1
instance, have been integrated in the AECO industry. These technologies can be
categorized as: enhanced information technologies (IT) (multimedia tools, cloud-
based servers, email-services, voice-based tools and portable computers); geo-spatial
technologies (barcoding, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), Ultra-Wide Band
(UWB), Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems
(GPS)); 3D vision-based imaging technologies and 3D point cloud data (ranged-based
laser scanners and image-based camera sensors); and Augmented Reality (AR) (Omer
and Nehdi, 2016). Ever since, researchers have been investigating these technologies
in various applications in the ACEO industry, especially when coalesced with BIM.
Particularly, 3D vision-based as-built data acquisition technologies have been

distinctively gaining a gigantic attention and presents the recent trend in the
construction industry. Significantly, due to the fact that these technologies have the
ability to accurately generate 3D point cloud data that is representative to the pragmatic
build environment. Basically, 3D as-built point cloud data are usually acquired either
by the optoelectronic devices such as 3D Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) laser
scanners (airborne, Mobile/robotic and terrestrial), or by images-based sensing
technologies such as cameras. Owing to its advantageous attributes (accurate, rapid
acquisition time, low power consumption, portable and small-sized devices),
researchers have extensively focused on utilizing these technologies to employ them
in several applications within the AECO industry.
Apparently, integrating vision-based 3D as-built data acquisition technologies in the

AECO industry encompasses knowledge transfer from more technologically advanced
industries. Such of knowledge transfer, numerous state-of-the-art approaches have
been engendered, such as image processing, object recognition, machine learning,
Artificial Intelligence (AI), data fusion, data analytics, photogrammetry,
videogrammetry, etc., in several managerial processes. These newly emerged
approaches were thoroughly addressed in the computer and machine visions, data
science, geomatics and manufacturing. Consequently, several bespoke researches have
been advocating the adoption of knowledge transfer to ameliorate the effectiveness of
construction practices (Khosrowshahi and Arayici, 2012; Pärn et al., 2017).
Auspiciously, knowledge transfer from more technologically advanced industry will
partly or wholly unfold the cover on various convoluted issues within the AECO
industry (Pärn et al., 2017).
2
Hitherto, the proliferation of the research, in vision-based 3D as-built data acquisition
technologies and its applications, is drastically increasing and even drawing the
attention of researchers from other industries. Spectacularly, significant number of the
research efforts in this topic have been implemented by consortium of researchers from
multidisciplinary fields. Predominantly, these research efforts are designated toward
developing robust mechanisms, streamlining new approaches or even integrating state-
of-the-art devices, which are obviously envisaged in the emergence of UAVs and
robots (Ham et al., 2016; Borrmann et al., 2014; Prieto et al., 2017). The research
efforts are exerted in order to broaden the prospects of this field as well as solving
many intricate issues pertaining the construction processes. Hence, investigations have
been devotedly sought to discover the potential of exploiting these technologies in the
automation of diverse applications in the AECO industry, namely, 3D as-built BIM
model reconstruction, progress/productivity tracking, resource tracking (materials,
workforce and equipment), quality control and quality assessment (QC/QA), as-is
energy modeling, health and safety assessment and as-damaged and forensic
modeling.
1.2 Research Goal and Objectives
The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive and systematic review to serve
as a lucid guidance and research reference, in order to simplify and diminish the
confusion, caused by the scattered research, of the researchers and practitioners in the
AECO industry. Therefore, this research compiles, classifies and analyzes the research
efforts that have been exerted during the last decade. In order to achieve this aim, the
objectives of this research have been designated as follows:
1. A systematic methodology is synthesized to compile and categorize the recent

10 years of research efforts.
2. Analysis of each research’s targeted applications, methods, approaches, used
algorithms, accuracy, contributions, gaps and limitations.
3. Classification of each research into Model-driven and Data-Driven and their
corresponding subcategories.
4. Detection of the line of researches and built-up researches.
3
5. Chronologically mapping and organizing the research efforts, line of research
and built-up research in order to create the As-built Bibliometric Research
Maps (ABRMs) to visualize the relationships between the research in this area.
6. Providing insights about the research status quo, trends, gaps and future
research trajectories in the 3D as-built data applications.
1.3 Research Scope and Methodology
The research, herein, provides a critical and analytical review of the recent research
efforts, that have been published between 2008 and 2017, on the applications of vision-
based 3D as-built data acquisition technologies that have been utilized in the AECO
industry. Hence, the review will be delimited on the vision-based 3D as-built data
acquisition technologies of range-based laser scanning and image-based sensing
technologies (still cameras, video streaming, time-lapse based cameras, UAVs).
Consequently, the targeted applications in this research are on the 3D as-built data
applications: 3D as-built BIM model reconstruction, progress tracking, quality control
and quality assessment (QC/QA) and as-damaged and forensic modeling. The other
applications of the non-vision based 3D as-built technologies, such as health and safety
assessment and resources tracking will not be the focus of this research. As well, since
the focus is on as-built applications, the as-is energy modeling will be not the focus of
this research.
1.4 Research Contributions
Albeit, the applications of data acquisition technologies in the construction industry

have been addressed in several review researches, no significant research has focused
on compiling, organizing and analyzing the research efforts concerning the
applications of vision-based 3D as-built data acquisition technologies in the
construction industry. As well, no significant review has addressed the new application
of as-damaged and forensic modeling. Therefore, this research contributes with a more
systematic methodology to compile, organize and analyze the last 10 years of research
efforts, published as journal articles and few conference papers, which is seen scattered
and sparse in the literature. In addition, the research will provide a chronologically
organized as-built bibliometric research maps (ABRMs) for better comprehension of
4
the relationships between research in this area and to provide insights concerning
research trajectory and trends.
1.5 Review Limitations
The review will cover only the research efforts on the applications of vision-based 3D
as-built data acquisition technologies in the construction industry. The focus of the
review will only be on the research efforts that have been published between 2008 and
2017. While, the applications will be delimited to the 3D as-built data which are: 3D
as-built data applications: 3D as-built BIM model reconstruction, progress tracking,
quality control and quality assessment (QC/QA) and as-damaged and forensic
modeling. Speaking of which, as-is energy modeling will not be in the scope of the
research, even if the main data acquisition is mainly depended on the vision-based 3D
data acquisition technologies. Therefore, the focus is on vision-based 3D data
acquisition technologies such as range-based laser scanning and image-based sensing
technologies, other applications that requires other non-vision based data acquisition
technologies, such as health and safety assessment and resource tracking (materials,
workforce and equipment), will be discarded in this review. However, in the selected
applications of the review, there are some research that integrated both non-vision and
vision based data acquisition technologies, these research studies will be included in
the review.
1.6 Thesis Organization
After the introduction, the origination of the research will be as follows: Section (2)
demonstrates the used methodology in the research. Section (3) briefly describes the
3D as-built data process. Section (4) is considered the core of the review where the
analysis of the selected articles, previous reviews and discusses the originality and
novelty of the presented review research. As well as, research efforts are analyzed and
organized. Finally, in section (5) conclusion and recommendation for future research
are discussed.
5
6
2. METHODOLOGY
The methodology of the research at hand is based on analytical and critical review of
the research efforts in the construction industry’s applications of vision-based 3D as-
built data acquisitions using laser scanners and image-based sensing technologies.
Therefore, the aim of this review is compiling, organizing, classifying and analyzing
145 research efforts, that have been published between 2008 and 2017, in order to
provide a deep insight about the status quo of the research on this area. In order to
achieve this aim, a systematic methodology is synthesized to analyze the research that
is relevant to the topic. According to the research limitations, the selected applications
for this research, as shown in the Figure 2.1, are as-built model reconstruction,
progress tracking, quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA) and As-damaged
assessment and forensic modeling. The following subsection will discuss the review
process, steps of selecting the research articles and the analysis of the selected articles
Applications of
Vision-based 3D
Data Acquisition
3D As-Built As-damaged
Progress
Model QC/QA and Forensic
Tracking
Reconstruction Modeling
Figure 2.1: Selected Applications of Vision-based 3D Data Acquisition.
7
2.1 The Review Process
The review process started with an extensive reading of the articles concerning BIM
and the 3D data acquisitions in the construction industry as the first phase of the
research. Accordingly, the research in this area seem to be scattered and arbitrarily
separated within the literature. Therefore, the investigation is started by examining
more than 20 review articles. During the investigation, there is a significant gap in the
literature that organize and analyze the research efforts concerning the applications of
the vision-based 3D as-built data acquisition. Therefore, a systematic methodology has
been synthesized to address the research question.
In the second phase of the research, the selection of the articles has been carried out.
The selection of the articles has been done through the Web of Science (WoS) all
databases. Different keywords have been used in the search engine, for instance,
different keyword has been used for each application of 3D data acquisition
technologies have been performed in the research. During the investigation of the
selected articles, further extension of the number of the articles is discovered and
selected based on the cited research in the first selection of article. Finally, the final
number of the selected research article is achieved.
The third phase of the review was the individual analysis of each article. The analysis
was designated to determine each research’s process, methods, applications, used
algorithms, accuracy, achievements, limitations and gaps. Further investigation was
carried out to derive the buildup and line of research and investigate the relevance
among them by discovering the relationships between them.
In the final phase, the relationships between the research are used to draw the as-built
bibliometric research map (ABRMs) which is chronologically organized in order to
provide a deep insight and better comprehension of the research trajectory and trends.
Figure 2.2 previews the review process that have been implemented during the
research.
8
Line of
Relationship As-built
Examining Further Individual research and
Selection of analysis of Bibliometric
Review selection of Analysis of build up
the articles the selected Research
articles the articles each article research
articles Maps
discovery
Figure 2.2: Review Process.
2.2 Selection of Articles
In this research, the Web of Science (WOS) is used in the selection of articles where
the search was within the “all databases” only for articles and journal papers published
between 2008 and 2017. In the first selections of articles, the search discarded any
proceeding papers, conference papers, chapters and books.
For each individual applications different keywords have been selected to explore the
articles published between 2008 and 2017. For the 3D as-built model reconstruction,
the used keywords are (“BIM” OR “Building information model*” AND “as-built”)/
(“BIM” OR “Building information model*” AND “as built”). For the progress
tracking, the keywords used are (“BIM” OR “Building information model*”AND
“progress”)/ (“BIM” OR “Building information model*” AND “production”). For the
quality control and quality assessment (QC/QA), the keyword used is (“BIM” OR
“Building information model*” AND “Quality”). For the as-damaged assessment and
forensic modeling, the keyword used is (“BIM” OR “Building information model*”
AND “damage”). After selecting the relevant articles form each search, the number of
articles for each application are; 37, 29, 25 and 7 respectively with a total of 84 articles.
Through the analysis of the first 84 articles, further discovery of articles has been
noticed based on the cited articles provided in the first set of articles. Therefore,
extension of the number of articles with some important conference and procedia
9
papers is done to each application reaching 49, 42, 38 and 16 for as-built model
reconstruction, progress tracking, quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA) and
As-damaged assessment and forensic modeling respectively with a total of 145
articles. Figure 2.3 shows the flowchart of the article selection process.
Selection of
Articles
"building
information
model*" OR "BIM"
As-Built Model As-damaged and

Progress Tracking QC/QA
Reconstruction Forensic modeling
AND “progress”
AND "as built" AND “Quality” AND "damage"
OR ... “production”
37 articles 29 articles 25 articles 7 articles
Extended to 49 Extended to 42 Extended to 40 Extended to 16
Figure 2.3: Articles Selection process.
10
3. BACKGROUND ON 3D AS-BUILT DATA PROCESS
Through the course of any construction project, alterations in the scope of work can
normally be expected due to various factors. The owner requires the final records that
shows all changes which are done on all the tangible portions of the finished work.
This records are made as a contract document submitted in the end of the project,
namely as as-built document, which are usually, but not necessarily limited to, “as-
built” drawings. Unfortunately, undocumented changes, that are resulted from: design
modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, change orders, value
engineering, third party intervention, or even renovation and rehabilitation, can create
a gap between the as-designed and as-built conditions of the facility. Beyond
implementing the alterations in the field, documentations and records of the as-built is
occasionally antiquated by both the contractor and the construction manager.
Predominantly, as-built is overlooked during the construction phase because of the
attention paid to implement the activities occurring during the construction process to
match with the project constraints. Being on schedule and on budget is certainly
appeared to be worthier of the contractor or the construction manager attention, while
documenting the changes in the projects is not glamorous part of the project. Even
sometimes, as-built documentation is considered among many administrative
obstacles needed to close out the project.
As-built is used to capture the finished condition of the work as it actually constructed
and accepted. Pettee (2005) arguably discussed the four main roles of the as-built in
construction management. First, as-built serves as a one-step repository of all directed
changes in the project. Second, as-built is essential for the post-construction activities
such as facility management, operation and maintenance activities. Third, as-built is
eventually used as a demolishing drawings in the end life of the facility. Finally, as-
built can serve as a land-use history.
It is essential to note that, construction as-built term shall not be confused with as-
constructed document. As-constructed includes shop drawings, as-built schedules, as-
built created by redrafting old drawings that depicts existing work and as-built surveys
11
which are done during the construction phase. As-built, on the other hand, is the
product of surveying and measuring of the existing facility or work site to produce
representative drawings from scratch which is usually submitted in the completion of
the construction project (Pettee, 2005). Conversely, as-built and as-is briefly seems to
have the same meaning with a slight difference. In this research the term “as-built”,
hereafter, will be used for the data captured from the existing facility while the “as-is”
is used for the data capture for the purposes of energy modeling and simulation.
Although, the as-built documents is vital in any construction project, it usually do not
generally represent the complete and detailed depictions of the state of the facility
which it was actually built (Tang et al., 2010). Such of a situation is common in the
implementation of the Mechanical, Electrical and Plumping works (MEPs) where the
first designs of the systems are usually in a rudiment form (Bosché et al., 2014).
Additionally, the situation is exacerbated by inadequately tracking the change records
during the construction phase or by changes due to the poor workmanship which
makes the deviations from the actual state of the facility. Hence, what is actually built
may not correspond with the intended designs. Regardless to that, an aggravated fact
that the owner lacks of control over the as-built information, even if accurate as-built
is produced (Son et al., 2015a). This is because of the periodically alterations in the
facility due to renovation, replacements or remodeling that acquire updating the
existing as-built information. Nevertheless, many traditional methods are used to
construct a representative as-built document such as; measuring tapes, theodolite, total
station or camera, these methods are time-consuming, subjective, inaccurate and error-
prone process (Tang et al., 2010). Such of predicaments have created the urge to
possess methods and technologies that empowers sufficient, robust and cost-effective
as-built data acquisition.
By the advent of BIM alongside with the advancements of on-site spatial surveying
approaches, such as photogrammetry and image processing, as well as ranged-based
and remote sensing technologies, such as laser scanners, as-built data can be accurately
captured and stored within 3D geometrical and semantical model. Both computer
science and Geomatics vision vis-à-vis researchers and practitioners in the AECO
industry unremittingly investigate the 3D data acquisitions exploiting BIM and the
aforementioned approaches and technologies. Many research attempts guided to
automatically and semi-automatically extract 3D as-built information for the purposes
12
of 3D model reconstruction, progress monitoring, resource tracking, quality control
and quality assessment (QC/QA), safety assessment, 3D as-is energy modeling and as-
damaged assessment and forensic engineering. The availability of effective tools with
relatively low-cost methods for automated verifications and modeling of as-built data
would assist owners and facility managers to frequently and comprehensively update
the as-built condition of the facility especially in the operation and maintenance phase
(Klein et al., 2012). In this section, a review of the technological advancement and
recent research efforts are explored. The review starts with investigating the general
knowledge concerning the process of 3D as-built data acquisition. Subsequently, the
3D as-built applications are reviewed.
The process of 3D as-built data is divided into four main steps; data collection, data
processing, object recognition and 3D modeling, as shown in Figure 3.1, (Tang et al.,
2010; Volk et al., 2014). The data collection pertains the data capture from different
techniques. Meanwhile, the data processing is considered as a prerequisite step to
object recognition which it is a set of several sub-steps, including registration,
removing outlier, noise filtering, segmentation/voxelization and 3D representation, to
refine the collected data obtained from the different data collection techniques. Object
recognition is the core of 3D as-built modeling. And finally, the 3D modeling is the
last step presenting the final 3D as-built product. Each of these steps are briefly
discussed in the following sections.
• Image-based • Preprocessing
• Photogrammetry • Outlier removal
• Ranged-Based • Data-Driven • Manual
• Noise Filtering approaches
Data • LADAR/LiDAR Data • Clutters and Object • Semi-Automatic
• Model-Driven 3D Modeling
Collection • Others Processing occlusions Recognition
approaches • Automatic
• 2D plans • Registration • Others (Tagging) • Fully Automatic
• Photos • Segmentation or
• RFID voxelization
Figure 3.1: 3D as-built data process modified from Volk et al., (2014).
13
3.1 Data Collection
As the first step, the data collection implies the survey and the measurements of the all
components of the structure. There are several techniques available for data collection.
Volk et al., (2014) categorizes these techniques into two main categories; contact
techniques and non-contact techniques. Contact techniques mainly focus on manually
capturing the as-built data which is not the focus of this research. Meanwhile, non-
contact techniques consist of the ranged-based methods, image-based method and
other techniques (RFID and preexisting photos and from 2D as-built plans).
Range-based methods utilize the various types of laser scanners, also referred to Light
Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and Laser Detection and Ranging (LADAR), that
enhances the collection and creation of as-built models by measuring the distance
between the device’s sensor and the targeted objects surfaces with millimeters to
centimeters accuracy at speed of thousands to hundreds of thousand point per second
(Tang et al., 2010). Image-based methods utilize the photogrammetry,
videogrammetry and image processing as core methods to maintain images obtained
from camera, UAVs, etc. in order to collect and create as-built models from photos
and videos. Both ranged-based and image-based methods extracts spatial, color and
reflectivity information in order to construct a 3D as-built data. Meanwhile, in other
methods, such as preexisting 2D plans and tagging methods, the spatial and other
components-related information are captured.
3.1.1 Range-based 3D laser scanning
As mentioned, range-based methods are highly relatable to 3D laser scanners. 3D

Laser scanning, or as it is commonly referred to Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
and Laser Detection and Ranging (LADAR), is one of the optoelectronic technologies
that are frequently used to automatically measure and construct tangible objects
throughout processing the optical signals and reflected light with high precision (lesser
than millimeters) (Pärn and Edwards, 2017). Laser scanning is anticipated as the ideal
technological solution for automating as-built BIM model update and validation for
facility managers and contractors. Laser scanners directly calculate the distance
between the device and the targeted objects by emitting and measuring the return of
the laser beams (Klein et al., 2012). These devices can rapidly construct point cloud
14
data sets which can be processed to extract large volumes of physical objects and
recording them into a digital environment (Chen et al., 2015).
In the core of the range-based measurement of optoelectronic technologies, there are

four main generic range measurement methods namely; triangulation, phase shift,
time-of-flight and hybrid of the aforementioned methods. In the AECO industry the
most common used method is the time-of-flight laser scanning due to its adequacy of
capturing point cloud data sets from larger range, broader field and in higher resolution
(Pärn and Edwards, 2017). There are three types of laser scanners: airborne, mobile
and terrestrial laser scanners. The most common in the AECO industry is the
terrestrial laser scanners since it is the preferred method to 3D scan ground based
discrete objects with high accuracy (Bosché et al., 2015).
Although the demand on laser scanning technologies is growing in the AECO industry,
it stands behind the universal adoption in the contemporary construction practice. This
is due to multiple issues pertaining: high costs of equipment, lack of sophisticated
operators, spatial discrepancies, timely calibration of the scanning devices, occlusion
problems, intricate processing of point cloud data, and, and most importantly, lack of
automatic object recognition of semantic attributes from scanned data (Pärn and
Edwards, 2017). In order to address these limitation, knowledge transfer from more
advanced industries such as, computer and aerospace visions is highly advisable.
Auspiciously, augmenting the laser scanning and image-based sensing technologies is
interesting topic in the Geomatics research (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2011). whilst
Computer visions are developing more robust algorithms to enhance laser scanning
capabilities in BIM objects recognition (Gao et al., 2015).
3.1.2 Image-based photo/videogrammetry
Image-based data collection is predominantly concerned in extracting data from

images captured from different photo capturing devices such as camera, Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle UAV or videos. Speaking of which, the way of extracting data from
images is a process called photogrammetry. Traditionally it is a process of deriving
geometric information, such as distances and dimensions, from objects contained in
photographs (Mikhail, 2001). In the process of photogrammetry, the analysis is
achieved automatically or semi-automatically on single or multiple photographs in
which it is still (digital images) or dynamic frame or videos (videogrammetry).
15
Quintessentially, the photogrammetry includes the selection of common feature points
in one or multiple images, taking into consideration the camera position, orientation,
distortions and creating 3D information by intersecting feature point locations
(Pătrăucean et al., 2015). Auspiciously, the recent advancement of the computer vision
and image processing prompted the automation of photogrammetry process, thereby
broadening its applications in the AECO industry.
3.2 Data Processing
The data processing step is subdivided into two main sub steps; registration and
preprocessing, which include segmentation/voxelization, clutter and noise reduction
and outlier removal. Each of these sub steps will be discussed in the following
subsections.
3.2.1 Registration of 3D collected data
For the data gathered either from image-based and ranged-based or even from both of
them are maintained through a process called registration where all of point cloud or
image data from each scans or different image sets are aligned and merged in a
common and global coordinate system. (GSA, 2009). There are two approaches to
register 3D point cloud data sets; the course registration and the fine registration (Gao
et al., 2015). The course registration process is still semi-automatic, hence the user
manually identifies the approximate locations of the targeted object which is placed in
the environment to enhance the registration process (Tang et al., 2010).
On the other hand, fine registration takes into consideration all the point cloud data
sets while registering different point clouds. As one of the most common algorithms
for fine registration, Iterative closest point (ICP) automatically and iteratively adjusts
the alignment of a set of point clouds till the distances between points in a point cloud
data set and their closest points in the remaining sets are minimized (Gao et al., 2015).
As well, Scale Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) is used as a registration technique
for aligning 2D images for the purposes of progress tracking (Golpavar-Fard et al.,
2011b; Nahangi and Haas, 2014) During the process, different types of deformations
are induced from each of the data collection methods. In both cases rigid deformation
such as rotation and translation shall be considered by moving the camera or the laser
scanners around the scene to provide full coverage of the targeted object (Pătrăucean
16
et al., 2015). In the image capturing process, the third dimension, in the registration
procedure, is sometimes lost if the depths are not first inferred by triangulating the
corresponding points that belong to images taken from different perspectives.
Conversely, registering laser scans is less manual and error-prone since the registration
of laser scanned objects relies mostly on geometric information (Pătrăucean et al.,
2015).
3.2.2 Preprocessing of 3D collected data
The accuracy of collected data is crucial for the whole 3D data acquisition process.
Consequently, the input of the 3D collected data shall be refined through a
preprocessing which is become as a prerequisite for automated 3D object recognition.
The preprocessing includes segmentation/voxelization, removing outliers and clutter
and noise reduction. The aim of this step is to remove unwanted data that is induced
from moving objects, reflections, or sensor artifacts (Tang et al., 2010).
3.2.2.1 Segmentation/Voxelization
If the 3D point cloud data is voluminous, there will be a need for segmenting the 3D
point cloud data into smaller parts. Segmentation, in the image processing, is a way to
separate image into simple regions according to its homogenous behavior (Haralick
and Shapiro, 1985) There are variety of segmentation algorithms have been used in the
refinement of the 3D point cloud data such as region growing, brute-force plane-sweep
search, Hough transforms, Expectation Maximization (EM) and RANdom SAmple
Consensus (RANSAC) (Jung et al., 2014). Each of these algorithms have its
advantages and disadvantages as well as its preferred applications. For instance, the
RANSAC is a robust algorithm which is commonly used for planar detection and
extraction (Tarsha-Kurdi et al.., 2008). Unfortunately, RANSAC-based method does
not provide fully-automatic planar detection due to its high computational
complexities when large scale point could data sets are presented. Bosché (2012) used
a semiautomatic RANSAC-based method that requires a manual plane selection.
Zhang & Brilakis (2015) proposed a method that automatically detect and extract
planar patches from large-scale and noisy raw point cloud data sets through a sparsity-
inducing optimization-based Algorithm. Dimitrov & Golparvar-Fard (2015)
demonstrated the technical challenges of automatic segmentation which are attributed
17
to; variable densities of point clouds, surface roughness, curvature, clutter, occlusion,
missing data, abstraction and scale.
Voxelization, on the other hand, is to create partitions of the point cloud data into
uniformly spaced 3D grid data structure, which is referred to Voxel space, in order to
significantly reduce the amount of overly dense data (Xiong et al., 2013). The
mechanism is to replace all points within the cell with the centroid of the corresponded
cell which is used also for gaining adjacency information between the points that is
seems useful for density estimation and during modelling (Pătrăucean et al., 2015).
3.2.2.2 Outlier removal
Most of the approaches that determine the outlier are based on local statistics such as,
distance to nearest neighbor, local density or eigenvalues of local covariance matrix.
In the preprocessing step, outliers are identified either by applying threshold or by
defining the normal distribution of the values to identify points that is diverging from
the distribution (Pătrăucean et al., 2015).
3.2.2.3 Clutter and noise reduction
As one of the key challenges in the 3D as-built data reconstruction is the issue of
occlusion (Xiong et al., 2013). Occlusion can be made by the existence of unwanted
objects that have been captured within the point cloud scan, such as furniture, that can
block the visibility of the targeted surface essential for geometrical recognition which
may, unintentionally inferred as a part of the model. The main purpose of clutter and
noise filtering is to perform smoothing operation by studying the local neighborhood
in order to significantly reduce the unwanted point cloud data.
3.3 Object Recognition
After registering and refining the 3D point cloud data or images, the captured data is
used to recognize the building components and their characteristics according to the
required as-built functionalities. The recognition process refers to semantic labeling or
labeling sets of data points or geometric primitives with a name object or object class.
The recognition process of the 3D objects includes object identification, extracting the
relevant semantic data and establishing the relationships between different objects
(Tang, 2010). Volk et al. (2014) classified the object recognition approaches into three
18
main categories; Data-driven, Model-driven and others recognition approaches as
shown in Figure 3.2.
Object Recognition
Approachs
Combination of Data and

Model-Driven Approaches Data-Driven Approaches Others
Model-Driven Approaches
Capturing data to extract

Overcoming the
building information to
Predefined Structures and disadvantages pertaining Tag-Based Identifications
detect objects through
Contextual Modeling both method by combining Such as RFID and Barcoding
summerizing and analyzing
them under same platform
the given data
Manual Identifcation (most

common)
Figure 3.2: Classifications of the object recognition approaches modified from Volk
et al., (2014).
Data-driven approach utilizes the captured data to extract building information which
it can be distinguished using different types of matching methods. Matching methods
can be either feature-based matching (e.g. Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT)),
shape-based matching (e.g. geometric primitives such as individual surfaces and
volumetric shapes), material-based matching (color, texture and reflectivity) or
statistical-based Matching algorithms (e.g. Ant Colony optimization and fuzzy logics).
The first three methods rely on the properties and local features which are extracted
from the images and point clouds but not reliable in case of poorly-textured conditions
(Lu and Lee, 2017). Whilst, the statistical-based matching algorithms has higher
accuracy than the other methods. Figure 3.3 illustrates the types of data-driven
approaches.
Model driven recognition approaches, on the other hand, is based on prior knowledge
and contextual information based on predefined structures such as topologic
relationships (Lu and Lee, 2017). The recognition is achieved by establishing spatial
relationship between objects or geometric primitives to reduce the ambiguities in the
object recognition process. In this approach, a semantic labels of the geometric
19
primitives are generated then it can be tested and validated through spatial relationship
knowledge base usually represented by a semantic net (Tang et al., 2010).
Data-Driven
Approaches
Feature-based Shape-based Material-based Statistical-based
The scale invariant Ant Colony

Surface-based
feature transform Color Optimization
methods
(SIFT) (ACO)
Hyperpolyhedron
Region Growing
with Adaptive Texture Fuzzy Logics
methods
Threshold (HPAT)
Speeded-up robust Classification

Reflectivity
features (SURF) methods
Figure 3.3: Classifications of data-driven object recognition approaches (edited and

modified from; Dimitrov & Golparvar-Fard (2015) and Volk et al., (2014)).
For instance, as one of the data-driven approaches, shape-based matching approaches

recognize objects by reasoning the point cloud data according to their size, shape,
dimensions, and other shape-related features (Gao et al., 2016). Dimitrov & Golparvar-
Fard (2015) categorizes the shape-based matching methods into three families; the
Surface-Based methods, Region Growing methods and Classification methods. Each
of these methods has different approaches in recognizing the scanned objects. Surface-
Based methods, or also referred to primitive-based methods, reasons with the
geometrical properties associated with the planes and surfaces, hence it aims to find
sets of points in the scene that fit primitives and planes which is generally context
specific and it works well where prior knowledge is available to define outliers. Region
Growing methods, on the other hand, reason according to regional geometric-related
features which it is derived from a point with its corresponded neighbor points such as
spin image, point density and surface normal (Gao et al., 2016). Thus, these methods
do not constrain the users to model with primitives since it is a graph based that relies
on the formulation of connectivity and similarity measures between points. Such of
similarity can be derived from form local features extracted from the environment
20
around the point. Classification methods are proposed to classify sets of points into
surface types (planar or curved) or object types (background, noise of foreground).
Surface types are classified by using graphical models to propagate local feature
information until labeling converges to a globally consistent state. While objects types
are classified using training methods.
According to the recent research attempts to solve the object recognition issues in the
construction applications, many researchers are divided into those who use the as-
designed model during the recognition process (Model-Driven recognition) and others
who don’t (Data-Driven Recognition) (Pătrăucean et al., 2015; Son & Kim, 2017).
In the model-driven recognition, the aim of the 3D as-built data acquisition is to

compare the point cloud data with 3D as-designed BIM model or from 3D CAD
libraries (Bosché and Haas, 2008; Bosché et al., 2009; Bosché, 2010; Son & Kim,
2010; Turkan et al., 2012; Kim & Son, 2013; Turkan et al., 2013; Walsh et al., 2013;
Anil et al., 2012; Anil et al., 2013). Hence point cloud data can be used as a reference
to update as-designed BIM to as-built 3D BIM model (Gao et al., 2016). The
comparison can be done by two approaches; the first approach can be done by
registering the BIM model and the point cloud data on the same coordinate system and
then perform a point-to-point deviation analysis. The deviations are calculated as the
distances between points in the point cloud and the closest surfaces modeled in the
BIM. Bosché and Haas (2008) and Bosché et al. (2009) developed a 3D object
extraction approach using this method by matching points from the point cloud data
sets with the building components modeled in BIM. The other approach is done based
on features (e.g. shapes, volumes, dimensions, locations) extracted from both BIM
model and the segmented point cloud data. Wherein, segments from point cloud data
are matched with the components modeled in BIM. Nevertheless, owing to the changes
that normally occurs between the as-design and as-built of the building components,
discrepancies between point cloud data and as-designed BIM models may occur. Gao
et al., (2016) classified theses discrepancies into; shape, location, dimension, content
and composition discrepancies. Though, there is assertion on exploiting the
combination different types of features to align the point cloud data and the as-
designed BIM model (Gao et al., 2016).
On the other hand, in the data-driven method to solve the object recognition problem,
researchers assert that object recognition can be done without the as-designed model
21
or 3D CAD database (Pu & Vosselman, 2009; Truong-Hong et al., 2012; Truong-
Hong, 2013; Xiong et al., 2013; Dimitrov & Golparvar-Frad, 2015; Thomson &
Boehm, 2015; Zhang & Brilakis ,2015; Valero et al., 2016; Son & Kim, 2017). Many
researchers utilized shape-based data-driven object recognition methods to detect
structural elements (columns, beams, slabs, etc.), interior architectural elements (walls,
floors, ceilings, doors, windows, etc.), exterior architectural elements e.g. Facades,
MEP systems (pipelines and their corresponding fittings and conjunctions) or even
Materials and textures (concrete, steel, timber, etc.). For instance, researchers utilized
surface-based data-driven object recognition methods to detect interior elements
(Valero et al., 2012a, 2012b, 2016; Xiong et al., 2013; Jung et al., 2014) and exterior
elements (Pu and Vosselman, 2009); Boulaassal et al., 2009; Truong-Hong et al., 2012,
2013; Klein et al.,2012). Nevertheless, the bases of the used method herein are mainly
a planar patch detection which need additional processes to extract non-planar or
volumetric elements such as columns, beams, walls, etc. while Son and Kim, (2017)
used object recognition based on shape classification and 3D parameter calculations
to extract non-planar or volumetric elements such Walls, Floors, Columns graders,
beams and slabs.
Other researchers focused on the material-based recognition to classify materials and

textures (Zhu and Brilakis, 2010a, 2010b; Zhu et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2010; Al-
Takrouri and Savkin, 2010; Son et al., 2012; Dimitrov & Golparvar-Frad, 2014). These
research efforts were guided towards automatic detection of concrete as a pivotal
material in the construction industry. In the researches by Zhu and Brilakis (2010a,
2010b) and Zhu et al., (2010), the focus was not only to extract and detect the geometry
of elements but also the material composing that geometry. Dimitrov & Golparvar-
Frad, (2014) implement the first attempt to construct a Construction Material Library
(CML) that would be essential in the recognition of enormous quantity of material
types that can be recorded in a various as-built perspectives.
3.4 As-built 3D BIM Modeling
3D Modeling of the recognized objects, after capturing and processing 3D point cloud
or images data, involves modeling the geometry of the components, assigning material
properties and establishing relationships between components (Volk et al., 2014). The
foremost aim of the 3D as-built Model shall be semantic-rich model encompassing all
22
the relevant information in details and accuracy (Lu and Lee, 2017). The quality of the
as-built is dependent on the quality of the data collection, processing and object
recognition. Currently, the process of converting 3D point cloud data, Scan-to-BIM,
and images into BIM models is primarily a manual operation, labor-intensive and
error-prone process (Tang et al., 2010). The need for automated 3D modeling is seen
commercially desirable to reduce time and cost and make the process viable for a range
of tasks in the lifecycle (Thomson & Boehm, 2015).
Through the literature, there are common systems for the usage of 3D data acquisition
applications. For instance, Scan-to-BIM is used for 3D model reconstruction of the as-
built status. While Scan-vs-BIM and D4AR are used for progress tracking.
3.4.1 Scan-to-BIM and Scan-vs-BIM systems
Scan-to-BIM, which was proposed by Bosché and Haas (2008) and Bosché et al.,
(2009) is an automated system to create 3D as-built model from 3D point cloud data
obtained either from ranged-based or image-based data acquisition technologies. In
their study, Scan-to-BIM have been utilized using the terrestrial laser scanning
techniques to provide a method for automated recognition of structural components
where the as-built are modeled in a 3D CAD model based on 3D point cloud data
obtained from laser scanner. Hence, the as-designed 3D CAD model was converted to
a point cloud data model. Since that, a deviation analysis was implemented using
point-recognition metrics as the correspondences between the as-built and as-designed
were identified. The result from using Scan-to-BIM system is generally for model
reconstruction.
Scan-vs-BIM, on the other hand, is one of the proposed methods for automating the
progress tracking that has been successfully validated to accurately track the progress
of structural elements (Bosché and Haas 2008; Bosché 2009; Turkan et al. 2012, 2013;
Kim et al., 2013a). Essentially, Scan-vs-BIM object recognition system, which is an
analogy to Scan-to-BIM system, is based on the comparison between the as-built status
captured as 3D point cloud data and the as-design state from the 3D or 4D BIM model
(Bosché and Haas 2008; Bosché 2009; Turkan et al. 2012, 2013).
23
3.4.2 D4AR system
D4AR is an image-based technique made by Golpavar-Fard et al. (2009a) to visualize

the progress of the project wherein the discrepancies are compared between as-planned
and as-built construction performance. D4AR is a 4D Augmented Reality-based
platform, which is a combination of daily progress images and 4D model to create 4
Dimensional augmented reality model. The method utilizes the unordered daily
progress images (photo logs) taken in the construction site to create an as-built
condition of the construction.
24
4. 3D AS-BUILT DATA APPLICATIONS
In this section, analysis of the selected articles for this study is demonstrated.
Subsequently, the analysis of previous reviews and the originality of the review are
illustrated. Finally, the review of the research efforts on the application of vision-based
3D as-built data acquisition will be discussed in the following subsections.
4.1 Analysis of the Selected Articles
The articles have been selected from 30 different journals. The journal
“AUTOMATION IN CONSTRUCTION” has almost 39% of the total number of
selected articles. While both “JOURNAL OF COMPUTING IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING” and “ADVANCED ENGINEERING INFORMATICS” have
approximately 36% of the total number of the selected articles. Whereas, the rest of
the articles are almost distributed equally on the rest of the other journals. Figure 4.1
shows the articles published for each year in this topic and Table 4.1 depicts the
number of articles for each journal and conference titles.
25
Number of Selected Articles
20
15
24
10 18
15 16
14 14 14
11
5 8 9
2
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Years
Figure 4.1: Total number of selected articles each year.
25
Table 4.1: Number of articles selected from each journal.
Journals Number of Articles
AUTOMATION IN CONSTRUCTION 47
JOURNAL OF COMPUTING IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 26
ADVANCED ENGINEERING INFORMATICS 21
JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT ASCE 4
JOURNAL OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION 3
REMOTE SENSING 2
SENSORS 2
TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 2
BUILT ENVIRONMENT PROJECT AND ASSET MANAGEMENT 1
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS 1
EARTH SCIENCE INFORMATICS 1
EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND SPACE SCIENCES 1
ENGINEERING, CONSTRUCTION AND ARCHITECTURAL MANAGEMENT 1
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL COMPUTING 1
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT 1
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 1
JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 1
JOURNAL OF VISUALIZATION IN ENGINEERING 1
JOURNAL OF SURVEYING ENGINEERING ASCE 1
JOURNAL OF THE JAPAN SOCIETY FOR PRECISION ENGINEERING 1
JOURNAL OF COMPUTATIONAL DESIGN AND ENGINEERING 1
LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT IN ENGINEERING 1
MATERIALS EVALUATION 1
MEASUREMENT 1
NDT E INTERNATIONAL 1
PATTERN RECOGNITION 1
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC JOURNAL OF FINLAND 1
PFG JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY REMOTE SENSING AND GEOINFORMATION

1
SCIENCE
ROBOTICS AND AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS 1
STRUCTURES 1
26
Figure 4.2 shows that more than the half of the research articles, approximately 58%,
have been published in North America (United States of America and Canada). While,
less than quarter of the research articles, 23.7%, have been published in the United
Kingdom UK (England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales respectively). The contribution
of Europe is almost 20%. Whilst, South Korea, alone, contributes with more than 15%.
Figure 4.2: Number of articles from each country.
Figure 4.3 shows the authors who contributed in the research of the applications of 3D
data acquisition technologies. While Figure 4.4 shows the analysis of total 145 articles
selected in the research in the CiteSpace software according to cited references. After
the analysis, the figure shows the most used terms used in title, abstract and keywords
of the total 145 articles.
27
Figure 4.3: Authors contributions.
Figure 4.4: A view from CiteSpace interface about the analysis of the research
articles.
4.2 Analysis of Previous Reviews and the Originality of the Review
During the last 30 years, the proliferation of the 3D data acquisition, object recognition
and as-built creation research still have been investigated in the construction industry.
28
Ever since, myriad of research efforts have sought the foremost endeavor to
automatically create 3D semantic-rich as-built BIM models. Nonetheless, these efforts
have not yet yielded to fully automate the process while the current automatic
approaches still time-consuming, intricate, expensive, require tacit knowledge and
experienced surveyors and modelers and in limited accuracy. Since the last decade,
myriad of review articles have been published to summarize the research efforts
concerning; 3D as-built reconstruction (Brilakis et al., 2010; Tang et al. 2010; Volk et
al., 2014; Son et al., 2015a; Pătrăucean et al., 2015; Fathi et al., 2015; Ham et al., 2016;
Lu and Lee, 2017; Pärn and Edwards, 2017), progress monitoring (Ergan et al., 2008;
Son et al., 2015a; Yang et al., 2015; Omer and Nahidi, 2016; Ham et al., 2016; Pärn
and Edwards, 2017), as-is energy modeling (Cho et al., 2015), resource tracking
(Teizer, 2015), safety assessment (Zhou et al., 2012), quality control/quality
assessment (Ergan et al., 2008; Son et al., 2015a; Pärn and Edwards, 2017) and As-
damaged assessment and forensic modeling (Ham et al., 2016). Table 4.2 depicts the
previous review articles published between 2008 and 2017 and sorts the review articles
according to the type of data acquisition and the their applications.
Regarding the 3D as-built model reconstruction, many review articles focused on the
laser scanning 3D data acquisition (Tang et al. 2010; Pärn and Edwards, 2017) while
others focused on the image-based acquisition (Fathi et al., 2015; Ham et al., 2016; Lu
and Lee, 2017). But others focused on combination of image-base, range-based or
other 3D data acquisition technologies (Brilakis et al., 2010; Volk et al., 2014;
Pătrăucean et al., 2015; Son et al., 2015a). From theses reviews, Brilakis et al. (2010),
Tang et al. (2010), Volk et al. (2014) and Pătrăucean et al. (2015) investigated the
opportunity and the potential of automatic generation of semantic and parametric as-
built models. Brilakis et al. (2010) proposed a model generation framework that is
guided toward generating a parametric BIM models exploiting computer vision
technologies, image processing, videogrammetry and machine learning to process the
3D data acquired by both laser scanning and image-based technologies. While, Tang
et al. (2010) reviewed the techniques and approaches developed in the civil
engineering and computer science to automate the creation of 3D as-built BIM models
by identifying the process and their state-of-the-art methods and algorithms used in
each operation. Likely, Volk et al. (2014) presented a comprehensive overview on the
issues pertaining the existing building as well as the technical issues in each step in the
29
process concerning the creating as-built model for existing building. Pătrăucean et al.
(2015) focused on the process of creating as-built geometric models and discussed the
model-driven (with BIM) and data-driven (without BIM) modeling. Ostensibly, the
aforementioned review articles focused solely on the application of 3D as-built model
reconstruction.
Table 4.2: Previous review articles on the applications of 3D as-built data

acquisition.
As- Resources,
Data
As-is damaged Workforce
Acquisition 3D as-built Progress Safety
QC/QA Energy Modeling and
Technologies/ Reconstruction monitoring assessment
modeling Forensic material
Applications
engineering tracking
(Ergan et al.,
(Brilakis et al.,
2008); (Son
2010); (Tang
et al.,
et al., 2010); (Ergan et
2015a);
(Volk et al., al., 2008); (Zhou et
(Teizer, (Ergan et
2014); (Son et (Son et al., al.,2012);
Laser 2015); (Cho et al., al., 2008);
al., 2015a); 2015a); N.A. (Pärn and
Scanners (Omer and 2015) (Teizer,
(Patraucean et (Pärn and Edwards,
Nehdi, 2015);
al., 2015); Edwards, 2017)
2016); (Pärn
(Pärn and 2017)
and
Edwards,
Edwards,
2017)
2017)
(Son et al.,
(Brilakis et al.,
2015a);
2010); (Volk
(Yang et al.,
et al., 2014);
2015);
(Son et al., (Zhou et
(Teizer,
2015a); al.,2012); (Teizer,
2015);
(Patraucean et (Son et al., (Cho et al., (Ham et al., (Ham et al., 2015);
Image-based (Omer and
al., 2015); 2015a) 2015) 2016) 2016); (Yang et
Nehdi,
(Ham et al., (Yang et al., 2015)
2016); (Ham
2016); (Fathi al.,2015)
et al., 2016);
et al., 2015);
(Han and
(Lu and Lee,
Golpavar-
2017)
fard, 2017)
(Ergan et al.,
2008); (Ergan et
Other (Volk et al., (Teizer, (Ergan et (Zhou et al., 2008);
N.A. N.A
techniques 2014) 2015);(Omer al., 2008) al.,2012) (Teizer,
and Nehdi, 2015)
2016)
For object recognition and feature detection in the process of creating as-built model,
Gao et al. (2016) reviewed six different feature-based recognition approaches that
match segments of point cloud to elements in BIM model and evaluate the
performance of these approaches by conduction experimental analysis to match
mechanical equipment and duct work to match it with the as-planned BIM model. Pärn
and Edwards, (2017) reviewed the laser scanning, its applications and its modes of
30
delivery in the construction industry. However, the research focused on the
applications of the range-based laser scanning as a few details on the research efforts
are investigated. Whereas others focused on creating as-built model from image-based
technologies such as Fathi et al. (2015) and Lu and Lee (2017) reviewed the state-of-
the-art image-based 3D as-built creation algorithms which are developed by the both
computer vision and photogrammetry communities. Lu and Lee (2017) presented a
framework for constructing as-built model following the processes of data capture,
data processing, object recognition and 3D modeling. For each step the related image-
based data capture technologies, object recognition methods and processing
algorithms are included in the workflow of the framework. Nevertheless, the
previously mentioned researches selected one of the vision-based 3D data acquisition
technologies.
Other reviews focused on the data acquisition requirements and evaluations of

different methods. For instance, in order to enhance the integration of laser scanning
in the construction industry, Randall (2011) investigated the technical requirements in
the integration of laser scanning technology in construction engineering applications
in all phases of the construction project lifecycle. The investigation yielded to a
framework with the fundamentals of 3D model-based design workflow. Similarly, Dai
et al. (2013) conducted analytical and quantitative comparison between image-based
technologies, such as photogrammetry and videogrammetry, and Time-to-Flight-based
technologies. Experimental-based comparisons were conducted, with respect to the
criterion of accuracy, quality, time and cost, on two cameras, total station and time-to-
flight laser scanners.
Many reviews have been published for 3D data acquisitions solely on progress
monitoring. Ergan et al. (2008) reviewed some of data capture technologies in the
construction industry, which are laser scanning, Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) and embedded sensors, where assessment of these technologies and their
implications in the construction facility and infrastructure management are
investigated. Similarly, Omer and Nahidi, (2016) provided a holistic overview of the
data acquisition technologies used in the construction industry for the purpose of
progress tracking of construction project. The review categorized these techniques into
three groups of collecting, organizing and analyzing as-built data which includes; IT
technologies (handheld technologies, voice-based tools, multimedia tools), Geospatial
31
technologies (RFID, Barcoding, UWB, GIS and GPS), vision-based technologies
(photo/videogrammetry, 3D laser scanning) and augmented reality. Son et al. (2015a)
outline the research efforts that focus on acquiring 3D data either from laser scanning
or image-based technologies for the purpose of creating 3D as-built models and
progress monitoring. Yang et al. (2015) the state-of-the-art methods for the
performance monitoring of the civil and infrastructure elements on one hand and visual
monitoring of construction equipment and workers on the other hand, leveraging the
computer vision techniques of the still images, time-lapse photos and video streaming.
Ham et al. (2016) provided an overview of visual monitoring of using UAVs in the
construction industry. Han and Golpavar-Fard (2017) provided an explanatory study
that investigate the potential of Big Visual Data and its current strategies which could
be leveraged in BIM as a performance analytic in the construction industry.
Whilst, other reviews focused on different application. For instance, addressing the
construction safety issues, Zhou et al. (2012) investigated the opportunities and the
implications of using field data capture technologies such as RFID, laser scanners,
image-based technologies as well as the state-of-the-art databases, virtual reality and
geographic information systems in addressing the safety issues in the construction
phase. While for the tracking of resources in the construction industry, Teizer (2015)
and Yang et al. (2015) reviewed the vision-based sensing technologies, such as laser
scanners, UAVs and sensors cameras, that are used to track temporary resources
(materials, workforce and equipment) during the construction phase. And for as-is
energy modelling, Cho et al., (2015) reviewed the state-of-the-art approaches that
create as-is geometric and thermal models for the purpose of energy modeling in which
it semi-automatically or automatically process 3D data acquired by both image-based
and range-based technologies. The review correspondingly investigated the main
algorithms used to construct spatio-thermal point cloud representation and
automatically convert it into semantic-rich BIM models as gbXML format that is later
used for energy modeling.
As a distinction from the aforementioned reviews, this research serves as a research

guidance for future research on this area. Hence, the research contributes by providing
a review of the research efforts, published between 2008 and 2017, in the applications
of vision-based 3D data acquisition technologies in the construction industry.
Speaking of the applications, this review will provide the research efforts concerning
32
3D as-built reconstruction, progress monitoring, quality control/assessment (QC), and
as-damaged assessment and forensic modeling. The review will be delimited on the
vision-based 3D data acquisition technologies such as laser scanning and image-based
sensors (still cameras, video streaming, time-lapse based cameras, UAV). Regarding
the research efforts in these applications, the process, used algorithms, achievements,
limitations and gaps of each research are investigated. The research efforts will be
categorized under the model-driven and data-driven modeling approaches. The
investigation will lead to the authentic goal to serve as a lucid research guidance of the
research in this area, in which, Bibliometric Research Maps are created to visualize
and track the trails of the research trends in the applications of vision-based 3D data
acquisition technologies. The Bibliometric Research Map will draw and track three
major research efforts, namely; (Scan-to-BIM/Scan-vs-BIM and D4AR) model-driven
approaches and other data-driven approaches.
4.3 Applications of Vision-based 3D As-built Data Acquisition Technologies
Investigating 3D as-built data acquisition was a trend for the past two decades,
hitherto, the proliferation of its research is drastically increasing and even drawing the
attention of researchers from other industries. Stimulatingly, the majority of the
research in this topic were implemented by multidisciplinary fields. Albeit the
automation of semantical object recognition and reconstruction of BIM semantically
rich as-built model are not yet reported, more research efforts are designated for
developing more robust mechanisms, streamlining new approaches and even
integrating devices. These devices which is conspicuously envisaged in the emergence
of UAVs and robots (Ham et al., 2016; Borrmann et al., 2014; Prieto et al., 2017) to
broaden the prospects of this technology. The progression in both Building
Information Modeling (BIM) and the 3D as-built and as-is data acquisition
technologies propagates myriad of applications in the AECO industry unfolding the
cover on various convoluted issues such as as-built documentation and real-time
progress tracking. The process of 3D as-built data is divided into four main steps; data
collection, data processing, object recognition and 3D modeling, (Tang et al., 2010;
Volk et al., 2014). The data collection pertains the data capture from different
techniques. Meanwhile, the data processing is considered as a prerequisite step to
object recognition which it is a set of several sub-steps, including registration,
33
removing outlier, noise filtering, segmentation/voxelization and 3D representation, to
refine the collected data obtained from the different data collection techniques. Object
recognition is the core of 3D as-built modeling. And finally, the 3D modeling is the
last step presenting the final 3D as-built product. Each of these steps are briefly
discussed in the previous section.By examining the overall research in this area, the
applications of 3D as-built data acquisition technologies in the AECO industry are
categorized, as shown in Figure 4.5, into: 3D as-built BIM model reconstruction,
progress tracking, quality control/assessment (QC/QA) and as-damaged and forensic
modeling. A survey of the research efforts in vision-based 3D as-built data acquisition
applications, determined in this research, are discussed in the following sections.
Applications of
Vision-based 3D Data
Acquisition
5.1. 3D As-Built
5.4. As-damaged and
Model 5.2. Progress Tracking 5.3. QC/QA
Forensic Modeling
Reconstruction
5.1.1. Structural 5.2.1. Structural 5.3.1. Structural 5.3.2. MEP and Earthquake Damage
Elements Elements Elements Pipeline Systems Assessment
5.1.2. Outdoor
5.2.3. Interior 5.3.1.1. Dimensional Defects in Structural
Architectural
Construction work QC/QA Elements
Elements
5.1.3. Indoor
5.2.2. MEP and 5.3.1.2. Surface
Architectural
Pipeline Systems Flatness
Elements
5.1.4. MEP and

5.3.1.3.Deformation
Pipeline Systems
Figure 4.5: The applications of vision-based 3D data acquisition technologies.
4.4 3D As-built BIM Model Reconstruction
Automatic creation of 3D semantically rich as-built BIM model from image/range-

based 3D data acquisition technologies is the authentic and the uppermost aim of the
researchers in this area. Although this aim hasn’t accomplished yet, several research
addressed this issue. Some research efforts have successfully developed automatic
34
geometrical 3D models which reconstructed as a step forward automated 3D semantic
rich models reconstruction. the 3D as-built BIM model reconstruction research efforts
are divided into: 3D as-built model reconstruction of structural elements, 3D as-built
model reconstruction of outdoor architectural elements, 3D as-built model
reconstruction of indoor architectural elements and 3D as-built model reconstruction
of pipelines and MEP systems and 3D as-built
4.4.1 3D as-built model reconstruction of structural elements
In order to construct a 3D as-built models, researchers studied different ways to

recognize structural objects acquired from both image-based and range-based
acquisition methods. For instance, the first work concerning the model-driven
automated 3D as-built model reconstruction is presented as a system called Scan-to-
BIM, which was proposed by Bosché and Haas (2008) and Bosché et al., (2009). Scan-
to-BIM utilizes the terrestrial laser scanning techniques. In their study, a method for
automated recognition of structural components is proposed where the as-built are
modeled in a 3D CAD model based on 3D point cloud data obtained from laser
scanner. Hence, the as-designed 3D CAD model was converted to a point cloud data
model. Since that, a deviation analysis was implemented using point-recognition
metrics as the correspondences between the as-built and as-designed were identified.
In a latter work done by Bosché (2010) proposed a method for automated recognition
of structural components that are modeled in 3D CAD from 3D point cloud data
gathered from the construction site. The method briefly started with registering the
point cloud data sets of the structural components as a 3D CAD model using ICP
algorithm. Then the same registration method is done for calculating the poses of
models of structural components. Subsequently, a point to point matching approach is
used to automatically control the compliance of the structural components with respect
to the corresponding dimensional tolerances. Another model-driven approach that
automatically detect and segment both rectangle and circular reinforced concrete
columns acquired by terrestrial laser scanners is proposed by Díaz-Vilariño et al.,
(2015). Where the segmentation involves rasterization of the point cloud data into XY
plane then according to the cross-section of the column, Circular Hough transform is
implemented to detect circular columns and generalized Hough transform is
implemented for rectangular columns.
35
Whereas, Other researchers utilized the image-based data acquisition methods to
acquire data from the sites and used different techniques to detect structural elements
based on image processing and photogrammetry. For instance, Zhu and Brilakis
(2010a), Zhu et al., (2010) and Wu et al., (2010) investigated the object recognition of
concrete columns from data acquired by images and video streams. In the research of
Zhu and Brilakis (2010a), an automated method to recognize concrete columns. A
combination of both data-driven and model-driven are used to first detect the columns’
boundaries utilizing Canny edge detection and 2D Hough transform while then the
detection of concrete is done depending on the color and texture cues by calculating
the material signature (e.g. intensity, Red, Green, Blue) and compare it with concrete
samples in a knowledge-base to detect the concrete. Zhu et al. (2010), on the other
hand, applied the same method to detect large-scale concrete bridge columns but after
filtering images to remove noise, image stitching then segmentation using RANSAC
and bundle adjustment. In their method, concrete classification method based on
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is used to recognize the concrete. Conversely, Wu
et al., (2010) developed a model-driven method to detect concrete columns by utilizing
image processing and 3D CAD objects. The method starts with preprocessing by
converting the images into grayscale images then morphological opening and
subtraction are used to enhance quality of grayscale images. Then, segmentation based
on data fusion and filtering strategies are used to acquire the edges of objects in interest
which, in turns, are incorporated with 3D CAD perspective to detect the columns.
Albeit, the previously mentioned researches are mainly concerned on the model-based
object recognition from data acquired from either range-based or image-based
methods, these research efforts built a base for further 3D as-built model
reconstruction. The following research efforts have focused on data-driven methods.
For reinforced concrete work, See Table 4.5 and Table 4.6, Walsh et al. (2013)
proposed an approach extracted a 3D model by detecting and segmenting subsections
of a point cloud data obtained from terrestrial laser scanner for a concrete pile cap from
a collapsed bridge using region-growing method and then used the least squares
approach to fit the surface to the extracted point. The outcome of this research reveals
that the reconstructed geometry was in the allowable tolerance. A step toward an
automatically semantic-rich 3D model reconstruction, Son and Kim (2017) proposed
a method for regenerating as-built 3D semantic reinforced concrete structural model
36
obtained from terrestrial laser scanner which does not depend on as-designed BIM
model. The method consists of 3 main steps; region of interest detection to distinguish
the 3D points that are part of structural elements which classify them according to their
color values (RGB); scene segmentation to identify different elements type (walls,
columns, ceiling, etc.) using local concave and convex properties between structural
elements; And 3D volumetric modeling. The overall performance of the method is
very accurate since 99% of the scanned elements are recognized and 3D modeled.
For steel structures, see Table 4.3 and Table 4.4, Anil et al., (2012) addressed the
challenges of recognizing steel sections which are closely sized generic steel sections.
In this research four manual methods are investigated: point-to-point, distance between
edges, distance between plane-plane intersection lines and cross section tracking. The
findings reveal that the best result of these method obtained low accuracy for both
columns and beams. Thus the automatic identification of steel structural members is
still a challenge. In a later study by Anil et al., (2013), they investigated deviation
analysis method to assess the quality of the as-built model generated from point clouds
data sets captured by terrestrial laser scanners. The research discusses types of errors
and deviation patterns during the 3D remodeling from point clouds. As an attempt to
address this issue of identifying the steel section Cabaleiro et al. (2014) developed an
algorithm to automatically recognize and 3D model the steel sections by utilizing
Hough transform to extract flanges and web lines of steel frame connection
components from 2.5D density images and used SolidWorks software to 3D model the
resulted components. Still, in this method the flange and web thicknesses are not
identified. Subsequently and towards automatic generation of 3D steel structure BIM
models, Laefer and Truong-Hong (2017) proposed evolutionary method to
automatically identify and construct 3D models of steel structures obtained from
terrestrial laser scanners. The method used kernel density estimation to extract the
shape and the dimensions of the cross-sections. To determine the best match of various
cross-sections a measuring metric is introduced to compare the results with the
predefined 3D CAD Library. The findings reveal that the method successfully
recognized the required cross-section with accuracy up to 92% and 81% for structural
members across two steel frames of different characteristics. Figure 4.6 depicts the
ABRMS of both steel and R.C. structures.
37
Table 4.3: Research efforts on 3D as-built reconstruction of steel structures (data collection
and data preprocessing).
Registration method preprocessing

Data
Research
collection Registration Lvl of Preprocess
Segmentation
Type Auto ing
Bosché and Geo-

TLS Manual N.A. N.A.
Haas (2008) Referencing
Bosché et al., Geo-

TLS Manual N.A. N.A.
(2009) Referencing
Bosché (2010) TLS ICP Auto N.A. N.A.
Cabaleiro et al. Manual selection

TLS N.A. N.A. N.A.
(2014) of connection
Manual
Laefer &
selection Region-growing
Truong-Hong TLS Co-registration N.A.
from Point Octree
(2017)
cloud
Table 4.4: Research efforts on 3D as-built reconstruction of steel structures (object

recognition and 3D Modeling).
Object Recognition
3D
Research Reconstruct
Leve ion
Recognition Recognit Recognition Recognized
l of accuracy
Category ion type Method Objects
Auto
Alignmen Range
Bosché and
Model-Driven t with 3D Matching Auto Columns N.A N.A.
Haas (2008)
BIM Metrics
Alignmen Range
Bosché et al., Steel
Model-Driven t with 3D Matching Auto 80% N.A.
(2009) structure
BIM Metrics
Alignmen Point
Bosché Steel
Model-Driven t with 3D Matching Auto 100% N.A.
(2010) structure
BIM Algorithm
Data- Steel sections

Cabaleiro et Surface Hough 78% (28
Driven/surfac Auto and Automatic
al. (2014) extraction transform from 36)
e-based connections
Structural
Karnel
members 92%
Laefer & Density
Surface Steel Sections sections
Truong-Hong Model-Driven Estimation Auto Automatic
extraction with flange 81% Steel
(2017) and Best
and Web members
match metrics
thickness
38
Table 4.5: Research effort on the 3D as-built reconstruction of R.C. Structures (data
collection and data preprocessing).

Data
Research
collection Lvl of
Registration Type Preprocessing Segmentation
Auto
Zhu and Brilakis Median filter to

Web Camera N.A. N.A. N.A.
(2010a) remove noise
Image stitching
Digital Median filter to
Zhu et al., (2010) N.A. N.A. including RANSAC and
Camera remove noise
Bundle Adjustment
Converting RGB
images to
Grayscale images
Digital Data fusion and
Wu et al., (2010) N.A. N.A. then applying
Camera Filtering
morphological
opening and
subtraction
Coarse registration
Rasterization of
Díaz-Vilariño et al., and fine Manual/au Transforming 2D planes
TLS point cloud data to
(2015) registration using tomatic to 3D columns
XY planes
ICP
Shape feature
built-in Laser Detection/outlier Region-growing
Walsh et al. (2013) TLS N.A.
software removal/Gauss Method
Map Clustering
local convexity using

super voxel and Region-
ROI detection
Son and Kim (2017) TLS N.A. N.A. growing then
Using color value
segmentation
refinement using filters
39
Table 4.6: Research effort on the 3D as-built reconstruction of R.C. Structures
(object recognition and 3D modeling).
Object Recognition
3D
Lvl
Research Recogniti Reconstruc
Recogniti Recognition of Recognized
on accuracy tion
on type Method Aut Objects
Category
o
Canny edge
Data-
Edge detection with Precision
Zhu and Driven
detection Hough Semi Concrete 84% and
Brilakis And N.A.
/knowled transform/mate -auto Columns Recall
(2010a) Model-
ge base rial signature 74.5%
driven
calculation
Canny edge
detection with
Data- Edge
Hough Bridge
Zhu et al., Driven/M detection
transform/mate auto concrete 89.7% N.A.
(2010) odel- /knowled
rial signature columns
Driven ge base
training Using
ANN
Incorpora Canny Edge

Wu et al., Model- tion with detection and Semi Concrete
75% N.A.
(2010) Driven the 3D Watershed -auto Columns
CAD Transform
Circular
Hough
Díaz- Determin transform Circular and Circular
auto (97%)
Vilariño Model- ation of (Circular) Rectangular
mati N.A.
et al., Driven Parametri Generalized Concrete Rectangul
c
(2015) c shape Hough columns ar (78%)
Transform
(Rectangular)
Concrete in
Walsh et Model- Predefine Semi-
Surface fitting Auto column of allowed
al. (2013) Driven d Library automatic
bridge tolerance
Walls,
Shape
Data- Volumetri Floors,
Son and classification
Driven/Cl c Columns
Kim and 3D Auto 99% Automatic
assificatio representa graders,
(2017) parameter
n Method tion beams and
Calculations
slabs
40
Figure 4.6: ABRM of 3D Model reconstruction of both steel and reinforce concrete
elements.
41
4.4.2 3D as-built model reconstruction of outdoor architectural elements
Other researches are interested in generating façade models of the outdoor elements of
the buildings, See Table 4.7 and Table 4.8. Pu and Vosselman (2009) proposed an
automatic method to reconstruct a building façade model from terrestrial laser scanner
where façade elements such as walls and roof are distinguished as features. The
recognitions of these features and the occluded features from segmented point cloud
are based on prior knowledge about their sizes, orientations, positions and topologies.
Afterward, according to the size of the feature, outline of polygons for each feature are
created using least square fitting, convex hull fitting or concave polygon fitting.
Finally, the model is created by combining the polyhedron building features.
Following the same technique, Boulaassal et al. (2009) used RANSAC to automate
the planar extraction and segmentation and 2D Delaunay triangulation to extract the
contour boundary points. Similarly, Truong-Hong et al. (2012), proposed a method to
create a façade model from 3D point cloud data that detect the façade element
boundaries and features by using an algorithm that combines the voxel based
techniques with a Delaunay triangulation–based criterion namely, a flying-voxel
method, then the algorithm creates a solid model of the building façade using voxels
in an octree representation. Following the same concept, Truong-Hong et al. (2013) a
technique, by combining an angle criterion and voxelization, is proposed to reconstruct
a façade model.
Image-based survey methods utilizing the photogrammetry and image processing

approaches contributed in documenting and verifying actual as-built conditions of
façade. Klein et al. (2012) investigated the advantages and limitations of these
approaches in comparing the dimensions created by automated image processing to
dimension gathered through manual survey process.
As an attempt to regenerate 3D parametric as-built model of outdoor building complex

shapes, Barazzetti (2016) proposed a semi-automated method that utilizes both laser
scanning and photogrammetry. In this method a multi-step process: firstly, by
obtaining a registered 3D point cloud data. Secondly, by manual extraction of the
discontinuity lines (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines (NURBS) curve network) of
construction element. Thirdly, the network and point cloud are automatically used to
fit and create the NURBS surfaces. Finally, parametrization is done by creating
parametric objects. Figure 4.7 shows the ABRM for Architectural exterior work.
42
Table 4.7: Research efforts on the 3D reconstruction of exterior architectural elements and
façade (Data collection and preprocessing).

Research Data collection
Registration Lvl of Preprocessin
Segmentation
Type Auto g
manual
Pu and Vosselman
TLS ICP automatic removal of Surface-growing
(2009)
outlier
manual
Boulaassal et al.
TLS ICP automatic removal of RANSAC
(2009)
outlier
manual voxel-based with

Truong-Hong et Built in Co- selection of Delaunay
TLS N.A.
al. (2012) Registration expected triangulation–based
façade criterion
manual voxel-based with

Truong-Hong et Built in Co- selection of Delaunay
TLS N.A.
al. (2013) Registration expected triangulation–based
façade criterion
Klein et al. (2012) Camera N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
Built in Co-
Barazzetti (2016) TLS & Camera N.A. N.A. N.A.
Registration
43
Table 4.8: Research efforts on the 3D reconstruction of exterior architectural elements and
façade (object recognition and 3D modeling).
Object Recognition
3D
Research Reconstruc
Recognition Recogniti Recognition Lvl of Recognized
accuracy tion
Category on type Method Auto Objects
least
square/Conv
Pu and Data- Prior Façade, relative
ex semi- Polygon
Vosselma Driven/surfa Knowled windows inaccuraci
hull/concave auto model
n (2009) ce-based ge and doors es
poligon
fitting
Contour
Boulaassa Data- 2D Façade,
Boundary semi- limited contour
l et al. Driven/surfa Delaunay windows
points auto accuracy clusters
(2009) ce-based triangulation and doors
detection
99%
dimensio
Truong- Data- boundary flying voxel Façade, n Solid
Hong et Driven/surfa point &Delaunay auto windows accuracy geometric
al. (2012) ce-based detection triangulation and doors 97% for model
opening
areas
Angel
maximum
creation
Truong- Data- boundary Façade, nodal Solid
Using K-
Hong et Driven/surfa point auto windows displacem geometric
nearest
al. (2013) ce-based detection and doors ent is model
Neighbor
1.6%
KNN
Data- Image feature

Klein et error less
Driven/surfa processin selection Manual Façade Manual
al. (2012) than 1%
ce-based g &stitching
NURBS
(Non- Semi-
Data- Gordon-
Barazzetti Uniform semi- complex automated
Driven/surfa Surface N.A.
(2016) Rational auto shapes Parametric
ce-based algorithm
B- Model
Splines)
44
Figure 4.7: ABRM of 3D model reconstruction of outdoor architectural elements
(façade).
45
4.4.3 3D as-built model reconstruction of indoor architectural elements
Many researchers focused on generating as-built model for indoor elements of a

building, see Table 4.9 and Table 4.10 Valero et al. (2012a) proposed a method that
utilizes both laser scanning and radio frequency identification technologies (RFID) to
automatically construct a 3D semantic-rich as-built model. The object recognition is
implemented using the RIFD tags. In the same year Valero et al. (2012b), proposed a
method that automatically yields a boundary representation model (B-rep) for indoor
3D model reconstruction. The method starts with voxelization to identify planes fitted
to points pertaining the walls, ceiling and floor. Next a boundary representation model
is created where faces, edges and vertices are connected. Finally, performance
evaluation is done to measure the accuracy of the recognition as well as the accuracy
of geometrical and relationship models. After four years and as a base built from these
two researches, Valero et al., (2016) used the concept of their previous research to
reconstruct a semantic 3D model of furnished interior building using terrestrial laser
scanners and RFID technologies. Where improvement in the Boundary representation
model is implemented to recognize (walls, floors, doors, windows and ceilings) whilst
the RFID helped to recognized the furniture and their poses in the scene.
Xiong et al. (2013) advocated context-based modeling methods that undertake

topological relationships. The proposed method can automatically recognize and
reconstruct a 3D as-built model of interior architectural elements such as (walls,
ceilings, floors, windows and doors) from point cloud data which is full of clutters and
occluded elements. The proposed method starts by extracting the planar patches from
voxelized 3D point cloud using region-growing method. Then a machine learning
algorithm is used to automatically label the planar patches as (walls, floors, ceilings)
by learning the unique features and contextual relationship between different types of
surfaces. For the openings such as doors and windows, visibility reasoning is used to
fuse measurements from different point cloud data sets to identify occluded regions
and holes on the surfaces. Then a learning algorithm is used to estimate the shape of
the windows and door openings.
The recognition using RFID in the first research (Valero et al., 2012) requires
additional equipment (RFID readers, RFID tags, etc.) alongside with the laser scanning
equipment which in turns increases the cost of obtaining 3D as-built data. Whilst the
method explained in (Xiong et al., 2013) has been claimed as very complex and makes
46
the accurate as-built BIM reconstruction very problematic for modelers (Jung et al.,
2014). Additionally, this method requires additional processes to recognize non-planar
volumetric elements (Son & Kim, 2017).
Jung et al. (2014) believed that fully automated 3D as-built indoor environment has
been accomplished only under ideal conditions that include a grid structure, a
horizontal floor and ceiling and a lack of furniture and occluded elements. Hence full
automation of 3D as-built BIM model of indoor environment has not gained yet with
acceptance from the AECO community. Consequently, Jung et al. (2014) attempt to
improve the productivity of manual modeling by proposing a more practical semi-
automatic approach to construct 3D as-built model for indoor structures with large and
complex indoor environment. The process involved 3 main steps; segmentation for
planar detection, refinement for noise removal, and boundary tracing for outline
extraction. The geometric drawings are automatically produced, whilst the as-built
BIM model was manually created. The overall findings of the research reveal that this
approach is potentially effective to improve the productivity of the as-built model
reconstruction of complex indoor environment. Two years later, Jung et al. (2016)
proposed an automatic 3D geometric model reconstruction approach of indoor
environment. The method accurately recognizes the main indoor elements such as
(walls, floors, ceilings and openings such as doors and windows). The method imposes
a constrained least square fitting to the assumption that these elements composes of
lines that are either parallel or orthogonal. Hence the process starts firstly by creating
a wall model by acquiring 2D binary images from 3D point cloud data where the wall
boundaries are traced. Then by incorporation with RANdom Sample Consensus-based
for height estimation, a 2D floor boundary map are obtained which in turns create a
3D wall model. Secondly, by using the wall points segmentation from the last step an
2D inverse binary image are created to detect the opening in the walls referring to
windows and doors. Where the lines that presents four edges are extracted and adjusted
by using least square fitting method. Finally, the opening model are projected back to
the wall model in the same coordinates to create a 3D wireframe model. However, the
accuracy of the 3D geometrical model is viable, still the registration of the scanned
photo, noise removal and as-built BIM model were done manually. Figure 4.8 shows
ABRM for architectural interior works.
47
Table 4.9: Research efforts on 3D as-built model reconstruction of interior architectural
elements (Data collection and preprocessing).

Data
Research
collection Registration Lvl of
Preprocessing Segmentation
Type Auto
Valero et al. TLS & RFID N.A. N.A. manually outliers voxelization
(2012a) and noise removal (discretization)
Valero et al. TLS N.A. N.A. manually outliers voxelization

(2012b) and noise removal (discretization)
Valero et al., TLS & RFID N.A. N.A. manually outliers voxelization
(2016) and noise removal (discretization)
Xiong et al. (2013 TLS Manual Manual automatic voxelization using

Registration reasoning Region-growing
algorithm for method And total least
detection of squares
clutter
Jung et al. (2014) TLS Built-in N.A. Manual noise RANSAC then point
Software removal cloud refinement
48
Table 4.10: Research efforts on 3D as-built model reconstruction of interior architectural
elements (Object recognition and 3D modeling).
Research Object Recognition 3D

Reconstruc
Recognitio Recognit Recognitio Lvl of Recognized accuracy tion
n Category ion type n Method Auto Objects
Valero et Data- Boundary Hough Autom Static N.A. basic

al. Driven/Surf and Edge Transform/ atic objects Semantic
(2012a) ace-based & detection Surface (Walls, Model
RFID & prior Labeling Doors,
Knowled Using Windows)
ge learning Dynamic
SVM (Chairs and
algorithm wardrobe)
&RFID
Valero et Data- Boundary Hough Autom Walls, precision Boundary

al. Driven/Surf and Edge Transform/ atic Floors, is above representati
(2012b) ace-based detection Surface Doors and the on
& prior Labeling windows standards
Knowled Using
ge learning
SVM
algorithm
Valero et Data- Boundary Hough Autom Walls, 78%-91% Semantic

al., Driven/Surf and Edge Transform/ atic Floors, model
(2016) ace-based & detection Surface Doors and
RFID & prior Labeling windows &
Knowled Using furniture
ge learning
SVM
algorithm
&RFID
Xiong et Data- patch Machine Autom Walls, floor Automatic

al. (2013 Driven/Clas detection/ learning atic doors, ceiling 3D model
sification- Classifica Algorithm windows, and walls
Based tion and SVM Clutters (80%-
for openings 100%)
93%
openings
Jung et Data- Boundary Tracing Semi- Walls, N.A. Manual 3D

al. (2014) Driven/Surf tracing Grid Cell- automa doors, Model
ace-based size TGC tic floors and Creation
ceilings
49
Figure 4.8: ABRM of 3D model reconstruction of indoor architectural elements.
50
4.4.4 3D as-built model reconstruction of pipelines and MEP Systems
The 3D as-built model reconstruction of pipelines and MEP system is the most crucial
need for the AECO industry as well as industrial manufacturing. This is due to the fact
that the assemblies of these systems, per se, vary according to many changing factors
during the construction phase and the first design of this systems is usually in a
rudimentary form (Bosché et al., 2014). Such of circumstance creates a gap between
the as-designed and as-built records. Accordingly, there is an increase demand for
automated creation of large as-built 3D pipelines in the recent years (Lee et al., 2013;
Son et al., 2015a). The characteristics of the needed approaches shall automatically
create 3D as-built models provide information on each distinct elements such as
elbows, pipes, tees, reducers, valves, etc. as well as their diameters, lengths, locations
and orientations. The lead cause for 3D as-built MEP model would be viable for the
purposes of maintenance and retrofitting.
The 3D reconstruction of the as-built pipeline systems gained attentions by researchers

from different industries, such as computer and industrial divisions. As the most
common geometric primitive object in the reconstruction of industrial pipe systems,
cylinders shape detection was the focus for the research (Patil et al., 2017). There are
two fundamental and well-known approaches for recognizing the cylindrical shape
from 3D point cloud data, the RANdom Sample Consensus (RANSC) and Hough
transform. The first method iteratively recognizes objects by randomly sampling
points then defining objects by calculating the number of points that lie on this objects
according to several tolerance thresholds. Hence, random sampling requires minimum
number of points to recognize an object within sets of several thresholds that vary from
a model to another according to the noise and outlier density in data. RANSC can
accurately recognize 3D cylindrical objects depending on the initial selection of the
points. Meanwhile, Hough transform method implies voting for each point in the point
cloud to discover the points that possibly contain a geometrical object. The
accumulation of voting over a set of points determines the objects within the input of
the point cloud. The Hough transform can accurately recognize cylindrical and
spherical objects in the 3D laser scanned point cloud. Hough transform has generally
faster runtime than the RANSC, however, the time and space complexities of the
algorithms both depend on the discretization used for the accumulator (Patil et al.,
2017).
51
Many research attempts are guided to parametrize the cylinders with the laser scanned
point clouds. Son et al. (2015a) reviewed some of research efforts that semi-
automatically construct 3D pipeline systems. Arguably, the process is implemented
interactively between the user and the computer, wherein the user manually selects the
desired portions of the point cloud data concerning the pipes and its corresponding
fittings. Besides, the process involves the manual selection of the centerlines, vertices,
edges or positions. Researchers used both photogrammetry and range-based methods
to manually reconstruct as-built pipelines and MEP systems. The semi-automated
methods that utilize the photogrammetry approaches to recognize pipelines appeared
intricate and time-consuming especially when dealing with entangled pipelines for
enormous facilities (Son et al., 2015a). Conversely, laser scanners provide an explicit
dense 3D point cloud and directly measures the 3D positions of pipelines (Kawashima
et al., 2012). A brief summary of the research efforts on this area are provided in Table
4.11, Table 4.12 and Table 4.13.
A research conducted by Masuda and Tanaka (2010) acquired 3D point cloud data
from terrestrial laser scanner to semi-automatically construct a 3D as-built model for
pipeline systems. The proposed method comprises of two step processes; off-line
process refers to point processing system to convert point cloud to mesh models. it is
used to register point cloud data sets in same coordinate system (Mercator Image) then
the region of interest is acquired by projecting Mercator image to the perspective
image point processing system to convert point cloud to mesh models. Then smoothing
mesh models are created, by applying the method of moving robust estimate, leaving
some part missing and based on the reflective intensity from the point cloud, the
missing parts are added manually. Afterward, the Mercator images can be converted
into Mesh model by applying the 2D Delaunay triangulation which, in turns, allows
the extraction of surface primitives called a “base surface” that include cylinders,
cones spheres and planes. Next, an online 3D modeling system by interactively
generate solid model. Nonetheless, in the laser scanner-based semi-automatic
methods, the user has a great deal in the modeling process making error-prone and
insufficient processes. The intricate processes of the laser scanned-based semi-
automatic led to spur the automation of 3D as-built model of pipelines and MEP
systems.
52
As an attempt to automatically create 3D as-built model for pipeline systems,
Kawashima et al. (2012) proposed a method that automatically recognize objects
pertaining the pipeline systems such as: straight pipes, elbows, tees, etc. the process
begin with recognizing the straight pipes where the points on the straight pipes are
extracted using eigenvalue analysis and quadratic polynomial surface fitting of the
point cloud and the surface-normal vectors. Then the centerline, axis, radius and
position of the straight pipes are measured. Once the analysis of the straight pipes is
done, the connection relationships among the extracted straight pipelines are created
by determining the relative positions and orientations around their axes. By examining
the connection relationships, the remain pipeline fittings are recognized. This approach
has some limitations since the overall pipeline systems would not be recognized if
different radiuses and non-straight pipes in the pipeline were existed. Moreover, the
detection of the pipeline from 3D point cloud was performed manually. In a later
research (Kawashima et al., 2014) proposed a new algorithm similar to the previous
one but by utilizing normal-based region-growing segmentation method and cylinder
surface fitting to extract all possible locations of pipes and their corresponding fittings
which is full automatically perfumed with a higher accuracy up to 86%, 88% and 71%
achieved for pipes, elbow and junction respectively but the method didn’t detect the
pipeline reducers (Son and Kim, 2016).
The research done by Lee et al. (2013) exploits the pipelines abstraction using
geometric skeletons to measure the as-built diameters. In their method an automatic
creating of 3D as-built pipeline model from laser scanner that can detect some of the
pipeline features, pipes and networks fittings. The proposed method is based on
skeletonization of the pipeline network using Voroni diagrams and topological
thinning to generate skeleton candidates. Although, this method is accurate in
measuring the as-built pipe diameter and generating the straight pipes, elbows and tees,
the process still not fully automated and limited to parts of entire pipelines that parallel
to the orthogonal axes. Additionally, the detection of the pipeline, their lengths and
orientations from 3D point cloud was performed manually. As well as, the method
failed to detect the pipeline reducers (Son and Kim, 2016)
Ahmed et al. (2014) used the 2D Hough transform and judicious use of domain
constraints to automatically recognize and construct 3D pipeline features from a noisy
3D point cloud. The process simply by resampling slices of the point cloud data along
53
all the directions (x direction, y direction and z direction). Then for each slice, Hough
transform is applied to find the circle, resembling the diameters of the pipe. Next, the
centerline of the pipes is grown by connecting the consecutive centers of the detected
circles. Then the 3D pipes are constructed using computed centerlines and their
corresponding radius. However, the method is significantly accurate and it avoids the
intricate computations in the 3D Hough transform, it is only capable to recognize the
straight pipes and weak in detection the corresponded fittings such as elbows and tees.
A study by Son et al. (2015b) proposed a fully-automated method of extracting 3D

pipelines systems consisting of four main steps; preprocessing, segmentation, feature
extraction based on curvature computation and pipeline classification to determine
whether the segment is a pipeline or industrial part. The resulted segments from the
second step are classified using curvature assigned to each cluster then the geometry
is constructed to evaluate the as-built status. Subsequently, in another research in the
same year, Son et al. (2015c), built on the previously mentioned method, a method of
3D reconstruction of as-built industrial instrumentation models from laser-scan data
and 3D CAD database are proposed. This method is based on prior knowledge
extracted from pipes and instruments diagrams (P&ID). Where scene, geometric and
topological knowledge was used to characterize and identify parts of the system from
the laser scanned data.
A research followed by the same authors (Son and Kim, 2016), they claimed that the
method used in the (Son et al., 2015b) can be inaccurate if the pipeline systems has:
π/4 rad elbows, 3π/4 rad elbows, eccentric reducers, Ytees, cross tees, and reducing
tees. This is due to the explicit use of domain constraints. The new proposed method
is accomplished without manual intervention. The method is claimed to detect the
straight pipes, elbows, tees and reducers in the pipeline system from the point cloud
data. The new proposed method comprises three main steps; First, pipeline detection
as proposed in (Son et al., 2015b) identifying the existence and locations of the pipeline
from the point cloud data. Second, segmentation of the pipeline system into its
constituent forms (elbow, tees, pipe and straight pipe) where the centerline of the
whole set of pipelines are extracted then the extracted centerlines are used to identify
the individual center axes hence each center axis represent a pipe. Third, reconstruction
of the geometry of the individual pipeline and 3D model creation. The accuracy of this
method achieved 95% of all pipeline features except the flanges.
54
Claiming that the current manual processes of information extraction methods
underutilizing the 3D data acquisition technologies which provides massive and dense
amount of spatial data, Czerniawski et al., (2016) proposed a new method for locating
and extracting pipe spools from dense and cluttered point cloud data acquired by laser
scanner. The extraction method consists of three main steps, namely, curvature-based
filtering, hypothesis space clustering and bag of features matching. The method is
validated based on experiments and results reveal that the presented method robustly
extracted pipe spools from cluttered point cloud data.
In an attempt to improve the Hough transform method for the automatic recognition
of the cylinder parameters from point cloud data, Patil et al. (2017) proposed an
adaptive approach to overcome the drawbacks of the existing Hough transform method
which still has excessive space and time complexities as well as the yielded imprecise
outcomes. The approach modifies a previous Hough transform method proposed by
Rabbani et al. (2005). The approach provides a modification of the cylindrical
orientation estimation via area-based adaptive Hough transform which utilizes a small
accumulator for the peaks detection in the Hough space. The method can accurately
detect the universal direction in a Gaussian sphere to simultaneously estimate the
orientation of multiple cylinders. Subsequently, the position and radius are estimated
using an orthonormal coordinate system with a circle fitting algorithm. By applying
the previous steps, a significant decrease in the run time and the Hough space analysis.
Then a continuous axes network is formed by constructing the relationships between
cylinders. From the axis network a model are constructed defining straight pipes,
elbows, tees and flanges accurately in the model. The proposed method approved to
reduce the time and space complexities of Hough transform. Figure 4.9 shows the
ABRM that summarizes the timeline of the research concerning the 3D modeling of
MEP systems.
55
Table 4.11: Research efforts on the 3D as-built model reconstruction of MEP and industrial
pipeline systems (Data collection and preprocessing).

Data
Research
collection Registration Lvl of
Preprocessing Segmentation
Type Auto
perspective
Smoothing point Creating Grid Mesh
Masuda and images from
TLS Manual cloud using moving Format using 2D
Tanaka (2010) Mercator
robust estimate Delaunay triangulation
image
Kawashima et al. Built in RANSAC for plane

TLS N.A. N.A.
(2012) Software fitting
(Kawashima et al., Built in

TLS N.A. N.A. Region-Growing
2014) Software
Lee et al., (2013) TLS N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
point cloud data

Ahmed et al.
TLS N.A. N.A. resampled into 2D N.A.
(2014)
Slices
Segmentation using
Using the point smoothness constraint
spacing method to based on combination of
Son et al. (2015b) TLS N.A. N.A.
reduce high-density Surface normal, Spatial
regions connectivity and region
growing
Segmentation using
Using the point smoothness constraint
spacing method to based on combination of
Son et al. (2015c) TLS N.A. N.A.
reduce high-density Surface normal, Spatial
regions connectivity and region
growing
Using the point process: merging

(Son and Kim, spacing method to pipelines then centerline
TLS N.A. N.A.
2016) reduce high-density detection then pipeline
regions segmentation
Increasing the point

Czerniawski et al., cloud density using Plane removal using
TLS ICP Auto
(2016) Poisson-disc Gaussian Mapping
subsampling
Normal estimation Segmentation using

Patil et al. (2017) TLS N.A. N.A. using 3D plane smoothness constraint
fitting algorithm and RANSAC
56
pipeline systems (Object recognition and 3D modeling).
Object Recognition
3D
Research Recogn Recog Reconstr
Lvl
ition Recognition nized uction
Recognition Method of accuracy
Categor type Object
Auto
y s
Masuda Data- Semi-

converting to considera
and Driven/ Semi Cylind automated
Grid mesh 2D Delaunay triangulation ble
Tanaka Surface- -auto ers geometric
format Accuracy
(2010) base model
Pipes:eignvalue analysis
Pipes: Surface
Data- and quadratic polynomial
fitting, Position Pipes,
Driven/ surface fitting, Position and
Kawashim and Radius: elbow,
Surface Radius: non-linear Least
a et al. Cylinder fitting, Auto Tee,Y N.A. N.A.
base/kn square and region-growing
(2012) fittings: junctio
owledge methods, Fittings:
connection n
-based orientation and position
relationship
relationships
Pipes:eignvalue analysis
Pipes: Surface
Data- and quadratic polynomial pipes
fitting, Position Pipes,
Driven/ surface fitting, Position and 86%
(Kawashi and Radius: elbow,
Surface- Radius: non-linear Least elbow
ma et al., Cylinder fitting, Auto Tee,Y 3D model
base/kn square and region-growing 88%
2014) fittings: junctio
owledge methods, Fittings: junction
connection n
-based orientation and position 71%
relationship
relationships
Skeleton-Base
Data- pipeline:
pipes radi error 3D
Lee et al., Driven/ extracting Voroni diagrams and
Auto and below pipeline
(2013) Classifi skeleton from topological thinning
tees 5% model
cation skeleton
candidates
2D Hough transform to
Data- 90%
create circles indicating the
Ahmed et Driven/ pipeline
prior knowledge pipe diameter then Auto pipes N.A.
al. (2014) Classifi extractio
matching the centerlines to
cation n
create pipes
57
pipeline systems (Object recognition and 3D modeling) (contin.).
Object Recognition
3D
Research Recogn Recog Reconstr
Lvl
ition Recognition nized uction
Recognition Method of accuracy
Categor type Object
Auto
y s
100%
precision
Data- Fitting surfaces to neighbor 100%
Son et al. Driven/ curvature points then using recall and
Auto Pipes N.A.
(2015b) Region computation (NURBS) to recover the 3.68%
growing geometry normaliz
ed mean
error
Data-
Pipes,
Driven/t Fitting surfaces to neighbor
elbow,
Son et al. opologi points then using
prior knowledge Auto Tee,Y 100% 3D model
(2015c) cal (NURBS) to recover the
junctio
Knowle geometry
n
dge
straight
pipes,
Data- Fitting surfaces to neighbor 95% of
(Son and elbow,
Driven/ curvature points then using overall
Kim, Auto reducer 3D model
Region computation (NURBS) to recover the pipeline
2016) s, and
growing geometry system
tee
pipes
60% 69%
curvature-based
and 90%
filtering,
for pipe
Czerniaws hypothesis
Model- Principal Component Pipe spool
ki et al., space clustering Auto 3D model
Driven Analysis (PCA), DBSCAN spool sizes 50,
(2016) and bag of
200, 800
features
respectiv
matching
ely
straight
Data- pipes,
Patil et al. Driven/ Cylinder Area-based Adaptive elbows
Auto 82-91% 3D model
(2017) Region detection Hough transform , tees
growing and
flanges
58
Figure 4.9: ABRM of 3D model reconstruction of pipelines and MEP systems.
59
4.5 Progress Tracking
Progress monitoring, or tracking, is defined by Golparvar-Fard et al. (2009a) as

“collecting, analyzing, recording, and reporting information concerning key aspects
of project performance at the appropriate level of detail required by project managers
and decision makers”. Progress tracking is considered as one of the key elements that
lead to success in construction projects (Son and Kim, 2010) as well as it is an essential
management function for successful delivery of the construction projects (El-Omari
and Moselhi, 2008). Progress should be tracked and estimated using meaningful and
efficient metrics to assess the performance in terms of quantities and quality of
elements put in place (Bosche and Haas, 2008). Generally, the advancement of multi-
dimensional as-planned BIM (nD) and as-built documentation (image-based and
range-based) provided great opportunity for sensing, analyzing and communicating
construction progress among the project team since they support daily work execution
and short term planning (Han and Golpavar-Fard, 2017).
Effective progress tracking is reliable on the accuracy of the collected data from
construction sites. Predominantly, the progress tracking is a prerequisite of the Earned
Value Analysis (EVA) which is conducted to provide the opportunity to enable
corrective measures or other remedial actions to control deviations from the desired
plan hindering the impacts of cost and time overruns (Ergan et al., 2008; El-Omari and
Moselhi, 2009; Golparvar-Fard et al., 2009a). Therefore, construction managers are
entailed to design, implement and maintain a systematic and comprehensive approach
to monitor the progress, measure the performance and detect any deviations between
the as-built and as-planned as early as possible (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2009a).
The conventional methods of collecting information and data acquisition pertaining

the performance of the construction process have tended to be labor-intensive manual
process, expensive, error-prone and time-consuming (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2011b;
Son and Kim, 2010; Bosche and Haas, 2008; Zhang et al., 2009; Braun et al., 2014).
Since the prevailing practice of acquiring data from the field is done by mere
observation causing intuitive and subjective decisions. Such of manual practices,
oblige site managers and field engineers to spend significant time, half to a full-day
worth of work in some cases, to collect, manage and analyze performance data in the
field (Son and Kim, 2010; Golparvar-Fard et al., 2011b). Furthermore, these
60
techniques for documenting and reporting the progress of the construction are visually
complex (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2011b; Golparvar-Fard et al., 2009a). Consequently,
this stimulates the need for automated, cost-effective and real-time techniques for
progress tracking. Son and Kim (2010) stated the conditions of effective construction
progress monitoring method which are: automated method to lessen the need for
manual intervention, rapid approach to enable better decision making and in 3D format
to ease the visualization for better comprehension of the status. Advances in
visualization, that have been integrated with project management models, enhances
the construction progress comprehension by visually monitoring the progression of the
construction as well as supporting the communication between project participants
(Roh el al., 2011). Furthermore, by incorporating progress data with 4D IFC-based
BIM models would be advantages to automatically update schedules and progress of
the project (Hamledari et al., 2017).
Ever since the increase demand for automated progress tracking, significant techniques
are targeted for detecting and visualizing real-time progress of the construction
projects including image-based techniques (i.e. digital cameras, UAV/UGV,
smartphones, portable devices etc.) and remote sensing techniques (i.e. laser scanners
(LADAR), RFID, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), barcodes, Ultra-wide Band
(UWB), etc.) each techniques has its advantages and drawbacks in acquiring as-built
data (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2011b; Golparvar-Fard et al., 2009a). These methods can
be also categorized as vision-based methods exploiting (image-base techniques and
laser scanning) and non-vision based methods such as (RFID, UWB and GPS). Non-
vision based methods are suitable for resource tracking of equipment, workforce and
materials during the construction projects (Teizer, 2015). However, the focus of this
research will be on the vision-based methods for progress tracking of construction
works. The following paragraphs will discuss these technologies used for the purpose
of construction progress and resource tracking.
 Image-based techniques have been used to extract information regarding the

performance of construction projects for many years. For instance, the most
common technique of obtaining data regarding the construction progression is
by simply taking photographs using inexpensive digital cameras. Photographs
obtained from the site are considered as a valuable resource of accurate project
information that can be used by all parties involved in the project. Site
61
photographs can be obtained either by time-lapsed based using fixed cameras
or unordered set of images collected by digital cameras from various locations.
The time-lapsed based and videotaping photographs have been used in the
construction progress tracking. In spite of the ease of obtaining images by this
inexpensive and understandable method, the challenge remains in automating
the progress detection (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2009b). In addition to the
limitation scene coverage of the time-lapsed photographs where obstructed
activities, shadows, illumination, weather and site conditions (Golparvar-Fard
et al., 2011b). Meanwhile, unordered daily photographs which are taken by
different parties within the construction project at almost no cost, it can enable
a quick and easy 3D visualization of the project progress. Nonetheless, the
automatic analysis of daily construction photographs is complicated where the
photos are not organized according to the locations as well as the coordinates
are not known since the photographs are not calibrated. To sum up, the main
challenges of using image-based techniques in progress tracking are; 1) dealing
with large amount of visual images which can be voluminous and, 2) dealing
with images that are not localized with respect of BIM (Han and Golpavar-
Fard, 2017).
 Laser scanning, on the other hand, presents a robust progress monitoring
application that can holistically address all the inefficiencies of other
techniques (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2009a). Nevertheless, the data collection
using laser scanner is time-consuming, needs knowledgeable surveyors and
expensive. Moreover, if it is used in this case, the data outcome mainly contains
Cartesian coordinate information of the scanned scene and lack of semantic
information. In addition to the discontinuity of spatial information, mixed pixel
phenomenon, scanning range and sensor calibration problems (Ergan et al.,
2008). Another limitation of laser scanning is unable to directly monitor
dynamic point of interest such as labor, machines, equipment and materials
which are better be addressed by the use of RFID (Pärn and Edwards, 2017).
 Radio Frequency Identification RFID and barcodes, for instance, have been
used to capture and transmit data from tags which are embedded or attached in
construction components (Ergen et al., 2007). But using RFID and barcodes in
construction projects are relatively costly and require excessive time to be set
and placed in the building components. Additionally, many type of
62
components cannot be attached considering the capture of data of partially
installed components (Golparvar-Fard et al., 2009a). However, there are many
substantial use of RFID and barcoding for the purpose of project control and
resources tracking during the construction projects. For instance, Ergen et al.,
(2007) utilized both RFID and GPS to track and localize precast components
from the storage. Razavi and Haas (2010) used combination of RFID, GPS and
hand-held computers to locate and track construction materials.
 Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) sensing technology is also used in the construction
industry. For instance, Teizer et al., (2008) first investigated the involvement
of UWB technology to collect data regarding materials, equipment and workers
to automate the tracking and positioning of these resources throughout the
construction project. The performance evaluation of UWB in the construction
where also investigated by (Cheng et al., 2011; Shahi et al., 2012 and Saidi et
al., 2011) revealing that the integration of UWB in the construction control and
tracking is useful.
Exploiting these techniques attracted many researchers in the application of progress

monitoring. Most of these techniques are used to extract as-built information to
compare it with the as-planned BIM model to measure the performance and the
progression of the construction activities. As previously mentioned, this research will
only investigate the vision-based progress tracking techniques of the image-based and
laser scanning. The following sections will discuss the different applications of these
techniques in the construction industry, see Figure 4.11.
4.5.1 Progress tracking for structural elements
Both image-based and range-based techniques are used in the applications of progress
monitoring for the construction of structural elements. The following sections will
discuss both image-based and range-based techniques.
4.5.1.1 Image-based progress tracking approach for structural elements
The lead method of progress tracking using image-based techniques is presented in the
application of 4D Augmented Reality (D4AR), which is a combination of daily
progress images and 4D model to create 4 Dimensional augmented reality model. The
method was first proposed by Golpavar-Fard et al. (2009a). D4AR is an image-based
technique to visualize the progress of the project wherein the discrepancies are
63
compared between as-planned and as-built construction performance. The method
utilizes the unordered daily progress images (photo logs) taken in the construction site
to create an as-built condition of the construction. The proposed method utilizes the
Structure-from-Motion (SfM) method to recover the camera intrinsic parameters (e.g.
distortion of lenses, focal length) and extrinsic parameters (e.g. locations and
orientations). SfM is used to bypass the problem of providing actual position of the
camera via GPS or any location tracking instrument. Then, the orientations and
locations are calculated from the images themselves as well as the sparse 3D geometric
representation of the as-built condition, images are registered and superimposed to a
virtual as-planned 4D model similar to a previous method proposed by Golpavar-Fard
et al. (2009b). This method allows large unstructured collection of daily construction
images to be interactively stored, explored and browsed. The progress data can be
automatically extracted while the site images are geo-registered with the as-planned
components then location-based image processing technique is implemented. The
result of study is D4AR environment-based visualization between the as-built and the
as-planned. The method is tested on an ongoing construction project for tracking the
progress of the structural work (RC skeleton). The results show that D4AR provided a
robust technique for construction progress tracking.
The development of D4AR system progressed in the research by Golpavar-Fard et al.

(2011a) where the same process of the previous research (Golpavar-Fard et al., 2009a)
is repeated but utilizing the iterative closest-point (ICP) algorithm for registering the
images taken for tracking the progress of constructing structural elements. ICP
algorithm enabled the automation of generating 4D as-built point cloud models. In the
same year, Golpavar-Fard et al. (2011b) provide a usability and accuracy comparison
between the D4AR image-based progress tracking system with the range-based Laser
scanning method. The results revealed that the point cloud data generated by the laser
scanner is more accurate than the image-based while both can be used to visualize as-
built environment from different viewpoints. But the assertion of using image-based
progress tracking method is suitable process with less burden on the project
management team due to the ease of capturing and analyzing the data without requiring
professional laser scanning expertise.
In a later study by Golpavar-Fard et al. (2015), the D4AR is further developed to

inquire an automated progress monitoring approach by comparing daily site images
64
with 4D BIM models. The 4D as-built data generated from daily site images is done
by SfM, multiview stereo and algorithms for voxel coloring and labeling. Meanwhile,
the 4D as-planned data are IFC-based BIM. Then the registration of as-planned BIM
model with the updated as-built data are compared by automatically measuring the
physical progress using Bayesian probabilistic model-based machine-learning method.
A similar work that measure the progress of the construction of superstructure

elements using digital images is proposed by Zhang et al. (2009). In their work,
investigation of the potential of using the computer vision in assisting the project
management tasks providing a semi-automated method for progress tracking.
However, the study focused on the quantity rather than the quality aspects of the work
and it is limited for superstructure only.
Another image-based progress tracking system is developed by Son and Kim (2010).
The method utilizes a 3D automated method for recognition and modeling of steel
structural elements. This method employs color and 3D data acquired from stereo
vision camera. The process begins with acquiring 3D data generated from 2D rectified
color image of structural components. Then by relying on both the positions and the
color features from stereo images, information regarding the structural components are
extracted effectively by employing color invariance, 2D segmentation, median
filtering and flood operation. From that information, 3D coordinate for each color
features are extracted. Finally, the resulting 3D data are aligned with 3D CAD models
that have been converted to STL format which assess the project managers to
automatically track the progress of the project. The method successfully recognizes
88% of the complete steel components.
In a later study by Kim et al. (2013b), a method has developed for updating the 4D
CAD model pursuing the study of progress feedback loop designed by Turkan et, al.
(2012) but by using image processing-based methodology for construction progress
monitoring to verify a cable-stayed bridge project where the data are obtained from a
fixed camera. The automated updating of 4D CAD model is characterized by 3D image
mask filters, color-based noise removal and area-based progress calculation. The
image processing method provides an as-built schedule information and by using a
series of batch processing logics and rules, the schedule information is automatically
linked to the 3D CAD model. Another method using 4D BIMs and point cloud data
obtained from images, Braun et al., (2015) developed a method to compare the as-built
65
status and the as-planned by matching the point cloud, generated from the fusion of
disparity maps done by Semi-Global-matching, with 4D BIMs. Then the comparison
between the as-built and as-planned is based only on the geometry. Table 4.14
summarize the research efforts on the image-based progress tracking
Table 4.14: Research efforts on image-based progress tracking of structural objects.
Data collection Preprocessing Tracking the progress
Research Registratio System

Metho Equipm n with the Automati
Data Processing Deviation Detection
d ent 4D as- on
planned
Golpavar Fixed Registering
Geometric Augmented Visualizing the color coded
-Fard et time- Fixed the Camera
Camera Reality deviation between as-planned Manual
al. lapsed Camera once with
Calibration Environment and as-built
(2009b) -based 4D model
Geo-
Golpavar Unord
Camera registration Visualizing the color coded
-Fard et ered
(Nikon SFM using D4AR deviation between as-planned Manual
al. Daily
D300) similarity and as-built
(2009a) photos
transform
Golpavar Unord
Visualizing the color coded
-Fard et ered
Camera SFM ICP D4AR deviation between as-planned Auto
al. Daily
and as-built
(2011a) photos
SfM, multiview
Golpavar Unord D4AR with Measuring physical progress
stereo and
-Fard et ered IFC-Based using Bayesian probabilistic
Camera algorithms for ICP Auto
al. Daily 4D as- model-based machine-learning
voxel coloring
(2015) photos planned method
and labeling
color
2D
invariance, 2D
Son and rectifi stereo Structural visualizing the deviation
segmentation,
Kim ed vision ICP components between the as-built and as- Auto
median filtering
(2010) color camera recognition planned
and flood
image
operation
removing noise
using HSV
Image
Kim et Fixed color space,
processing area-based progress
al. Camer CCTV median filters N.A. Auto
based 4D calculation,
(2013b) a and
model update
morphological
processing
SFM then
Generating
photogrammetri
as-built and
Unord c Point cloud by
Braun et off-the- as-planned
ered fusion of Co-
al., shelf comparison Photogrammetric survey Auto
Daily disparity maps registration
(2015) camera based on
photos created with
geometry
semi-global-
matching
(SGM)
66
4.5.1.2 Range-based progress tracking approach for structural elements
Range-based methods, such as terrestrial laser scanning, have been used also for the
purpose of progress tracking. Scan-to-BIM proposed by Bosché and Haas (2008),
Bosché et al. (2009) and Bosché (2010), Figure 4.10, is used to automatically
recognized structural elements designed in 3D CAD model from 3D point clouds. In
their method the progress of structural construction was able to be determined by
identifying the correspondences between the as-planned and as-built model.
Based on the previously mentioned research, Turkan et al., (2012), (2013) as two
research work, developed a 4D model recognition-driven system to automatically track
the progress of steel and reinforced concrete structures. In their method, the 3D point
cloud data are registered with the 4D as-designed model in the same coordinates.
Turkan et al. (2012) used the same method to construct the 3D as-built model while
4D BIM models have been integrated as the as-planned schedule. The developed 4D
object-oriented approach automated the progress tracking that efficiently update the
construction schedule by comparing the number of recognized components with the
4D model.
In a later study, Turkan et al. (2013) developed a 4D model recognition-driven for

automated progress control system with cost accounts to facilitate more efficient and
objective earned value analysis (EVA). The previous work hasn’t only improved the
applicability on structural components but also worked on the secondary and
temporary structures such as scaffolding, framework, shoring and rebar. Turkan et al.,
(2014) implemented the same methods for tracking the progress of the secondary and
temporary components. However, the author pointed out that superior results can be
achieved by utilizing colors and 3D edge information.
Following the same concept of tracking the progress using laser scanning methods,
Zhang and Arditi (2013) implemented the same concept except that the deviation
analysis was done by comparing the volume of work expected and work done in the
site, the same as the work of El-Omari and Moselhi, (2008). The line of research efforts
here has some limitations. First, the method of object detection developed by Bosché
(2010) does not recognize occluded objects or which lie outside the sensor’s field of
view. Second, the registration of the point cloud data has performed in a semi-
automated way. Third, the method is not robust in terms of the variations in the density
67
of the 3D data due to the differences in number of registered points, distance between
the point cloud and the objects in interest and the occlusion. These variations lead to
inaccurate results (Kim et al., 2013a).
Another method for construction progress tracking for structural elements using 4D
BIM models with 3D data acquired from laser scanning is proposed by Kim et al.
(2013a). The method comprises three steps, namely, alignment of 3D as-built data with
as-planned model, matching information from 3D as-built data with BIM, revision of
the as-built condition. The pertained methods and algorithms are based on previous
work by the authors (Son et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2013c). Findings reveal that the
revisions step enables an accurate assessment of the as-built status of the structural
components.
68
Figure 4.10: ABRM of Scan-to-BIM and Scan-vs-BIM.
4.5.2 Progress tracking for MEP systems
The importance of tracking the MEP systems pertains in the large portion of the
construction costs in the construction projects (Bosché et al., 2014a). Progress tracking
of the MEP system is more intricately challenging than the structural components due
to many facts since the MEP systems may come in some congested configurations
which exacerbate the risk of occlusions leading to recognition errors. Furthermore, the
69
installation of MEP systems has higher flexibility with positioning and routing
compared to the structural elements (Shahi et al., 2015; Bosché et al., 2014a).
Consequently, the need for automated and more precise and accurate progress tracking
methods are essential to reduce the costly manual inspections.
Scan-vs-BIM, Figure 4.10, is one of the proposed methods for automating the progress
tracking that has been successfully validated to accurately track the progress of
structural elements (Bosché and Haas 2008; Bosché 2009; Turkan et al. 2012, 2013;
Kim et al., 2013a). Essentially, Scan-vs-BIM object recognition system, which is an
analogy to Scan-to-BIM system, is based on the comparison between the as-built status
captured as 3D point cloud data and the as-design state from the 3D or 4D BIM model
(Bosché and Haas 2008; Bosché 2009; Turkan et al. 2012, 2013).
Progress tracking of MEP systems by integrating Scan-vs-BIM was first introduced by

Bosché et al. (2014a). However, the performance of the method is relatively inaccurate
where some object cannot be recognized however it can recognize objects built as as-
planned given a predefined tolerance which, in somehow, seen as predictable results.
Since the technique of Scan-vs-BIM recognition system is depended on the as-planned
model which is robust and effective in recognizing structural elements but not the MEP
systems since the installation is more flexible where the deviation of the as-built and
as planned are significant. Therefore, the author pointed out that the proposed Scan-
vs-BIM method shall not be solely used in the tracking and recognition of MEP
systems. In a later research by Bosché et al., (2015), improvements of the Scan-vs-
BIM systems have been demonstrated by integrating the Hough transform to fine,
recognize and reconstruct cylindrical MEP works based on the research of Ahmed et
al., (2014). The results seem more promising than the simpler Scan-vs-BIM approach.
More improvements continued to augment the Scan-vs-BIM technique for progress
tracking by defining the point cloud quality requirements (Rebolj et al., 2017). In their
work, definitions of building element classes and point cloud quality parameters are
introduced.
One of the recent innovative process management framework for multisensory data
fusion for purpose of progress tracking in the construction project is illustrated by
Shahi et al., (2015). The presented workflow-driven multidimensional data fusion
framework combines volumetric and positioning data with project control information
where the designed fusion process track activities rather than objects. Though, this
70
enables the tracking of non-structural activities such as welding and inspections which
are not feasible with the object recognition methods. Another innovative approach for
continuous and consecutive automatic registration of point cloud data obtained either
by image-based sensing technologies or range-based technologies is presented by
Tuttas et al., (2017).
4.5.3 Progress tracking for interior construction work
Tracking the progress of the interior elements presents a challenge for the project
management team. Traditionally, the process of measuring the progress of the interior
construction work is based on the paper daily reports which is error-prone and complex
to visualize and understand by the project manager. Due to the complicated nature of
the indoor and interior work, it is difficult to visualize and identify the schedule
discrepancies as well as the accurate productivity causing intuitive and subjective
decisions which lead to schedule delays and cost overruns. In order to address these
issue, there is an emphasis on exploiting the contemporary automated progress
tracking methods to minimize the risk of schedule and cost overruns caused by the
inconvenient traditional manual methods of interior work progress tracking. Roh et al.,
(2011) proposed a method to overcome the limitations of the existing methods by
utilizing the visualization and computer vision techniques to monitor detailed interior
construction progress. The presented object-based approach utilizes a 3D as-planned
BIM models and As-built photographs obtained from the site where a walk-through
model is used to visualize and detect the discrepancies between the as-built and as-
planned status. Kropp et al., (2014) provided a successful approach to detect the
progress of the drywall installation using images acquired from camera.
Figure 4.11 provides the ABRM for all of the progress tracking research efforts.
71
Figure 4.11: ABRM of Progress Tracking Research.
72
4.6 Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA)
Quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA) practices have been adopted in the
construction industry predominantly to ensure that the construction work pertains
within the expected project requirements as well as being in consistent with the design
criteria that conform to the contract requirement. In the construction industry, the
terminology of quality control and quality assurance cannot be used interchangeably.
Hence, quality assurance (QA) is considered as a proactive process, that usually refers
to the systematic quantitative and qualitative measurements alongside with the
specifications, that ensures the integrity and entails the sufficient processes in order to
meet the intended quality with adequate confidence in the construction project.
Conversely, quality control (QC), concerning the actions that are applied on the end
products. QC usually assesses the end products to determine whether they meet the
specifications or not. Albeit, the QC/QA is the practice that is frequently used to
conform to the intended quality in the design implementations, failure to achieve
adequate quality levels in the construction projects has been constantly an obstacle in
the delivery of the project on time and budget (Safa et al., 2015). Owing to the nature
of construction projects which are characterized by the dynamic environment, unique
nature and consequent lack of standardization, current QC/QA practices have been
proved to be inadequate to the dynamic environment of the construction industry.
Primarily, the prevalent QC/QA processes involves paper forms and manual human-
intensive inspection that is time-consuming, insufficient, inaccurate, expensive and
error-prone operations (Fathi and Brilakis, 2013; Nahangi and Haas, 2014; Safa et al.,
2015). Consequently, the rates of rework, defects and errors in the processes are
dramatically increasing, causing delays and loss of benefits. According to previous
researches, the costs attributed to rework is up to 10% of the construction cost and up
to 5% of maintenance costs is caused by the results of rework, while 50% of the rework
is caused by the insufficient human inspection (Nahangi and Haas, 2014). The lack of
integrated and rapid quality inspection systems to track the changes and the errors and
fix them prior to significant rework are antiquated (Nahangi and Haas, 2014). Such of
the associated predicaments may exacerbate the hostility between parties where claims
are triggered to compensate for the loss of interests. Therefore, effective improvements
in the QC/QA practices associated with the construction projects offer significant
potential to improve the QC/QA practices, as well as, to maintain the relationships
73
between the project participants by reducing the claims concerning inefficient quality
of the project.
In the presence of the recent advancement and neoteric technologies in the 3D data
acquisition that have been emerged in the construction industry, this would hold the
promise, not only to improve the current QC/QA practices but also to automate their
processes in order to lessen the time of the inspection and delimit the human
intervention. Automating the QC/QA processes would give the opportunity to expedite
the detection of errors and inaccuracies and make it possible to rapidly react for the
potential repairs, replacement or realignment of defective parts. Nevertheless, the
availability of automated processes to avoid such of conditions that can lead to
inaccuracies, ineffectiveness and insufficiencies during the inspection is still lacking
(Nahangi and Haas, 2014). In addition, a project-wide automated QC/QA process has
not yet been defined and in a rudiment form (Safa et al., 2015).
In spite of the lack of project-wide automated QC/QA processes in the construction

industry, many research efforts have been targeted toward the automation of the 3D
as-built measurements and inspections of the as-built status (Safa et al., 2015).
Auspiciously, the presence of the advanced approaches and contemporary 3D data
acquisition technologies, such as laser scanning and image-based sensing
technologies, has broaden the prospect of field inspection and measurements. Research
efforts have investigated the applicability of providing dimensional deviation analyses,
deformation detections and surface flatness. Accordingly, these can be implemented
by comparing the 3D point cloud as-built data acquired by either of the 3D vision-
based as-built data acquisition technologies with the as-planned BIM models. These
investigations have been implemented to structural elements and infrastructure,
including concrete (cast in situ or pre-casted), prefabricated steel structures and MEP
and industrial assemblies. The following sections will discuss these applications and
investigates the recent research efforts targeted toward the automation of QC/QA
processes in the construction industry.
4.6.1 QC/QA for structural elements and infrastructure
Several research efforts focused on the QC/QA of structural elements and

infrastructure, see Figure 4.12, such as concrete elements, tunnels, steel structures and
pavements utilizing both image-based and ranged-based data acquisition methods.
74
According to the literature, different aspects and parameters of the quality control and
quality assessment have been investigated on these elements, namely, dimensional
evaluation and controlling, surface flatness evaluation and deformation/deflection
detection. The following section will discuss the recent research efforts that address
these QC/QA parameters in the construction industry.
4.6.1.1 Dimensional QC/QA of structural elements and infrastructure
Hitherto, the construction industry has adopted traditional methods for dimensional
quality control in the construction industry, which are mainly depended on the
manually measuring tools such as measurement tapes, gauges, balance ruler, plumb
bobs, etc. utilizing these tools is time-consuming, labor-intensive, inaccurate and even
sometimes, risky for the surveyors where the poses of the targeted elements exhibit a
risk while the measurements are implemented (Ordóñez et al., 2008; Bosché and
Guenet, 2014). Total Stations and hand-held laser distance measurement devices have
been used ubiquitously in the construction field measurements. Utilizing these
technologies in the field measurement is highly accurate and precise, though, these
methods are labor and time-intensive (Bosché et al., 2009; Bosché and Guenet, 2014).
Recently, the methods of dimensional quality control in the construction industry have
been revolutionized by the emergence of the 3D data acquisition technologies
alongside with the advancement in BIM. The applicability of laser scanners and image-
based sensing technologies, in dimensional quality control, have been investigated in
the literature. The following sections will discuss recent research efforts in the
applications of dimensional QC/QA of steel structures, dimensional QC/QA of pre-
cast concrete elements, dimensional QC/QA of façade, dimensional QC/QA of
concrete tunnel, dimensional QC/QA of concrete bridge and thickness QC/QA of
concrete pavements.
 Dimensional QC/QA of steel structure
Researchers utilized both image-based and range-based methods of 3D data

acquisition to construct 3D as-built status of steel structure in order to perform
dimensional deviation analysis and checking the dimensional compliance. One of the
image-based methods was presented by Shin and Dunston (2009) who evaluated the
Augmented Reality (AR) for the inspection of steel columns as they developed
ARCam prototype to examine the positions of anchors bolts and plumbness of steel
75
elements after installation. The research is based on an experimental operation made
in a laboratory. However, the presented process is not only manual but also require
skilled operator with strong knowledge about the 3D visualization and 2D projection.
In addition, the measurement in the process is not accurate in deriving the as-built
positions and dimensions comparing to the measurement done by the total station
measurement.
As another image-based method, Fathi and Brilakis (2013) proposed an image-based

method that can be advantageous for digital fabrication of sheet metal roofing. This
automated as-built data collection method is based on videogarmmetry of video
streams of point cloud data obtained from calibrated stereo-vision camera which in
turns processed to automatically generate a wire-frame model of the need roof by
applying stereo-based hybrid SfM method. This wire-frame model will be used for
extracting the measurements in order to fabricate the metal sheet roofs. Albeit the
recent colossal advancements in the image processing and photogrammetry
approaches, acquiring 3D dense point cloud as-built data from 2D images or video
streams will always be ill-conditioned, intricate to solve and require skilled personal
with a tacit knowledge to manipulate the image data (Bosché, 2010).
On the other hand, other researches adopted the laser scanning to acquire 3D dense
point cloud data of the as-built status of steel structures for the purpose of quality
control of dimensions for steel structures. Bosché (2010) developed an automated
method for recognizing steel structural elements acquired from 3D as-built point cloud
obtained from laser scanners for the purposes of progress monitoring and automatic
compliance checking of structural elements. The proposed model-based recognition
method came as an extension and improvement of one of his previous research
(Bosché et al., 2009) where enhancement of the registration process is achieved by
using a robust point matching method utilizing the ICP algorithm. Once the 3D as-
built point cloud data is processed, another ICP algorithm is used for calculate the
poses of structural elements in the CAD model. Then these poses are used to
automatically calculate the dimensional deviations for the purpose of checking and
controlling the compliance of these structural elements.
A further step for controlling the quality and compliance checking of steel structure
assemblies, Rausch et al., (2017) investigated the use of BIM and laser scanning to
implement Dimensional Variation Analysis (DVA), which is an approach and
76
optimization design tool used extensively in the automotive manufacturing and
aerospace industries to predict any component variations of assemblies in terms of
size, shape, orientation and positions. This evolutionary approach aims to detect minor
variations that can potentially propagate throughout the assembly process which have
an impact on the overall functionality of final structure. As a step forward the
industrialization in construction, the use of this advanced method would be
advantageous in the construction industry on the projects that are based on the off-site
construction, pre-assemblies and prefabrications. Traditionally, the construction
industry adopted standardized tolerance to provide acceptable error limits concerning
dimensional variations in the assemblies. Nonetheless, even with these tolerances,
dimensional issues still occur in the construction assemblies since these errors can
accumulate and propagate till fitting problems occur to some parts of the overall
assemblies. Causing delays and rework that can negatively impacts the overall cost of
the project. Applying DVA in construction industry would prevent these kind of
problems in the construction assemblies.
In the aforementioned research, which is an extension of the work done by Nahangi et

al., (2015; 2016), a framework is presented for dimensional variation analysis using
the kinematics chain modeling and analogy of robotics to model the geometric and
spatial relationship between elements in the assembly where the dimensional
variations are parametrically modeled and critical elements are systematically
controlled. This method is validated using an experimental case study of a miniature
steel structure where two different approaches are used and compared. The first
approach is a model-based DVA which utilizes the tolerances contained in BIM while
the second approach is laser-based DVA which uses point cloud data captured from
laser-based acquisition. The two approaches analyzed the variation of tie-in plates
between modules in a steel modular structure. The results revealed that the 1%
accuracy difference between the model-based and laser-based approaches, which
emphasize the reliability of model-based DVA. However, this method is limited with
small form of deviations in the assembly and in case of large form deviations, such as
bending and bowing of steel frame, this method would not adequately function because
this method is based on the assumption that rigid body transforming is considered,
where the deformations in structural elements are neglected.
77
 Dimensional QC/QA of precast concrete elements
Lately, the construction industry has adopted industrialization and mass productions
in order to improve the key construction projects’ objectives of time, cost, quality and
safety (Goh and Loosemore, 2017). Therefore, modern construction concepts have
been integrated recently such as off-site production/manufacturing, prefabrications
and construction assemblies. One example of the industrialization in construction
industry is the precast concrete structures that can be often mass produced off-site,
where well-controlled environment is valid with high offered confidence in quality of
precast concrete elements.
Despite the advantages that can be offered by using precast concrete in the construction
industry, this can negatively affect the construction process in case of insufficient
quality monitoring. For instance, if the precast concrete elements exhibited significant
dimensional mismatches or they could not connect correctly, construction process
would have potential delays and rework causing time and cost overruns (Kim et al.,
2014). Hence, the need for a proper quality control of the precast concrete elements
prior to the installation, is essential to conform to these elements with the design
specifications. Nevertheless, current quality control evaluations of precast concrete
elements are based on manual inspections using ordinary measurement tools which are
mainly subjective, unreliable, time-consuming and need professional and highly
trained inspectors. Therefore, there is an urge to automate the process of quality control
of the precast concrete elements that can be quick and reliable to avoid any problems
associated with precast concrete elements prior to installation (Kim et al., 2014; Wang
et al., 2016).
A line of research has investigated the applicability of using laser scanners to assess
the dimensional quality control of precast concrete elements (Kim et al., 2014; 2015a;
2016 and Wang et al., 2016), see Figure 4.12. In the first research (Kim et al., 2014)
an automated technique for dimensional quality control of precast concrete panels is
presented. This automated technique accurately and reliably measures the dimensions
(length, width and squareness) of precast concrete panels, based on the assumption
that the precast concrete panel has rectangular planner surface, by processing point
cloud data acquired from terrestrial laser scanner positioned above the panel. The
process of automatic dimensional quality control of precast concrete panel begins with
the 3D data acquisition using terrestrial laser scanner where regions of interest are
78
selected and registered in the same coordinate system. Next, a systematic process to
extract edges and corners by employing Canny edge detection, Hough transform and
vector-sum algorithms. Then the dimensional estimation and quality assessment of the
panels are done to evaluate the dimensions (length and width), the dimensions and
positions of shear pockets and the squareness of the panel. This method is texted based
on laboratory experiment where the result shows that the proposed technique is 95%
accurate.
In order to integrate building information models in the previous research, the

researchers (Kim et al., 2015a) developed a holistic framework for dimensional and
surface quality control of precast concrete. The framework demonstrates the whole
process including inspection checklist, inspection procedure, selection of appropriate
laser scanners and the inspection data storage and delivery based on Industrial
Foundation Classes (IFC). In this research, the quality control was implemented not
only on the dimensions of the panels, using the same method in (Kim et al., 2014), but
also accounts for the analysis of surface defects of the panel itself. Henceforth the
identification, localization and quantification of surface defects can be done by
analyzing both angle deviations, using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on the
covariance matrix, and the distance deviations, using least square fitting algorithm.
The results showed that the surface quality control method has the accuracy of 86.9%
for the detection of concrete spalling defects.
Further improvements on the previous research (Kim et al., 2014; 2015) have been
achieved by the same authors (Kim et al., 2016) to accommodate the full automation
of dimensional quality control of full-scale precast concrete panel. The first
improvement is applied on the coordinate transformation based on four corner point
extraction and PCA to match the geometry between the as-designed BIM and as-built
point cloud data. The second improvement is done on the vector-sum edge and corner
recognition by using RANSAC algorithm to estimate the parameters of edge lines
accurately. Also, this method has been tested based on laboratory experiments on
precast concrete specimens and the result show the robustness of the method with high
achieved accuracy around 3mm for dimensions and positon estimations of the precast
concrete specimens.
The work presented in the previous researches (Kim et al., 2014;2015) are only
applicable on simple geometries of elements such as rectangular panels and columns
79
but do not account precast concrete elements with geometric irregularities. Therefore,
the same authors (Wang et al., 2016) presented an automated dimensional quality
control of precast concrete elements with geometrical irregularity taking BIM as-
design models as reference. The author used the same method but they used different
algorithms to extract inner and outer corners with respect to as-designed BIM models.
Similarly, the method is validated based on laboratory test experiments on precast
concrete specimens and the result showed that the method is accurate with an average
error of 1.5mm.
 Dimensional QC/QA of façade
Quintessentially, measuring the dimensions of building façade is essential for many

purposes such as quantity survey and quality control and assurance (QC/QA).
Maintaining the dimensional quality of façade element plays a vital role in the façade
construction, especially for prefabrications of the façade elements, in order to
minimize the potential of rework and wastes during the installation. Traditional
methods of measuring the dimensions of façade elements proved to be time-
consuming, inaccurate and sometimes risky (Ordóñez et al., 2008). Therefore, many
researches have investigated the use of range-based and image-based methods in order
to extract the dimensions of façade elements. For that purpose, researchers have
utilized image-based techniques such as photogrammetry of images acquired by
image-based sensing technologies (Ordóñez et al., 2008; Klein et al., 2012) while
others used range-based techniques to 3D model façade elements from point cloud
data acquired by laser scanners (Pu and Vosselman, 2009; Boulaassal et al., 2009;
Truong-Hong et al., 2012; 2013).
 Dimensional QC/QA of concrete tunnel
In tunnel construction it is essential to extract the shape, cross section and the width of
the tunnel in order to produce as-built drawing and also to determine the structural
stability of the tunnel. The conventional method of extracting the cross-section of
concrete tunnels usually done by total station. However, these need considerable
amount of time and effort to perform it. As well, many researchers used image-based
methods to extract tunnel cross sections (Wang et al., 2009; 2010). Although the
image-based methods expedite the process of extracting the tunnel cross-sections,
achieving an automated and precise method is complicated due to illumination
80
condition inside the tunnels. Therefore, Han et al. (2013) exploited the laser scanning
to acquire 3D point cloud data in order to automate the quality control of concrete
tunnel cross-sections. The method acquires the 3D point cloud data from laser scanners
stationed along the tunnel route and then projected to 2D planer images. Then the 2D
planes are skeletonized in order to estimate the cross-section centerline. Next, the
estimation enhancement of the centerline by vectorizing and smoothing.
Consequently, the extraction of cross-section of the tunnel is done by adjusting the
pseudo cross-sectional planes using hashing-based structure (HVG). The method is
validated and compared against measurements taken from total station survey. The
results show that the proposed method is accurate and faster than the conventional
methods.
 Dimensional QC/QA of concrete bridge
Generally, bridges play a key role in the infrastructures of any country. Thus,
maintaining the quality of these bridges is vital especially, bridges incurs various types
of loads generated from heavy traffic, harsh environmental conditions and aggressive
impact loads, which decrease the loading and service capacity of these bridges. the use
of the advanced technologies, pertaining the 3D as-built data acquisition in the
construction industry, provided a great opportunity to quality control bridges.
For instance, Riveiro et al., (2013) utilized both laser scanning and photogrammetry
for the quality inspection of concrete bridge. In this research the as-built geometry are
extracted in order to detect creep, differential settlement of supports and bridge under
clearance of pre-stressed concrete beam. The data acquisition was implemented using
laser scanner and cameras, in addition to the total station to validate the results
generated from the first two methods. The as-built data in point clouds, obtained from
both laser scanners and images, are processed to extract the beam features and then
geometric realignments to the coordinate system of the total station are done to extract
the clearance under the bridge. Subsequently, 3D curve fitting algorithm is applied to
estimate the bridge vertical clearance. The validations of the measurements were
accomplished using the total station measurement and the results show that the
proposed laser scanning and image-based measurements are precise.
81
 QC/QA of concrete pavement Thickness
Currently, the traditional method for quality control of thickness of concrete

pavements are mainly depended on the core tests of samples. This method is
considered time-consuming, labor-intensive, expensive and inaccurate process.
Walters et al., (2008) investigated the applicability of terrestrial laser scanners to
quality control the thickness of concrete pavements. In this research, the idea is scan
the surface of the base prior to paving and then scanning the surface after the concrete
pavement is implemented. After processing the point cloud data sets obtained from
both concrete pavement scan and the base scan, the thickness of the concrete pavement
is estimated using Ordinary Kriging Method, which is a precise algorithm for the
statistical analysis of the thickness variances.
4.6.1.2 QC/QA of Surface Flatness in Structural Elements
Surface flatness quality control, of various elements in the construction and

infrastructure projects, is essential especially in the installations of heavy machineries,
industrial equipment or even in railways. In the construction industry, the assessment
of surface flatness is based on the detection of regions with deviation higher than the
allowed tolerance from the as-planned design (Tang et al., 2011). Conventionally,
surface flatness is identified using straightedges or profilometer, where the surface
defect can be obtained by measuring the gap distance between the surface and the
straightedge (Tang et al., 2011). Albeit, hitherto these tools have been used extensively
for surface flatness quality control in the construction industry, the use of these tools
resembles subjective, time-consuming, inaccurate and widely depended on discrete
sampling, where few sparse points of interest are measured to represent the whole
quality of the floor or slabs (Bosché and Guenet, 2014).
Owing to the limitations of the current traditional methods to control the quality of flat
surfaces, the researchers have investigated the applicability of terrestrial laser scanners
for this purpose. For instance, as a first attempt in this area, Tang et al., (2011),
developed three different algorithms, namely: Range Filtering, Deviation Filtering and
Sliding Window, to assess the surface flatness using acquired point cloud data from
terrestrial laser scanner. Accordingly, the three algorithms share the same process
where the first step is setting a reference plane, whilst the second step is by applying
82
noise filtering and calculate the deviations between the points and the reference plane,
finally the last step is detecting the surface deviations.
All of the algorithms have been formalized, executed and tested against an evaluation
framework which is created to objectively evaluate the performance of these
algorithms. The first algorithm, Range Filtering, Gaussian filtering is used to smooth
and remove noise prior to the computations of deviation map create by calculating the
closest point between the reference plane and the obtained points in the point cloud.
Seemingly, the second algorithm, Deviation Filtering, acts as the first algorithm but
inversely, where the deviation map is created first then smoothing of map is done by
Gaussian filtering. In contrast, unlike the previous two algorithms, the third algorithm,
Sliding Window, deals with the 3D point cloud directly where the plane fitting is
created and the deviation detection is achieved by measuring the distance between the
center of the fitted plane and the reference plane. Through the validation process, result
shows that the first two methods achieved higher accuracy.
However, the work proposed by Tang et al., (2011) provided significant advantages in
measuring the surface deviations against the traditional methods, their method is
detecting the deviation using metrics that are not compatible with the current
standards. Therefore, Bosché and Guenet, (2014) provided a novel approach that
integrates both terrestrial laser scanners and BIM to evaluate the surface flatness by
favorably comparing the results against the current traditional methods and standards.
The approach, here in, is based on Scan-vs-BIM proposed by (Bosché and Haas, 2008;
Bosché, 2010; Turkan et al., 2013) where 3D point cloud data sets are aligned in the
same coordinate with the BIM models augmented with the specifications of surface
flatness control. As well, the first step is implemented as the same method proposed
by Bosché (2012) where plane-based registration is used to match points in the point
cloud with BIM model using proximity or surface normal similarity. This approach
automatically applies the traditional straightedge and f-numbers methods to control the
surface compliance of the floors. The approach is validated against real world
experiment with two concrete slabs and the results reveals the suitability of this
approach.
83
4.6.1.3 QC/QA of Deformation and Deflection in Structural Elements
Predominantly, controlling the short-term deflections and long-term deformations

(creep) are pivotal for maintaining the serviceability and the integrity of the structural
elements. Measuring the deformations and the deflections of structural elements
pertains a challenge since the spatial measurements shall provide a precise and reliable
data with the ease of acquisition in lowest and significant time. Image-based
photogrammetry presents a decent candidate for this purpose, hence it can provide an
inexpensive, rapid and precise with a comprehendible visualization method (Gordon
and Lichti, 2007). However, photogrammetric methods have limitations and can be
inconvenient in some circumstances essentially when, in some cases, the third
dimension (depth) can be inadequately fixed. Alternatively, other contact sensors such
as dial gauges and linear-variable-differential transforms (LVDTs) have been
extensively used in experimental deformation measurements but they are limited in
acquiring measurements in one dimension (Gordon and Lichti, 2007). On the other
hand, terrestrial laser scanners offer precise and real time measurements owing to the
image-like dense point cloud generated from each scan. Consequently, researchers
have utilized laser scanners for measurement and quality control of the deformations
and deflections of structural elements.
For instance, Gordon and Lichti, (2007) used terrestrial laser scanner to measure the
vertical deflection in experimental test implemented on both a concrete beam and
timber beam. The modeling of beam relied on the constrained least-squares curve
fitting. However, the result showed that the conventional methods of contact sensors
and LVDTs are 20 times more accurate than the TLS coordinate precision. Seemingly,
Monserrat and Crosetto, (2008) investigated the applicability of laser scanners to
measure the deformations of landslides by applying least squares 3D surface matching
on the georeferenced point cloud data sets. In contrast, Scaioni et al., (2014) proposed
photogrammetric methods for the measurement of deformations of transversal cross-
section and longitudinal profiles of tunnels using new image-based approach called
photogrammetric levelling.
84
Figure 4.12: ABRM of QC/QA of Structural elements.
85
4.6.2 QC/QA for MEP and industrial pipeline systems
Quintessentially, the installations of MEP systems and industrial assemblies pose

intricate challenges in the construction industry due to various factors. First, design
information of MEP and industrial pipeline systems are predominantly implemented
in a rudiment form (Bosché et al., 2014). Hence many changes, design improvements
and development could occur which alter the as-built status from the original designs.
This can be attributed to the second factor as well, where changes in the original
designs can be associated to the changes due to unexpected site conditions and the
availability of materials. Third, the construction of these systems are acquainted with
complicated installations where it requires staged fabrication and sequential erections
(Nahangi et al., 2016). Improper installation and assembly’s errors can cause
significant deviations from the as-planned designs since the common practice of
detecting discrepancies predominantly occurs during the fitting trials in the
construction phase (Nahangi et al., 2015). Even if proper installation is implemented
within the allowed tolerances provided in the common standards, propagation of the
accumulated errors may exacerbate casing misalignment in some of the assemblies’
components (Rausch et al., 2017; Kalasapudi et al., 2017). Furthermore, the situation
is intensified when some parts of the assemblies may be get deformed or damaged
during the transportation and shipment to the construction site. Finally, owing to the
cascading fabrication imperfections and errors, as well as, defects occurred during
transportation of fabricated parts, significant negative impacts on the project’s budget
and the schedule would occur if early detections of the changes and associated errors
and fabrication imperfections are antiquated (Nahangi and Haas, 2014).
Furthermore, conventional approaches for quality control and assessment of MEP

systems and industrial pipelines are paper-based manual inspections that are time-
consuming, inaccurate, inadequate and insufficient (Safa et al., 2015; Nahangi and
Haas, 2014; Nahangi et al., 2015). Therefore, the need for more effective and efficient
inspections and quality control of MEP and industrial pipeline systems has been
triggered and have been investigated by researchers in the industry. Auspiciously, the
neoteric emerged technologies of 3D as-built data acquisitions offer prodigious
opportunities, not only to improve the conventional quality control practices, but also
to deliver automated inspection frameworks with more expedite processes to detect
86
inaccuracies and discrepancies and make it possible to track them and implement the
potential repairs, realignments and replacement of defective parts in the assembly.
By examining the literature, many researches have addressed the quality control and
quality assessment of MEP and industrial pipeline systems, see Figure 4.13. Recently,
investigations of utilizing image-based and range-based data acquisition to address
these issues are the status quo of the current research. A brief summary of these
research efforts are highlighted as follows.
Nahangi and Haas, (2014), proposed a novel automatic approach for automatic
compliance checking and quality assessment of pipe spools. The logic of the approach
is similar to Scan-to-BIM approach proposed by Bosché and Haas, (2008) and Bosché,
(2009) where automatic registration of point cloud data obtained from laser scanners
to the same coordinate system of the point cloud data created from the 3D as-designed
BIM model. Then, based on the quantifications of the registration results, detection of
pipe spools can be obtained.
The method starts with converting the 3D BIM model to STereoLithography (STL)
format. After manually removing noise from the obtained point clouds, course and fine
registrations are implemented respectively. In the course registration, which is an
important step to roughly align point clouds set in order to expedite the fine registration
process, principal component analysis (PCA) method is used. Subsequently, ICP based
fine registration is implemented to enhance the alignment of the point clouds of the
3D as-designed BIM model with the 3D as-built point cloud data obtained from laser
scanners. After adequately registering the as-built point cloud and the as-design point
cloud, condition assessment of the pipe spool is implemented by first visually detecting
the discrepancies using automated MATLAB algorithm, then characterization and
quantification of errors by examining the Root Mean Square metrics (RMS). This
approach has successfully achieved accuracy of 90% and showed robustness
evaluation and characterization of deviation in pipe spools.
Albeit the proposed approach by Nahangi and Haas, (2014) is robust in detecting the
defects and characterize them during the installation of pipeline systems, the approach
is limited and the registration might not be applicable in case of symmetrical
geometries are presented. Where the registration process shall be customizable and
able to indicate and fix in place with adjacent fabricated parts. In addition, the
87
limitation is pertained in the fact this method detects defects after its occurrence
(Nahangi et al., 2015). This fashion is unfavorable in the construction industry as
encountered discrepancies of the prefabricated parts shall be early quantified in order
to investigate the possible realignments in a timely manner.
In order to address these limitations, Nahangi et al., (2015) proposed an automated

framework for systemic realignment planning for defective pipeline, based on robotic
kinematic theory on as-built point cloud data obtained from laser scanners for
quantifying, characterizing and detecting the discrepancies encountered in industrial
facilities. Ultimately, the aim of this framework is to conduct a systematic solution for
realignment of defective assemblies. In contrast with other approaches, this approach
commences with constrained registration to overcome regular registration used in the
other approaches where both global and local situations are modeled to make it
possible to analyze the deviation relying on the situations of adjacent parts and
tolerances. The approach starts with normal ICP registration based on scan-to-BIM
approach (Bosché, 2009; Bosché et al. 2010; Nahangi and Haas, 2014). This is aiming
to roughly align point cloud data. Next, constrained registration is implemented to
account for the adjacent parts of the assembly. Then, forward kinematics based on
Denavit–Hartenberg (D–H) are employed to create relationships between different
parts of the assembly. Once the registration and the forward kinematic are done, local
discrepancy analysis “3D Sliding cube” is employed to investigate the accuracy of
fabricated parts and facilitate automated fitting and alignments. The local discrepancy
analysis includes; local registration to identify fabrication error, measuring
transformation in the local coordinate axes, and discrepancy matrices are calculated.
Using programmed MATLAB algorithm, evaluation of pipe spools in terms of
deviational deficiencies, pure rotation, pure translation, and combined transformations
are implemented. Based on the results of experiments to validate these approach, it is
found that the approach accurately quantified errors in terms of rotation and
transformation. However, this method requires user intervention since the user shall
select the size of the 3D sliding cube (Nahangi and Hass, 2016).
Based on the work by Nahangi and Haas, (2014) and Nahangi et al., (2015), a new
proposed automatic realignment approach for defective assemblies are proposed by
Nahangi et al., (2016a) by employing inverse kinematic analogy. The process is the
same as the process in Nahangi et al., (2015). However, the resulted and calculated
88
discrepancies are used as an input for calculating the needed corrective actions where
it is yielded as an inverse kinematic problem. The experimental results show that this
approach is able to calculate the corrective realignments accurately for defective
assemblies. Similarly, Nahangi et al., (2016b) applied the previous methods to solve
parallel systems with complicated pipe modules and pipe racks by calculating and
actuating based on degree of freedoms defined within the development of kinematic
chains of the assemblies. Conversely, the method used Quasi-Newton-Raphson (QNR)
to solve the inverse kinematic problems. As well, the method showed robustness in
quantifying discrepancies and proactively propose realignment strategies.
Nahangi and Haas, (2016) claimed that the work proposes by Nahangi et al., (2015)
require user input. Therefore, they proposed a new framework based on
skeletonization for the quantification of discrepancies for components in the assembly
with less intervention of users, as well, it does not require high level of development.
The extracted geometric skeletons are then registered using constrained ICP algorithm.
Consequently, the skeletons are clustered and fitted lines from each cluster are
highlighted for each segment. Comparison between the as-built and the as-planned are
implemented to identify any discrepancies incurred in a form of a rigid transformation.
The method is more accurate and fast compared to the results from Nahangi et al.,
(2015).
Kalasapudi et al., (2017) proposed an automated method based on nearest neighbor

searching and relational graph based matching for detecting the spatial changes in the
MEP systems by comparing the as-built status acquired from laser scanners and as-
designed BIM models. The aim of the research is to achieve a computational efficient
change detection for large point cloud data.
89
Figure 4.13: ABRM of QC/QA of Pipelines and MEP Systems.
90
4.7 As-damaged Assessment and Forensic Modeling
Forensic engineering, in the construction industry, is the application of science,

engineering principals and methodologies employed by experts and professionals
during the investigations to determine the root cause of various types of failure,
performance problems, catastrophic events and degradation of property (American
Society of Civil Engineering, ASCE.). During the investigations, experts or
engineering professionals are always compelled to inquire about collection of
evidences, condition assessment and accident reconstruction which are essential
approaches to answer the “fundamental questions of fact” during the investigations,
which are what, how and why the failure or conditions of concern occurred. Through
these stages of investigation process, experts usually acquire measurements, create
models and apply tests and simulations in order to derive the causation of failure or
condition in concerns.
As-damaged modeling, or forensic modeling, is one of the key approaches used during
the investigation. As-damaged modeling refers to real-time capture of 3D data about
the status of the facility or building after any type of damages incurred in order to
quantify, assess and evaluate the damages for further investigations concerning the
causes and effects in order to appropriately select a suitable restoration and
maintenance technique. As-damaged modeling has newly emerged as an application
of vision-based 3D data acquisitions in the construction industry. Laser scanners and
image-based sensing technologies have been used for the purpose of automating the
acquisition and obtaining the measurements of the new status of the facility after
damages are incurred. Utilizing these technologies avoids the limitation of current data
capturing methods that are subjective, error-prone, inaccurate and time-consuming
(Anil et al., 2016).
During the last decade, and with the recent advancements in machine-visions and
remote sensing approaches, which pertain the acquisition and the analysis of 3D point
cloud data obtained from either laser scanners or image-sensing technologies,
proliferation in the research efforts have been perceived in employing these 3D data
acquisition technologies in the applications of damage assessment and as-damage
modeling. A brief summary of these research efforts of both range-based laser
scanning and image-based are discussed in the following sections.
91
Several researchers have used terrestrial laser scanners for acquiring 3D dense point
cloud data from damaged elements or facilities. Various aspects have been studied in
this area. For instance, terrestrial laser scanner is used for structural damage
assessment (Olsen et al., 2010, 2013). Whilst, other used terrestrial laser scanner to
recognize concrete surface damages (Teza et al., 2009), and to localize and quantify
concrete spalling from reinforced concrete members (Kim et al., 2015b). In addition
to, damage estimation and assessment of post-earthquake reinforced concrete
structures (Ma et al., 2015, 2016; Anil et al., 2016; Zeibak-Shini et al., 2016). Speaking
of which, not only terrestrial laser scanners can be used in assessment of post-
earthquake damages but also airborne laser scanners have been employed in this
operation (Dong and Guo, 2012). Similarly, damage assessment of buildings which
incurred damages due to furious winds and tornado has been studied by capturing 3D
data from airborne laser scanners (Kashani et al., 2015). Moreover, the applications
can be extended using building information models BIMs to guide search and rescue
teams (S&R) in a more rapid operation with minimized risks (Bloch et al., 2016).
In contrast, other researchers have utilized data captured from image-based sensing
technologies in order to localize, quantify and evaluate damages in structural elements
and facilities. Assessments and detection of post-earthquake crack patterns in concrete
elements have been investigated by acquiring data from images (Zhu et al., 2011;
Torok et al., 2014; Paal et al., 2015; Lattanzi et al., 2016), as well, post-earthquake
concrete spalling in reinforced concrete structural members (German et al., 2012; Paal
et al., 2015).
The following sections will discuss the research efforts in the application of damage
assessment and forensic BIM modeling by utilizing point cloud data captured by either
range-based laser scanners or image-based sensing technologies. The research efforts
in this area will be categorized to crack pattern and concrete spalling damage
detections and as-damage modeling.
4.7.1 Crack pattern and concrete spalling damage detections
The analysis of the developed crack patterns and concrete spalling provides essential
key evidences for understanding the structural failure modes and structural behaviors.
Researchers have used either range-based laser scanning method or image-based
methods. In the following subsections, a brief of the research efforts is highlighted.
92
4.7.1.1 Range-based methods for damage assessment
Olsen et al., (2010) utilized terrestrial laser scanners for the damage and volume
change detection during an experimental structural testing of concrete specimen. In
their method, data acquisition is implemented using laser scanners and cameras and
the registrations of laser scans is done using built-in software in the laser scanner. Next,
the point cloud data is filtered and segmented manually. Then analysis of volumetric
change and crack location are done and validated against photogrammetric process and
conventional methods. The method is used for several case studies later (Olsen et al.,
2013). However, the presented approach showed the effectiveness of TLS in the
assessment of concrete cracks and spalling damages, the method has been entirely
implemented manually.
Conversely, Teza et al., (2009) presented an automated method for the detection of
concrete spalling damages obtained from terrestrial laser scanner. This method is based
on the computation of the mean and Gaussian curvatures as well as the piecewise
comparison of the distributions.
Kim et al., (2015b) presented an automated approach to localize and quantify concrete
spalling defects by analyzing point cloud data obtained from laser scanner. The method
first starts with the coordinate transformation of the point cloud data sets in order to
align them in the same coordinate and also to remove unwanted data. Then the
developed multi-steps approach of defect-sensitive features by the authors is used to
detect and quantify the concrete spalling defects. Finally, the method is validated using
numerical simulation models and laboratory experiments. The results show that the
approach can accurately detect and quantify the concrete spalling. Nevertheless, the
proposed approach is limited in the detection of concave and shallow of concrete
spalling
4.7.1.2 Image-based methods for damage assessment
In contrast, a line of research called “Machine Vision-based Structural Assessment”,

based on previous research done by Zhu and Brilakis (2010) and Yamaguchi and
Hashimoto (2009), is presented for the detection of cracks and concrete spalling
damages in reinforced concrete elements using image-based methods (Zhu et al., 2011;
German et al., 2012; German et al., 2013; Paal et al., 2014; 2015). Zhu et al., (2011)
presented a novel approach that extends beyond the detection of concrete crack
93
detections in which the properties of cracks can be obtained such as width, length,
orientation and locations. The method detect concrete cracks based on the work of
Yamaguchi and Hashimoto (2009) which detect cracks using percolation-based image
processing method. Then using binary image thinning is used to produce the topologic
skeletons of cracks as well distance transform is used to measure the distance field of
the crack pixels.
Based on the previous research (Zhu and Brilakis, 2010; Zhu et al., 2011), German et
al., (2012) continued with a novel approach to detect the concrete spalling damages.
In this approach two consecutive methods have been used; first, isolation of the
damages by creating damage map by applying local entropy-based spalling detection
method, developed by the authors. Then measuring the depth of the spalled concrete
using combined methods of global adaptive thresholding algorithm and image-
processing methods of template matching and morphological operations. Later on,
German et al., (2013) accompanied the previous research and presented a framework
based on machine vision for rapid post-earthquake damage assessment process.
Based on the work of German et al., (2012), same process has been applied by Paal et
al., (2014) to automatically measure the spatial properties of concrete spalling.
Subsequently, Paal et al., (2015) used both of the previous methods to automatically
determine the damage state and estimate the damage index of reinforced concrete
columns in frames which incurred earthquake. Unlike (Paal et al., 2015), Lattanzi et
al., (2016) developed a methodology that is based on image analysis and machine
learning that uses nonlinear regression to allow more fine-scale damage analysis rather
than prescribing a discrete damage state. The approach is based on image
segmentation, feature extraction and nonlinear regression analysis to estimate the peak
drift of reinforced concrete bridge column. And the results showed that there is a
correlation between the crack patterns and the displacement of column.
Another method for detection concrete cracks in reinforce concrete elements is

presented by Torok et al., (2014). Where the author used unmanned robotic platform
to capture images of structural elements after the occurrence of disastrous events of
earthquake. The method can successfully create a 3D mesh model of the surface and
conducting geometrical assessment of cracks for both rectangular and circular
elements. The process is employing structural-from-motion technique to create dense
point cloud data model, this is similar to D4AR proposed by Golpavar-Fard et al.,
94
(2009a), then trimming of the point cloud data is applied to isolate the objects and
eliminate any excess point data. Then 3D crack detection algorithm is applied to create
color-coded 3D mesh models. The method can accurately detect large cracks with
thickness higher than 0.5 cm. For smaller crack thicknesses, the method cannot be
detected.
4.7.2 As-damaged BIM modeling
The presence of BIM and rapid 3D as-built data acquisition technologies offers a great
opportunity and open new prospects not only to create 3D as-built models but also to
create as-damaged models (Ma et al., 2015). Recently, interests in creating as-damaged
models is becoming a trend for the research concerning this area. Ostensibly,
researchers have utilized these technologies to create as-damage models to support
decisions regarding many practices such as Search and Rescue (S&R) operations,
damage and condition assessments, reconstruction and recovery programs of damaged
buildings caused by natural or human made disasters and, in more advanced
applications, quantity survey, cost estimations of demolitions and repairs and
scheduling and budgeting of reconstruction programs (Bloch et al., 2016; Ma et al.,
2015).
Post-disasters damage assessments and reconstruction planning require detailed

information about status of the facility in interest prior and after the incurred damages.
For instance, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provides guidance
with plenty of traditional methods for surveying and assessing the damages in building
after earthquake (FEMA 306). Nonetheless, the advanced data acquisition
technologies can improve these methods to provide rapid and real-time assessment of
the damages. Ma et al., (2015) surveyed three different modes for as-damaged
modeling that can be used independently or with combinations of modes; the first
mode is used for large-scale damage assessment within block levels using aerial
images or airborne laser scanners. The second mode is pertaining on-site assessment
using portable computers that replace the paper work done by surveyors. The third
mode is by constructing digital as-damage 3D BIM models by obtaining 3D point
cloud data about the damaged parts or facilities from ranged-based or image-based
data acquisition methods.
95
For the third mode of as-damaged assessment according to Ma et al., (2015), the is
essential to possess as-built model to infer the status of the facility prior to the incurred
damage. The existence of as-built status will ease the damage assessment process since
deviation analysis and comparison, between the as-build status and the new damaged
conditions obtained by acquiring as-damaged 3D point cloud data, can be
implemented. In spite of the importance of the 3D as-damaged BIM modeling for
many applications in the emergency management and condition assessment, dearth of
research have investigated the applicability of using the advanced 3D data acquisition
technologies to generate 3D as-damage models. A brief discussion of these research
efforts will be demonstrated in the following paragraphs.
Ma et al., (2015) presented a new as-damaged data model based on IFC schema to
enhance the flow of damage information during earthquake damage assessment of
reinforced concrete structure. In their method, the failure modes have been considered
alongside with the existing IFC schema. Furthermore, the method has been tested on
two case studies of a damaged column and a damaged frame. Authors reported that the
proposed as-damaged data model not only express the final geometry of the damaged
element but also the sequence of failure can be recorded. Following this research, Ma
et al., (2016) have investigated the applicability of creating as-damaged BIM model of
full-scale damaged buildings from an earthquake in Turkey. In this research, the author
provided a computational approach to synthesize a representative and accurate model
by compiling as-built models, laser scan point cloud data and as-damaged models.
Even without previous as-built model of pre-status of the damaged building, the
authors have provided and tested two different approaches; real full-scale specimens
and computational approach based on BIM model and custom-built laser scanner
emulator to construct point clouds data sets from as-damaged models. During the
testing, the scan-to-BIM system have been used to assessing the damages incurred to
the building.
Subsequently, Zeibak-Shini et al., (2016) followed the previously mentioned research

to present a framework and a suite of algorithms for the first trial of creating as-
damaged BIM model of reinforced concrete exterior façade using BIM and laser
scanning. The generated model is suitable for the Search and Rescue practice where it
can be applicable an overall previous framework done by (Bloch et al., 2016). The
96
approach has been validated against two real case studies of damaged buildings from
earthquake in Turkey.
97
98
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Hitherto, the proliferation of the BIM research alongside with the attention on 3D data
acquisitions and its corresponding technologies is a concrete evidence that the AECO
industry is pursuing the technological advancements. Consequently, AECO industry
has adopted these technologies to ameliorate current practices and achieve more
effective and efficient processes in various applications within the industry. Beyond
the propagation of the research in these area, ramification of the research efforts is
becoming obvious where the research appears to be scattered and unorganized.
Furthermore, owing to the convolution of the methods and techniques pertained in
these research, especially that are emerged from more technologically advanced
industries, misperceptions and perplexity may occur for the researchers and
practitioners who are interested in this area in AECO industry.
Several review articles have been published to address the 3D data acquisition methods
and its applications in the construction industry. Distinctively, this research contributes
with an analytical and critical review that serves, with a systematic methodology, as a
research reference and offers a lucid guidance concerning the research efforts that have
been exerted on the applications of vision-based 3D data acquisition methods.
Therefore, the review is delimited to the applications of 3D as-built model
reconstruction, progress tracking, quality control and quality assurance QC/QA and
as-damaged and forensic modeling. The methodology of the review is systematically
synthesized to compile, organize and analyze a total of 145 research articles, published
between 2008 and 2017. Each research’s targeted applications, methods, approaches,
used algorithms, accuracy, contributions, gaps and limitations have been investigated.
Based on the analysis of selected research, As-built Bibliometric Research Maps are
created to visualize and detect the trails of the research and identify the relationships
between them.
99
Ever since, myriad of research efforts have sought the foremost endeavor to
automatically create 3D semantic-rich as-built BIM models. Nonetheless, these efforts
have not yet yielded to fully automate the process while the current commercial and
academic automatic approaches still time-consuming, intricate, expensive, with
limited accuracy and require surveyors/modelers with expertise and tacit knowledge.
Such of contextual backdrop, this is due to the lack of robust approaches for object
recognition to even create an accurate geometrical models for all elements in the scene
of the point cloud data sets. This situation can be exacerbated by the occlusions and
non-visible elements in the scene.
Many research efforts have utilized either data-driven or model-driven object

recognition methods, or even both, to create 3D as-built geometrical BIM models.
Ostensibly, data-driven object recognition methods usually used to solely detect
specific geometrical primitives (planner or curved surfaces, edge and boundary
elements, volumetric elements, etc.). Therefore, owing to the complexity of the scene,
multiple of data-driven object recognition approaches maybe needed to accurately
extract the overall geometrical primitives, however, this will trade off the time and the
cost of surveying especially when complex shapes are existed. On the other hand,
model-driven object recognition approaches require less time of survey, since the
recognition is guided by the comparison between the 3D as-built point cloud data and
the 3D as-designed model. However, accurate registration algorithms are needed to
accurately align the point cloud data set, as well, if huge deviations are presented
between the as-built and as-designed, it would require more computational time to
implement the process.
According to the status quo of the research, many researchers have conformed the
bespoke knowledge transfer from more advanced industries. Since new methods have
been emerged such as Dimensional Variation Analysis (DVA) which is an
optimization and design tool that have been ubiquitously used in automotive and
manufacturing industries. Robotic kinematic theories, as well, have been used to
improve the automations of construction industry process. Despite the adoptions of
knowledge transfer from other industries, the current object recognition algorithms
that have been emerged in the construction, such as ICP registration, RANSAC, SfM,
model-assisted SfM, etc., still rudimentary and require further ameliorations.
Preferably, investigations about the potential applicability of integrating more bespoke
100
and robust algorithms and approaches are needed such as integrating SIFTs and SURF
features detections for the registration of point cloud data sets or data-driven
(unsupervised) object and feature detections. Additionally, several researchers have
advocated the use of libraries and databases alongside with data analytics for enhanced
object and material recognition. If so, the sematic 3D BIM models would be possible
to achieve. Consequently, AECO industry is recommended to establish libraries and
databases of different elements and materials in the construction industry. Besides that,
Consortium of multidisciplinary fields are required to participate in joint research in
order to solve the current convoluted issues that maybe partly or wholly solved with
the other industries.
By analyzing the literature in the 3D as-built modeling, further investigations are

needed concerning combining both model-driven and data-driven object recognition
approaches for more robust feature recognitions. Moreover, leveraging Data analytics
with the construction libraries would provide more efficient model-driven object
recognition. Additionally, further exploration of the as-built models in standard BIM
(IFC and model view definition MVD) format are need for the automatic update of as-
built models.
Concerning the progress tracking using vision-based data acquisition technologies,

further improvements of the current approaches are needed. As well as, the automatic
updating and registrations of new images and laser scanned data are required. More
importantly, integrating the big visual data in progress tracking would broaden the
prospects model update and project time and budget controls.
For the quality control and quality assessment QC/QA applications, further
improvements for the registration and the alignment of the as-built and as-planned
models. In addition to energy or work minimization for finding the optimum
realignment in construction assemblies leveraging robotic theories and DVA.
The forensic modeling and as-damaged are new concepts in the construction industry.
Recently, this topic is gaining attention of the researchers in the field and seems to be
the trend of the future research. However, the current research in this topic is still under
development and further investigations are needed.
101
102
REFERENCES
Ahmed, M. F., Haas, C. T., & Haas, R. (2014). Automatic detection of cylindrical
objects in built facilities. Journal of Computing in Civil
Engineering, 28(3), 04014009.
Al-Takrouri, S., & Savkin, A. V. (2010). A model validation approach to texture
recognition and inpainting. Pattern Recognition, 43(6), 2054-2067.
Anil, E. B., Akinci, B., Kurc, O., & Garrett, J. H. (2016). Building-Information-
Modeling–Based Earthquake Damage Assessment for Reinforced
Concrete Walls. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 30(4),
04015076.
Anil, E. B., Sunnam, R., & Akinci, B. (2012). Challenges of identifying steel sections
for the generation of as-is BIMs from laser scan data. In ISARC.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Automation and
Robotics in Construction (Vol. 29, p. 1). Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University, Department of Construction Economics & Property.
Anil, E. B., Tang, P., Akinci, B., & Huber, D. (2013). Deviation analysis method for
the assessment of the quality of the as-is Building Information Models
generated from point cloud data. Automation in Construction, 35, 507-
516.
Applied Technology Council, Partnership for Response, & Recovery. (1999).
Evaluation of earthquake damaged concrete and masonry wall
buildings: Basic procedures manual. FEMA.
Azhar, S. (2011). Building information modeling (BIM): Trends, benefits, risks, and
challenges for the AEC industry. Leadership and management in
engineering, 11(3), 241-252.
Barazzetti, L. (2016). Parametric as-built model generation of complex shapes from
point clouds. Advanced Engineering Informatics 30 (2016) 298–311.
Bloch, T., Sacks, R., & Rabinovitch, O. (2016). Interior models of earthquake
damaged buildings for search and rescue. Advanced Engineering
Informatics, 30(1), 65-76.
Borrmann, D., Nüchter, A., Ðakulović, M., Maurović, I., Petrović, I.,
Osmanković, D., & Velagić, J. (2014). A mobile robot based system
for fully automated thermal 3D mapping. Advanced Engineering
Informatics, 28(4), 425-440.
Bosché, F. (2010). Automated recognition of 3D CAD model objects in laser scans
and calculation of as-built dimensions for dimensional compliance
control in construction. Advanced engineering informatics, 24(1), 107-
118.
103
Bosché, F. (2012). Plane-based registration of construction laser scans with 3D/4D
building models. Advanced Engineering Informatics, 26(1), 90-102.
Bosche, F., & Haas, C. T. (2008). Automated retrieval of 3D CAD model objects in
construction range images. Automation in Construction, 17(4), 499-
512.
Bosche, F., Haas, C. T., & Akinci, B. (2009). Automated recognition of 3D CAD
objects in site laser scans for project 3D status visualization and
performance control. Journal of Computing in Civil
Engineering, 23(6), 311-318.
Bosché, F., Ahmed, M., Turkan, Y., Haas, C. T., & Haas, R. (2015). The value of
integrating Scan-to-BIM and Scan-vs-BIM techniques for construction
monitoring using laser scanning and BIM: The case of cylindrical MEP
components. Automation in Construction, 49, 201-213.
Bosché, F., & Guenet, E. (2014). Automating surface flatness control using terrestrial
laser scanning and building information models. Automation in
Construction, 44, 212-226.
Bosché, F., Guillemet, A., Turkan, Y., Haas, C. T., & Haas, R. (2013). Tracking
the built status of MEP works: Assessing the value of a Scan-vs-BIM
system. Journal of computing in civil engineering, 28(4), 05014004.
Boulaassal, H., Landes, T., & Grussenmeyer, P. (2009). Automatic extraction of
planar clusters and their contours on building façades recorded by
terrestrial laser scanner. International Journal of Architectural
Computing, 7(1), 1-20.
Bradley, A., Li, H., Lark R., & Dunn, S. (2016). BIM for infrastructure: An overall
review and constructor perspective. Automation in Construction 71
(2016) 139–152
Braun, A., Tuttas, S., Borrmann, A., & Stilla, U. (2015). A concept for automated
construction progress monitoring using BIM-based geometric
constraints and photogrammetric point clouds. Journal of Information
Technology in Construction (ITcon), 20(5), 68-79.
Brilakis, I., Lourakis, M., Sacks, R., Savarese, S., Christodoulou, S., Teizer, J., &
Makhmalbaf, A. (2010). Toward automated generation of parametric
BIMs based on hybrid video and laser scanning data. Advanced
Engineering Informatics, 24(4), 456-465.
Cabaleiro, M., Riveiro, B., Arias, P., Caamaño, J. C., & Vilán, J. A. (2014).
Automatic 3D modelling of metal frame connections from LiDAR data
for structural engineering purposes. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry
and Remote Sensing, 96, 47-56.
Chen, K., Lu, W., Peng, Y., Rowlinson, S. & Huang, G.Q. (2015), Bridging BIM
and building: from a literature review to an integrated conceptual
framework, International Journal of Project Management, 33 No. 6,
pp. 1405-1416.
Cho, Y., Ham, Y., & Golpavar-Fard, M. (2015). 3D as-is building energy modeling
and diagnostics: A review of the state-of-the-art. Advanced Engineering
Informatics 29 (2015) 184–195.
104
Czerniawski, T., Nahangi, M., Haas, C., & Walbridge, S. (2016). Pipe spool
recognition in cluttered point clouds using a curvature-based shape
descriptor. Automation in Construction, 71, 346-358.
Dai, F., Rashidi, A., Brilakis, I., & Vela, P. (2012). Comparison of image-based and
time-of-flight-based technologies for three-dimensional reconstruction
of infrastructure. Journal of construction engineering and
management, 139(1), 69-79.
Díaz-Vilariño, L., Conde, B., Lagüela, S., & Lorenzo, H. (2015). Automatic
detection and segmentation of columns in as-built buildings from point
clouds. Remote Sensing, 7(11), 15651-15667.
Dimitrov, A. and Golparvar-Fard, M. (2015). Segmentation of building point cloud
models including detailed architectural/structural features and MEP
systems, Automation in Construction, 51,2015, 32-45, 0926-5805.
Dimitrov, A., & Golparvar-Fard, M. (2014). Vision-based material recognition for
automated monitoring of construction progress and generating building
information modeling from unordered site image collections. Advanced
Dong, P., & Guo, H. (2012). A framework for automated assessment of post-
earthquake building damage using geospatial data. International
journal of remote sensing, 33(1), 81-100.
Eastman, C., Teicholz, P., Sacks, R., & Liston, K. (2011). BIM handbook: A guide
to building information modeling for owners, managers, designers,
engineers and contractors. John Wiley & Sons.
El-Omari, S. & Moselhi, O. (2008), Integrating 3D laser scanning and
photogrammetry for progress measurement of construction work,
Automation in Construction, 18(1), 1-9.
El-Omari, S., & Moselhi, O. (2009). Data acquisition from construction sites for
tracking purposes. Engineering, Construction and Architectural
Management, 16(5), 490-503.
Ergan, S. & Akinci, B.& Ergen, E.& Tang, P. & Gordon, C. (2008). Technological
assessment and process implications of field data capture technologies
for construction and facility/infrastructure management. Journal of
Information Technology in Construction. 13. 134-154.
Ergen, E., Akinci, B., & Sacks, R. (2007). Tracking and locating components in a
precast storage yard utilizing radio frequency identification technology
and GPS. Automation in construction, 16(3), 354-367.
Fathi, H., & Brilakis, I. (2013). A videogrammetric as-built data collection method
for digital fabrication of sheet metal roof panels. Advanced Engineering
Informatics, 27(4), 466-476.
Fathi, H., Dai, F., & Lourakis, M., (2015). Automated as-built 3D reconstruction of
civil infrastructure using computer vision: Achievements,
opportunities, and challenges. Advanced Engineering Informatics 29
149–161.
105
Gao, T., Ergan, S., Akinci, B., Garrett, J., (2015) An approach to combine
progressively captured point clouds for BIM update. Advanced
Engineering Informatics 29 (2015) 1001–1012.
Gao, T., Ergan, S., Akinci, B., & Garrett, J. (2014). Evaluation of different features
for matching point clouds to building information models. Journal of
Computing in Civil Engineering, 30(1), 04014107.)
German, S., Brilakis, I., & DesRoches, R. (2012). Rapid entropy-based detection
and properties measurement of concrete spalling with machine vision
for post-earthquake safety assessments. Advanced Engineering
Informatics, 26(4), 846-858.
German, S., Jeon, J. S., Zhu, Z., Bearman, C., Brilakis, I., DesRoches, R., &
Lowes, L. (2013). Machine vision-enhanced postearthquake
inspection. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 27(6), 622-634.
Goh, E., & Loosemore, M. (2017). The impacts of industrialization on construction
subcontractors: a resource based view. Construction Management and
Economics, 35(5), 288-304.
Golparvar-Fard, M., Bohn, J., Teizer, J., Savarese, S., & Peña-Mora, F. (2011b).
Evaluation of image-based modeling and laser scanning accuracy for
emerging automated performance monitoring techniques. Automation
in Construction, 20(8), 1143-1155.
Golparvar-Fard, M., Peña-Mora, F., Arboleda, C. A., & Lee, S. (2009b).
Visualization of construction progress monitoring with 4D simulation
model overlaid on time-lapsed photographs. Journal of computing in
civil engineering, 23(6), 391-404.
Golparvar-Fard, M., Peña-Mora, F., & Savarese, S. (2011a). Integrated sequential
as-built and as-planned representation with D 4 AR tools in support of
decision-making tasks in the AEC/FM industry. Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management, 137(12), 1099-1116.
Golparvar-Fard, M., Peña-Mora, & F. Savarese, S. (2015) Automated progress
monitoring using unordered daily construction photographs and IFC-
based building information models, Journal of Computing in Civil
Engineering, 29(1), 04014025.
Golparvar-Fard, M., Peña-Mora, F., & Savarese, S. (2009a). D4AR–a 4-
dimensional augmented reality model for automating construction
progress monitoring data collection, processing and
communication. Journal of information technology in
construction, 14(13), 129-153.
Gordon, S. J., & Lichti, D. D. (2007). Modeling terrestrial laser scanner data for
precise structural deformation measurement. Journal of Surveying
Engineering, 133(2), 72-80.
Ham, Y., Han, K. K., Lin, J. J., & Golparvar-Fard, M. (2016). Visual monitoring
of civil infrastructure systems via camera-equipped Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs): a review of related works. Visualization in
Engineering, 4(1), 1.
106
Hamledari, H., McCabe, B., Davari, S., & Shahi, A. (2017). Automated schedule
and progress updating of IFC-based 4D BIMs. Journal of Computing in
Civil Engineering, 31(4), 04017012.
Han, K. K., & Golparvar-Fard, M. (2017). Potential of big visual data and building
information modeling for construction performance analytics: An
exploratory study. Automation in Construction, 73, 184-198.
Han, S., Cho, H., Kim, S., Jung, J., & Heo, J. (2012). Automated and efficient
method for extraction of tunnel cross sections using terrestrial laser
scanned data. Journal of computing in civil engineering, 27(3), 274-
281.
Haralick, R. M., & Shapiro, L. G. (1985, April). Image segmentation techniques.
In Applications of Artificial Intelligence II (Vol. 548, pp. 2-10).
International Society for Optics and Photonics.
Jung, J., Hong, S., Jeong, S., Kim, S., Cho, H., Hong, S., & Heo, J. (2014).
Productive modeling for development of as-built BIM of existing
indoor structures. Automation in Construction, 42, 68-77.
Jung, J., Hong, S., Yoon, S., Kim, J., & Heo, J. (2016). Automated 3D wireframe
modeling of indoor structures from point clouds using constrained
least-squares adjustment for as-built BIM. Journal of Computing in
Civil Engineering, 30(4), 04015074. 6
Jung, Y. and Joo, M. (2011). Building information modelling (BIM) framework for
practical implementation. Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 126–
133
Kalasapudi, V. S., Tang, P., & Turkan, Y. (2017). Computationally efficient change
analysis of piece-wise cylindrical building elements for proactive
project control. Automation in Construction, 81, 300-312.
Kashani, A. G., Crawford, P. S., Biswas, S. K., Graettinger, A. J., & Grau, D.
(2014). Automated tornado damage assessment and wind speed
estimation based on terrestrial laser scanning. Journal of Computing in
Civil Engineering, 29(3), 04014051.
Kawashima, K., Kanai, S., & Date, H. (2014). As-built modeling of piping system
from terrestrial laser-scanned point clouds using normal-based region
growing. Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 1(1), 13-
26.
Kawashima, K., Kanai, S., & Date, H. (2011). Automatic recognition of a piping
system from large-scale terrestrial laser scan data. Int. Arch.
Photogram. Remote Sens. Spatial Inform. Sci, 38-5.
Khosrowshahi, F., & Arayici, Y. (2012). Roadmap for implementation of BIM in the
UK construction industry. Engineering, Construction and
Architectural Management, 19(6), 610-635.
Kim, C., Son, H., & Kim, C. (2013a). Automated construction progress measurement
using a 4D building information model and 3D data, Automation in
107
Kim, C., Kim, B., & Kim, H., (2013). 4D CAD model updating using image
processing-based construction progress monitoring. Automation in
Construction, 35 44–52.
Kim, C., Son, H., & Kim, C. (2013c). Fully automated registration of 3D data to a
3D CAD model for project progress monitoring. Automation in
Construction, 35, 587-594
Kim, M. K., Sohn, H., & Chang, C. C. (2015b). Localization and quantification of
concrete spalling defects using terrestrial laser scanning. Journal of
Computing in Civil Engineering, 29(6), 04014086.
Kim, M. K., Sohn, H., & Chang, C. C. (2014). Automated dimensional quality
assessment of precast concrete panels using terrestrial laser
scanning. Automation in Construction, 45, 163-177.
Kim, M. K., Cheng, J. C., Sohn, H., & Chang, C. C. (2015a) A framework for
dimensional and surface quality assessment of precast concrete
elements using BIM and 3D laser scanning, Automation in
Kim, M. K., Wang, Q., Park, J. W., Cheng, J. C., Sohn, H., & Chang, C. C. (2016).
Automated dimensional quality assurance of full-scale precast concrete
elements using laser scanning and BIM. Automation in
Klein, L., Li, N., & Becerik-Gerber, B. (2012). Imaged-based verification of as-built
documentation of operational buildings. Automation in
Kropp, C., Koch, C., & König, M. (2014). Drywall state detection in image data for
automatic indoor progress monitoring. In Computing in Civil and
Building Engineering (2014) (pp. 347-354).
Laefer, D. F., & Truong-Hong, L. (2017). Toward automatic generation of 3D steel
structures for building information modelling. Automation in
Lattanzi, D., Miller, G. R., Eberhard, M. O., & Haraldsson, O. S. (2015). Bridge
column maximum drift estimation via computer vision. Journal of
Lee, J., Son, H., Kim, C., & Kim, C. (2013). Skeleton-based 3D reconstruction of as-
built pipelines from laser-scan data. Automation in construction, 35,
199-207.
Lu, Q., & Lee, S. (2017) Image-Based Technologies for Constructing As-Is Building
Information Models for Existing Buildings. Journal of Computing in
Civil Engineering 31(4): 04017005.
Ma, L., Sacks, R., & Zeibak-Shini, R. (2015). Information modeling of earthquake-
damaged reinforced concrete structures. Advanced Engineering
Informatics, 29(3), 396-407.
Ma, L., Sacks, R., Zeibak-Shini, R., Aryal, A., & Filin, S. (2016). Preparation of
synthetic as-damaged models for post-earthquake BIM reconstruction
research. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 30(3), 04015032.
108
Masuda, H., & Tanaka, I. (2010). As-built 3D modeling of large facilities based on
interactive feature editing. Computer-Aided Design and
Applications, 7(3), 349-360.
Mikhail, E. M., Bethel, J. S., & McGlone, J. C. (2001). Introduction to modern
photogrammetry. New York.
Monserrat, O., & Crosetto, M. (2008). Deformation measurement using terrestrial
laser scanning data and least squares 3D surface matching. ISPRS
Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 63(1), 142-154.
Nahangi, M., & Haas, C. T. (2014). Automated 3D compliance checking in pipe
spool fabrication. Advanced Engineering Informatics, 28(4), 360-369.
Nahangi, M., Haas, C. T., West, J., & Walbridge, S. (2016a) Automatic
realignment of defective assemblies using an inverse kinematics
analogy, Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 30(2), 04015008.
Nahangi, M., Yeung, J., Haas, C. T., Walbridge, S., & West, J. (2015) Automated
assembly discrepancy feedback using 3D imaging and forward
kinematics, Automation in Construction, 56, 36-46.
Nahangi, M., & Haas, C. T. (2016). Skeleton-based discrepancy feedback for
automated realignment of industrial assemblies. Automation in
Nahangi, M., Czerniawski, T., Haas, C. T., Walbridge, S., & West, J. (2016b).
Parallel systems and structural frames realignment planning and
actuation strategy. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 30(4),
04015067.
Olsen, M. J., Chen, Z., Hutchinson, T., & Kuester, F. (2013). Optical techniques
for multiscale damage assessment. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and
Risk, 4(1), 49-70.
Olsen, M. J., Kuester, F., Chang, B. J., & Hutchinson, T. C. (2009). Terrestrial
laser scanning-based structural damage assessment. Journal of
Computing in Civil Engineering, 24(3), 264-272.
Omar, T., & Nehdi, M. L. (2016). Data acquisition technologies for construction
progress tracking. Automation in Construction, 70, 143-155.
Ordóñez, C., Arias, P., Herráez, J., Rodríguez, J., & Martín, M. T. (2008). Two
photogrammetric methods for measuring flat elements in buildings
under construction. Automation in Construction, 17(5), 517-525.
Paal, S. G., Brilakis, I., & DesRoches, R. (2014). Automated spatial properties
measurement of concrete spalling through reinforcement detection. J.
Struct. Health Monitor..
Paal, S. G., Jeon, J. S., Brilakis, I., & DesRoches, R. (2015). Automated damage
index estimation of reinforced concrete columns for post-earthquake
evaluations. Journal of Structural Engineering, 141(9), 04014228.
Pärn, E. A., Edwards, D. J., & Sing, M. C. P. (2017). The building information
modelling trajectory in facilities management: A review. Automation in
109
Pärn, E. A., & Edwards, D. (2017). Vision and advocacy of optoelectronic
technology developments in the AECO sector. Built Environment
Project and Asset Management, 7(3), 330-348.
Patil, A. K., Holi, P., Lee, S. K., & Chai, Y. H. (2017). An adaptive approach for the
reconstruction and modeling of as-built 3D pipelines from point
clouds. Automation in Construction, 75, 65-78.
Pătrăucean, V., Armeni, I., Nahangi, M., Yeung, J., Brilakis, I., & Haas, C. (2015).
State of research in automatic as-built modelling. Advanced
Prieto, S. A., Quintana, B., Adán, A., & Vázquez, A. S. (2017). As-is building-
structure reconstruction from a probabilistic next best scan
approach. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 94, 186-207.
Pu, S., & Vosselman, G. (2009). Knowledge based reconstruction of building models
from terrestrial laser scanning data. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry
and Remote Sensing, 64(6), 575-584.
Rabbani, T., & Van Den Heuvel, F. (2005). Efficient hough transform for automatic
detection of cylinders in point clouds. Isprs Wg Iii/3, Iii/4, 3, 60-65.
Randall, T. (2011). Construction engineering requirements for integrating laser
scanning technology and building information modeling. Journal of
construction engineering and management, 137(10), 797-805.
Rausch, C., Nahangi, M., Haas, C., & West, J. (2017). Kinematics chain based
dimensional variation analysis of construction assemblies using
building information models and 3D point clouds. Automation in
Razavi, S. N., & Haas, C. T. (2010). Multisensor data fusion for on-site materials
tracking in construction. Automation in construction, 19(8), 1037-
1046.
Rebolj, D., Pučko, Z., Babič, N. Č., Bizjak, M., & Mongus, D. (2017). Point cloud
quality requirements for Scan-vs-BIM based automated construction
progress monitoring. Automation in Construction, 84, 323-334.
Riveiro, B., González-Jorge, H., Varela, M., & Jáuregui, D. V. (2013). Validation
of terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetry techniques for the
measurement of vertical underclearance and beam geometry in
structural inspection of bridges. Measurement, 46(1), 784-794.
Roh, S., Aziz, Z., & Peña-Mora, F. (2011). An object-based 3D walk-through model
for interior construction progress monitoring. Automation in
Construction, 20(1), 66-75.
Safa, M., Shahi, A., Nahangi, M., Haas, C., & Noori, H. (2015). Automating
measurement process to improve quality management for piping
fabrication. In Structures (Vol. 3, pp. 71-80). Elsevier.
Saidi, K. S., Teizer, J., Franaszek, M., & Lytle, A. M. (2011). Static and dynamic
performance evaluation of a commercially-available ultra wideband
tracking system. Automation in construction, 20(5), 519-530.
110
Scaioni, M., Barazzetti, L., Giussani, A., Previtali, M., Roncoroni, F., & Alba, M.
I. (2014). Photogrammetric techniques for monitoring tunnel
deformation. Earth Science Informatics, 7(2), 83-95.
Shahi, A., Aryan, A., West, J. S., Haas, C. T., & Haas, R. C. (2012). Deterioration
of UWB positioning during construction. Automation in
Shahi, A., Safa, M., Haas, C. T., & West, J. S. (2014). Data fusion process
management for automated construction progress estimation. Journal
of Computing in Civil Engineering, 29(6), 04014098.
Shin, H. Dunston, P.S. (2009) Evaluation of augmented reality in steel column
inspection, Automation in Construction, 18(2), 118-129.
Son, H, Bosché, F, & Kim, C. (2015a). As-built data acquisition and its use in
production monitoring and automated layout of civil infrastructure: A
survey. Advanced Engineering Informatics, 29(2), 172–183.
Son, H., & Kim, C. (2016). Automatic segmentation and 3D modeling of pipelines
into constituent parts from laser-scan data of the built environment.
Automation in Construction, 68, 203-211
Son, H., and Kim, C. (2017). Semantic as-built 3D modeling of structural elements
of buildings based on local concavity and convexity. Advanced
Engineering Informatics 34 (2017) 114–124
Son, H., & Kim, C. (2010). 3D structural component recognition and modeling
method using color and 3D data for construction progress
monitoring. Automation in Construction, 19(7), 844-854.
Son, H., Kim, C., & Kim, C. (2011). Automated color model–based concrete
detection in construction-site images by using machine learning
algorithms. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 26(3), 421-
433.
Son, H., Kim, C., & Kim, C (2015b) Fully automated as-built 3D pipeline extraction
method from laser-scanned data based on curvature computation,
Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 29(4), B4014003.
Son, H., Kim, C., & Kim, C. (2015c) 3D reconstruction of as-built industrial
instrumentation models from laser-scan data and a 3D CAD database
based on prior knowledge. Automation in Construction 49 (2015) 193–
200
Stephen R. Pettee, CCM, (2005). As-builts – Problems & Proposed Solutions.
Construction Management Association of America (CMAA). CM
eJOURNAL. cmaanet.org. Retrieved March, 12, 2018 from
https://cmaanet.org/files/as-built.pdf
Tang, P. B., Huber, D., & Akinci, B. (2011). Characterization of Laser Scanners and
Algorithms for Detecting Flatness Defects on Concrete Surfaces.
Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 25(1), 31-42.
doi:10.1061/(asce)cp.1943-5487.0000073
Tang, P., Huber, D., Akinci, B., Lipman, R., & Lytle, A. (2010). Automatic
reconstruction of as-built building information models from laser-
111
scanned point clouds: A review of related techniques. Automation in
construction, 19(7), 829-843.
Tarsha-Kurdi, F., Landes, T. & Grussenmeyer, P. (2008), Extended RANSAC
algorithm for automatic detection of building roof planes from LiDAR
DATA, Photogrammetric Journal of Finland, 21(1), 97–109.
Teizer, J. (2015). Status quo and open challenges in vision-based sensing and tracking
of temporary resources on infrastructure construction sites. Advanced
Teizer, J., Venugopal, M., & Walia, A. (2008). Ultrawideband for automated real-
time three-dimensional location sensing for workforce, equipment, and
material positioning and tracking. Transportation Research Record:
Journal of the Transportation Research Board, (2081), 56-64.
Teza, G., Galgaro, A., & Moro, F. (2009). Contactless recognition of concrete
surface damage from laser scanning and curvature computation. NDT
& E International, 42(4), 240-249.
Thomson, C., & Boehm, J. (2015). Automatic geometry generation from point clouds
for BIM. Remote Sensing, 7(9), 11753-11775.
Torok, M. M., Golparvar-Fard, M., & Kochersberger, K. B. (2013). Image-based
automated 3D crack detection for post-disaster building assessment.
Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 28(5), A4014004.
Truong‐Hong, L., Laefer, D. F., Hinks, T., & Carr, H. (2013). Combining an angle
criterion with voxelization and the flying voxel method in
reconstructing building models from LiDAR data. Computer‐Aided
Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, 28(2), 112-129.
Turkan, Y., Bosche, F., Haas, C. T., & Haas, R. (2012). Automated progress
tracking using 4D schedule and 3D sensing technologies. Automation
in Construction, 22, 414-421.
Turkan, Y., Bosche, F., Haas, C. T., & Haas, R. (2012). Automated progress
tracking using 4D schedule and 3D sensing technologies. Automation
in Construction, 22, 414-421.
Turkan, Y., Bosché, F., Haas, C. T., & Haas, R. (2012). Toward automated earned
value tracking using 3D imaging tools. Journal of construction
engineering and management, 139(4), 423-433.
Turkan, Y., Bosché, F., T. Haas, C., & Haas, R. (2014). Tracking of secondary and
temporary objects in structural concrete work. Construction Innovation,
14(2), 145-167.
Tuttas, S., Braun, A., Borrmann, A., & Stilla, U. (2017). Acquisition and
consecutive registration of photogrammetric point clouds for
construction progress monitoring using a 4D BIM. PFG–Journal of
Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science, 85(1),
3-15.
Valero, E., Adán, A., and Cerrada, C. (2012b). Automatic method for building
indoor boundary models from dense point cloud collected by laser
scanners. Sensors, 12(12), 16099–16115.
112
Valero, E., Adán, A., Bosché F. (2016). Semantic 3D Reconstruction of Furnished
Interiors Using Laser Scanning and RFID Technology. Journal of
Valero, E., Adan, A., and Cerrada, C., (2012a). Automatic construction of 3D basic-
semantic models of inhabited interiors using laser scanners and RFID
sensors. Sensors, 12(5), 5705-5724.
Volk, R., Stengel, J., & Schultmann, F. (2014). Building Information Modeling
(BIM) for existing buildings—Literature review and future needs.
Automation in construction, 38, 109-127.
Walsh, S. B., Borello, D. J., Guldur, B., & Hajjar, J. F. (2013). Data processing of
point clouds for object detection for structural engineering applications.
Computer‐Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, 28(7), 495-508.
Walters, R., Jaselskis, E., Zhang, J., Mueller, K., & Kaewmoracharoen, M.
(2008). Using scanning lasers to determine the thickness of concrete
pavement. Journal of construction engineering and management,
134(8), 583-591.
Wang, Q., Kim, M. K., Cheng, J. C., & Sohn, H. (2016). Automated quality
assessment of precast concrete elements with geometry irregularities
using terrestrial laser scanning. Automation in Construction, 68, 170-
182.
Wang, T. T., Jaw, J. J., Chang, Y. H., & Jeng, F. S. (2009). Application and
validation of profile–image method for measuring deformation of
tunnel wall. Tunnelling and underground space technology, 24(2), 136-
147.
Wang, T. T., Jaw, J. J., Hsu, C. H., & Jeng, F. S. (2010). Profile-image method for
measuring tunnel profile–Improvements and procedures. Tunnelling
and underground space technology, 25(1), 78-90.
Watson, A. (2011). Digital buildings–Challenges and opportunities. Advanced
Wu, Y., Kim, H., Kim, C., & Han, S. H. (2009). Object recognition in construction-
site images using 3D CAD-based filtering. Journal of Computing in
Civil Engineering, 24(1), 56-64.
Xiong, X., Adan, A., Akinci, B., & Huber, D. (2013). Automatic creation of
semantically rich 3D building models from laser scanner data.
Automation in Construction, 31, 325-337.
Yamaguchi, T., & Hashimoto, S. (2010). Fast crack detection method for large-size
concrete surface images using percolation-based image processing.
Machine Vision and Applications, 21(5), 797-809.
Yang, J., Park, M. W., Vela, P. A., & Golparvar-Fard, M. (2015). Construction
performance monitoring via still images, time-lapse photos, and video
streams: Now, tomorrow, and the future. Advanced Engineering
Informatics, 29(2), 211-224.
Zeibak-Shini, R., Sacks, R., Ma, L., & Filin, S. (2016). Towards generation of as-
damaged BIM models using laser-scanning and as-built BIM: First
estimate of as-damaged locations of reinforced concrete frame
113
members in masonry infill structures. Advanced Engineering
Informatics, 30(3), 312-32
Zhang, C., & Arditi, D. (2013). Automated progress control using laser scanning
technology. Automation in construction, 36, 108-116.
Zhang, G., Vela, P. A., Karasev P., and Brilakis, I. (2015) A Sparsity-Inducing
Optimization-Based Algorithm for Planar Patches Extraction from
Noisy Point-Cloud Data. Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure
Engineering 30 85–102, DOI: 10.1111/mice.12063
Zhang, X., Bakis, N., Lukins, T. C., Ibrahim, Y. M., Wu, S., Kagioglou, M., ... &
Trucco, E. (2009). Automating progress measurement of construction
projects. Automation in Construction, 18(3), 294-301.
Zhou, W., Whyte, J., & Sacks, R. (2012). Construction safety and digital design: A
review. Automation in Construction, 22, 102-111.
Zhu, Z., & Brilakis, I. (2010). Parameter optimization for automated concrete
detection in image data. Automation in Construction, 19(7), 944-953.
Zhu, Z., & Brilakis, I. (2010). Concrete column recognition in images and videos.
Journal of computing in civil engineering, 24(6), 478-487.
Zhu, Z., German, S., & Brilakis, I. (2010). Detection of large-scale concrete columns
for automated bridge inspection. Automation in construction, 19(8),
1047-1055.
Zhu, Z., German, S., & Brilakis, I. (2011). Visual retrieval of concrete crack
properties for automated post-earthquake structural safety evaluation.
Automation in Construction, 20(7), 874-883
Url-1 <https://www.asce.org/forensic-engineering/forensic-engineering> date
retrieved 17.02.2018
Url-2, <http://www.gsa.gov/ bim> date retrieved 12.01.2018
114
CURRICULUM VITAE
Name Surname: MAHMOUD M. H. ABUFOUDA
Place of Birth: Palestine
Date of Birth: 10/ 10/ 1990
E-mail: m.abufouda@gmail.com
EDUCATION:
B.Sc.: Civil Engineering. Islamic University of Gaza, Palestine
115

Yapay Zeka Ve Iş Sağlığı Güvenliği

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Yapay Zeka Ve Iş Sağlığı Güvenliği

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY  GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SCIENCE

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

A REVIEW OF THE APPLICATIONS OF VISION-BASED 3D AS-BUILT

Department of Civil Engineering

Construction Management Programme

A REVIEW OF THE APPLICATIONS OF VISION-BASED 3D AS-BUILT

Department of Civil Engineering

Construction Management Programme

Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Esin Ergen PEHLEVAN

İNŞAAT SEKTÖRÜNDE 3D AS-BUILT VERİ TOPLAMA

YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ

İnşaat Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı

Yapı İşletmesi Programı

Tez Danışmanı: Prof. Dr. Esin Ergen PEHLEVAN

Thesis Advisor : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esin Ergen PEHLEVAN ..............................

Jury Members : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Deniz ARTAN İLTER .............................

Asst. Prof. Dr. Gürşans Güven Işın ..............................

Prof. Dr. Name SURNAME ..............................

Gebze Institute of High Technology

Date of Submission : 04 May 2018

This thesis is written as completion to master degree of Construction Management

ABRMs : As-built Bibliometric Research Maps

Table 4.1: Number of articles selected from each journal. ....................................... 26

Figure 2.1: Selected Applications of Vision-based 3D Data Acquisition................... 7

During the last decades, Architecture, Engineering, Construction and Operation

Particularly, 3D vision-based as-built data acquisition technologies have been

Apparently, integrating vision-based 3D as-built data acquisition technologies in the

1.2 Research Goal and Objectives

1. A systematic methodology is synthesized to compile and categorize the recent

1.3 Research Scope and Methodology

1.4 Research Contributions

Albeit, the applications of data acquisition technologies in the construction industry

1.5 Review Limitations

1.6 Thesis Organization

Figure 2.1: Selected Applications of Vision-based 3D Data Acquisition.

Figure 2.2: Review Process.

2.2 Selection of Articles

As-Built Model As-damaged and

37 articles 29 articles 25 articles 7 articles

Extended to 49 Extended to 42 Extended to 40 Extended to 16

Figure 2.3: Articles Selection process.

3.1.1 Range-based 3D laser scanning

As mentioned, range-based methods are highly relatable to 3D laser scanners. 3D

In the core of the range-based measurement of optoelectronic technologies, there are

3.1.2 Image-based photo/videogrammetry

Image-based data collection is predominantly concerned in extracting data from

3.2 Data Processing

3.2.1 Registration of 3D collected data

3.2.2 Preprocessing of 3D collected data

3.2.2.2 Outlier removal

3.2.2.3 Clutter and noise reduction

3.3 Object Recognition

Combination of Data and

Capturing data to extract

Manual Identifcation (most

Feature-based Shape-based Material-based Statistical-based

The scale invariant Ant Colony

Speeded-up robust Classification

Figure 3.3: Classifications of data-driven object recognition approaches (edited and

For instance, as one of the data-driven approaches, shape-based matching approaches

In the model-driven recognition, the aim of the 3D as-built data acquisition is to

Other researchers focused on the material-based recognition to classify materials and

3.4 As-built 3D BIM Modeling