PeRPUSTAy UNIVERSITY PeRraRy: MECHANICS P. GANT, Bsc. Senior Mathematical Master, Felsted School ‘THIRD EDITION (Metricated) LONDON G. BELL AND SONS, LTD 1973G. BELL & Sons Lid. York House, Portugal Street, I ‘London WC2A 2HL, . Copyright © 1971 by \ - PREFAC All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be The book is intended to y reproduced, stored'in a retrieval system, suitable for those stndyir or transmitted, in any omy a by any Lower Sixth form] ms, electronic, mechanical, photocopy th form | wearing or ohare, witht te prot of the subject simply; to permission of the Copyright owners problems; and to give ins The main change in tk national System of its ( First Published 1949 Second Edition 1952 Se a * Reprinted 1956, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1966 16 tal a 1968, 1970 added that nautical miles Third Edition (Metricated) 1971 units approved by the Brit Reprinted 1972, 1973 SI units. They are, of cov Statics, which deals with bodies (in newtons) are grammes). The subject matter may here. In particular, it is pc soon as the earlier part of motion with constant acc: The Staties of Part IIT i before or in parall’ ith necessary to read Sevuon of force and defines the { on Moments may be rea: if this is preferred. ISBN 0 7135 15759 The Statics is ini af angle of Forces ani, » the is shown at the end of Ch: OA to the Parallelogram of Fc Filmset by Typesetting Services Ltd., Glasgow Sox the connection of the Para Printed in Great Britain by sketched. At the end of Cr Whitstable Litho, Straker Brothers Ltd. of that chapter may alsoi = ay poe 5, 1960 : ' i GA Hlasgow 60x mn oe Yo (Fxg PERPUSTAKAAN HINIVERSITE PUTRA MALAYSIA. PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION The book is intended to provide a first course in Mechanics and should be suitable for those studying the subject at Additional Mathematics or at Lower Sixth form level. ‘The writer has tried to present the main principles of the subject simply; to show how these may be applied to the solution of problems; and to give insight into the Mechanics of everyday events. The main change in the third edition is the introduction of the Inter- national System of Units (SI) throughout. There are no longer gravitational units; nor should there be confusion of weight with mass. Part II has been essentially rewritten to take account of this change. It should, perhaps, be added that nautical miles and knots which appear in Chapter 3 and 4 are Units approved by the British Standards Institution but not yet accepted as SI units. They are, of course, the units used in air and sea navigation. In Statics, which deals with systems of forces in equilibrium, the weights of bodies (in newtons) are given as data rather than their masses (in kilo- grammes) The subject matter may be treated in orders other than that presented here, In particular, itis possible to move on to the Dynamics of Part Il as soon as the earlier part of Chapter 1 has been read and the equations for motion with constant acceleration of Chapter 2 have been mastered, The Statics of Part IIL is independent of Parts I and TI and may be read before or in parallel with those parts. There is the proviso that it is first necessary to read Section A of Chapter 6 which discusses the various types of force and defines the SI unit, the newton. Again, most of Chapter 12 on Moments may be read before Chapter 10 on the Triangle of Forces, if this is preferred. The Statics is initially found on experimental results leading to the Tric angle of Forces and to the facts concerning parallel forces and moments, It is shown at the end of Chapter 10 that the Triangle of Forces is equivalent to the Parallelogram of Forces, which is the basis of theoretical statics; and the connection of the Parallelogram of Forces with Newtonian dynamics is sketched. At the end of Chapter 12 itis shown that the experimental results of that chapter may also be deduced from the Parallelogram of Forces, |* ee 1 vi Preface || Thus, although the approach is experimental, the logical structure of the + subject is also demonstrated, ‘The writer is firmly convinced that one cannot learn Mechanics by learning formulae; and accordingly the number of these is kept to a mini= mum. The approach is by numerical examples, but the arithmetic has been | kept simple so that attention may not be diverted from the Mechanics. ‘Numbers have been arranged to cancel frequently so that recourse to slide | rule or tables is only occasional. One particular simplification, the use of 10 |) rather than the more accurate 9°8 for the value of g, calls for comment | Apart from the advantage of simplified arithmetic, the 2% error is usually ‘unimportant at this stage; and is indeed irrelevant in projectile problems where air resistance is neglected. But it should be made clear to the pupil that the 10 is not an exact Metric multiplying factor; it happens to be a | round number conveniently near to the correct value. There is the dis advantage that pupils do not have the value 9:8 (which is correct to two significant figures over the earth’s surface) clearly impressed on their minds; but this may be remedied by using 9-8 in working some of the exercises. This is left to the discretion of the teacher and answers are based on g= 10. Tam again indebted to the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, the Joint Matriculation Board and the University of London for permission to reprint questions set in examinations. In many of these questions data have been changed to approximate ST equivalents for this edition, [| November, 1970 aS 1 Speed: Acceleration 2 Motion witt “insta 3. Addition of Velociti 4 Subtraction of Velo. 5 Projectiles “2), 6 Newton’s Laws “ 7 Work and Energy» 8 Power . 5 . @-9 Momentum and Col Impulse 10 The Equil’ mo 11 Resolution of Fore 42° Moments: Parallel 13. Centre of Gravity: 14 Simple Me “res Index 2 Answers to Examp¢ logical structure of the not learn Mechanics by if these is kept to a mini~ it the arithmetic has been ted from the Mechanics. 1 so that recourse to slide aplification, the use of 10 of g, calls for comment. 2, the 2% error is usually nt in projectile problems 2 made clear to the pupil actor; it happens to be a val There is the dis- (which is correct to two impressed on their minds; ‘ng some of the exercises. swers > based on g=10. dge S. .ools Examination Jniversity of London for tions. In many of these te SI equivalents for this PG. 1 2 3 ws 10 ul ~42" Moments: Parallel Forces ~:~ 13, 14 UNIVERSITY PERIANIAK seats CONTENTS PART I: KINEMATICS Speed: Acceleration and Retardation: The Speed-Time Graph Motion with Constant Acceleration Addition of Velocities Se Subtraction of Velocities: Relative Velocity . Projectiles <2) PART II: DYNAMICS Newton’s Laws “ Work and Energy 22 Power . .S Momentum and Collisions: Continuous Change of Momentum: Impulse : = omeils PART : STATICS ‘The Equilibrium of Forces acting through a Point Resolution of Forces: Friction a Centre of Gravity: Statical and Dynamical Properties _ Simple Machines : Index : Answers to Examples vii 14 29 38 52 2 92 101 108 13) 139 158 v 174 v 192 207 211ACCELERAT THE S$ Speed. We say tha. a spe travelled in equal intervals units of distance covered « us the speed in ths 9rresp 3 hours at unifor.. speed, speed, being derived fro (houts), is called a derived are derived from three fv time; the third is discussec units throughout, the sole SI Unit of Length, The int to m. The multiples 1 km We shall not use the B: approximately five eighth: {n air and sea navigatic related to latitude ond length of a great c.. .¢ arc (= dy of a degree) at the « is necessary for scientific the standard unit, the me ciently accurate fr “avig Bxac SI Unit of Time. The unit use the units | minute (1Sadiinasiiemeemmee| Part 1 KINEMATICS 1 ‘ SPEED: ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION: THE SPEED-TIME GRAPH Speed. We say that a speed is constant or uniform if equal distances are travelled in equal intervals of time. When a speed is uniform, the nurmto of units of distance covered divided by the number of units of time taken ives J the speed in the corresponding unit; e.g. if 120 kilometres are covered st 2 hours at uniform speed, the speed is 40 kilometres per hour. The unit ot speed, being derived from the units of distance (kilometres) and tine (outs), is called a derived unit. We shall find that all the units of mechanias are derived from three fundamental ones, two of these being length ant time; the third is discussed in Chapter 6. We use SI (Systéme International) Units throughout, the sole exceptions being the nautical mile and knot, SI Unit of Length, The international unit of length isthe metre, abbreviated to m. The multiples 1 km, 1 om, | mm are also in common use. We shall not use the British mile, but it is of interest that a kilometre is approximately five eighths of a mile. In air and sea navigation the unit of length is the nautical mile which is related to latitude and longitude. Originally, the nautical mile was the length of a great circle arc on the earth which subtends an angle of 1 minute (= dh of a degree) at the centre, Since the earth is not perfectly spherical it is necessary for scientific purposes to redefine the nautical mile in terms of the standard-unit, the metre; though the original definition remains suff ciently accurate for navigational purposes, Exactly 1 n mile= 1852 metres SI Unit of Time, The unit of time is the second, abbreviated to s. We also use the units 1 minute (min) and 1 hour (h). 12 MECHANICS || SI Unit of Speed. This is the metre per second, which may be conveniently | abbreviated to mjs, the solidus sign suggesting division of ‘distance by time’. The idea is a helpful one provided we remember that we do not actually divide the physical quantities; we divide a number of metres by @ number of séconds to obtain a number of metres per second. The fact that in elementary algebra we may write I/ second notation. We write * suggests a 1 metre per second = 1 m/s= 1 m s~ Both notations are acceptable; in this book we shall make use of the negative index notation, Other Units of Speed. (1) Another Metric unit in common use is the kilometre per hour. ~1 = 10x 60x 60 metres per hour 36 kilometres per hour 36 km h™? (2) The British unit of speed, the mile per hour, will not be used, but itis interesting to note the rather rough approximation. 1ms7?=2 mph thus 30 ms”! = 60 mph, The reader may deduce for himself that the familiar 30 mph speed limit signs on the roads are likely to be replaced by 50 km h™! signs in due course. (3) The unit used in air and sea navigation is the knot, which is a speed of 1 nautical mile per hour. To 3 significant figures 1 knot = I n mile per hour =0514ms? sims The abbreviation for knot is kn, though we shall usually use the complete word, 10ms “Average Speed. When a speed varies we often speak of the average speed of the travelling body. The average speed is obtained from the expression total distance travelled ‘olal time taken number of units of distance is divided by the number of units of time and the result expressed in the appropriate units of speed). (provided that this is read as meaning that the Note that it is not us for a journey by aver point A at 15 metres pe is no reason to suppose driver may have been have speeded up only di two hours by a punctt and finishes at rest, the is clearly not the averay these seemingly obviot cussed in Chapter 2, in of the initial and final is easy to forget that th Speed at an Instant. Suy of the previous paragr: whom notes tk ‘me ¢ lected it is possible to f from A to C, Ato D, A reading ftom B toware tened, the average spec to the speed of the-car summed up, mathemat shorter and shorter the speed at A is the limit to zero. More generall which the average spec as those time intervals rc We say that, an’ acce incr uniform if there are eq. is measured by the ch: units in the ch > of of time taken, gives us derived unit, e.g. if the to 80 metres per see metres per second pe!vhich may be conveniently + division of “distance by remember that we do not 2 a number of metres by a per second, write I/s suggests a Ims we shall make use of the : kilometre per hour. es per hour © hour, » Will not be used, but it is om. niliar 30 mph speed limit nh“* signs in due course. knot, which is a speed of stan use the complete k of the average speed of red . A the expression ad as meaning that the tber of units of time and ved). Acceleration and Retardation 3 Note that it is not usually the case that we can obtain the average speed for a joumey by averaging the initial and final speeds. If a car passes point 4 at 15 metres per second and point B at 35 metres per second: there is no reason to suppose that the average speed is 25 metres per second: the driver may have been travelling slowly for ninesenths of his journey and have speeded up only durin the last one-tenth; or he may have been delayed two hours by a puncture. More obviously stil, if the car starts from rest and finishes at rest, the average of the initial and final speeds is zero, which is clearly not the average speed for the journey. The reason for emphasising these seemingly obvious facts is that there is a most important ease, dic of the initial and final speeds; after dealing with this case at some length it is easy to forget that the result is not true in general, lected itis possible to find not only the average speed from to B, bur seo from A to C, 4 to D, A to E, and soon, where C, D, E,... are the observers reading from B towards A. It is found that as the distance from A is shor- tened, the average speed over that distance from A becomes closer and loser ‘o the speed of-the-car-asit passed A, as given by the speedometer. This i summed up, mathematically, by the statement that as the intervals become shorter and shorter the average speeds tend towards the speed at 4; or, the Speed at 4 is the limit of the average speeds over time intervals which fond to zero, More generally, the speed of a body at any instant is the limit to Which the average speeds over time intervals surrounding that instant tend, as those time intervals tend to zero, ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION ‘We say that, an acceleration is constant or uniform if there are equal increaseS of speed in equal intervals of time, Likewise, a_retardation is uniform ifthere are equal decreases of speed in equal intervals of time, Each is measured by the change of speed per unit of time. Hence the number of units in the change of speed which occurs, divided by the number of unite of time taken, gives us the acceleration or retardation in the corresponding derived unit, e-. ifthe speed increases uniformly from 60 metres per seems to 8 metres per second in 5 Seconds, then the acceleration ig 80—60 ‘metres per second per second, that is 4 metres per second per second. At7 ri | i | 1 4 MECHANICS first the reader may find it clearer to read this as 4 metres per second every second. To determine an acceleration we divide a umber of metres per second by a number of seconds, This suggests two acceptable notations for the unit of acceleration, namely 1 mjs? or 1ms” of which we shall adopt the latter. No other unit of acceleration will be used. If a car starts from rest with acceleration 1 m s~?, then in 30 seconds it gains a speed of 30 m s~, which is roughly 60 mph. This gives some idea Of the size of the unit of acceleration. Relation between Acceleration and Retardation. Let us now consider the connection between acceleration and retardation. A body with an accelera- tion 3 metres per second per second is increasing its speed by 3 metres per second every second; a body with a retardation 3 metres per second per second is decreasing its speed by 3 metres per second every second. It is clear that we are not dealing with two quite different quantities. The relation between increase and decrease is expressed by the use of algebraic signs, one being labelled plus and the other minus, and we naturally choose increase to be positive. Thus a retardation of 3 metres per second per second becomes an acceleration of — 3 metres per second per second, and this indicates that the body is losing 3 metres per second of its speed every second; or, if it has already been brought to rest and has reversed, that its speed is incteasing by 3 metres per second every second in the reverse direction. This latter possibility makes it clear that speed must also have a positive and a negative direction, and so also must displacement from the starting-point. Displacement measured in one direction is labelled positive, and in the opposite direction negative. Speed in the former direction is positive, and in the latter direction negative. Similarly, acceleration producing increase of speed int the positive direction is positive; and retardation, which pro- duces decrease of speed in this direction or increase of speed in the opposite direction, is negative. With this convention of signs we may, where con- venient, economise in words by using only the term acceleration, thereby including retardation; and economise in algebra by making the same formula suffice for both acceleration and retardation. ‘Average Acceleration and Acceleration at an Instant. When an acceleration varies we may speak of the average acceleration of the moving body. The i average acceleration is (provided this is corree is of little interest; for rest at B, the average a the performance of the the investigation a litth ‘Suppose that we are pass a point 4,.and the We may then work ot second time intervals ¢ we find that as the tim accelerations over tho which is the ac srati: In the last section we in a car note he sp clearly to the eye the + data to draw a graph graph will only be app known, but a smooth « reliable. The conditio: sufficient in number; a graph are well chosen. is fairly accurate and \ We now propose to: from the graph; in fac tion to the acceleratio given interval of time needed. Ordinate, An ordinat parallel to the speed ¢ Area under the Graph time axis, the graph it Gradient, By the grad+4 metres per second every 1er of metres per second by le notations for the unit of s?, then in 30 seconds it mph. This gives some idea Let ‘now consider the A body with an accelera- sits speed by 3 metres per 3 metres per second per ‘cor very second. It is ‘nt quantities. The relation use of algebraic signs, one naturally choose increase 3 per second per second second, and this indicates 3 speed every second; or, ‘eversed, that its speed is the reverse direction, This, Iso have a positive and a t from the starting-point, led positive, and in the direction is positive, and ation producing increase I rete tion, which pro- € of syced in the opposite ens we may, where con- xm acceleration, thereby a by making the same ion. at, When an acceleration of the moving body. The ear OMIVERSIT| Pepraniae Levi ORS BOTA MALAYSSS The Speed-Time Graph aoe 5 average acceleration is obtained from the expression 10tal change of speed (provided this is correctly interpreted). In practice, an aver ie faken is of tle interest for estanee ia car starts from rete sation rest at B, the average acteleraton is 240, which clearly ea the performance of the car. However, for theoretical purposes nae ute OF the investigation a little further, We pursue Suppose that we are in the car and that we read the speedometer as we pass a point 4,.and then every five seconds fora while, noting the readings We may then work out the average accelerations over the 5,10, 15 Second time intervals since A was passed. Exactly as with average speeds, we find that as the time intervals become shorter and shorter, the average accelerations over those intervals tend more and more closely to's limit which is the acceleration of the cat as it passed THE SPEED-TIME GRAPH In the last section we considered an illustration in which a man travelling in a car noted the speedometer reading every five seconds, To display clearly to the eye the variation in speed of the car, we may well use these data to draw a graph in which the speed is plotted against the time, The graph will only be approximate since the speed at intermediate times is not Known, but a smooth curve drawn through the known points can be fairly reliable. The conditions for a reliable result are, first, that the data are sufficient in number; and second, that the scales used along the axes of the sraph are well chosen. Under these conditions we may draw a graph which 's fairly accurate and which presents the important facts clearly 10 the eye. We now propose to show that itis possible to extract far more information from the graph; in fact, that from it we can determine a close approxima- tion to the acceleration at any instant and to'the distance travelled in any given interval of time. We first explain three technical terms which ao needed. Ordinate. An ordinate of the graph is a line drawn from a point on it Parallel to the speed axis and extending to the time axis, Area under the Graph. An area under the graph is an area bounded by the time axis, the graph itself, and by two ordinates. Gradient. By the gradient of a line we mean the ratio between the numberi 3 squares parallel to the speed axis are « 6 MECHANICS of units of time parallel to the time axis. We do not mean the ratio of the numbers of squares parallel to the two axes. It follows that if the same line is plotted on two graphs drawn to different scales, the gradient is the same in each case. We give an example to make sure that this point is clearly understood. i { of units of speed parallel to the speed axis and the corresponding number -quivalent to 12 units. 7 squares parallel to the time axis are equivalent to 14 units. eo 12. Gradient of line = 73 ‘To Find the Acceleration at any Instant. We wish to find the acceleration at, say, the moment when the car had the speed indicated by the point A on the graph. We call this finding the acceleration at 4. Speed Time Fig. 2 Suppose that B is a point near A on the graph. Draw in the lines AC and BC shown in Figure 2. Then BC gives the change of speed between A and Band AC gives the time taken. In each case we read BC and AC as numbers of units and not as numbers of squares, Thus the gradient of the chord AB equals the ratio BC/AC. Also, BC/AC is numerically equal to the average acceleration between A and B. . Numerically, grad Aand B. Now consider what nearer and nearer to t] nearly into its limiting The average acceleratic at A. But in each succe are equal, as stated abe to limits which are une ©. Numerically, grad Practical Proce: (1) Place the ruler « ive, along the graph at Q) Draw in the tar parallel to the 2d ay (3) Note the numbe and time. (4) Calculate the gra required acceleration. It is hardly necessar We regard this as aca To Find the Distance 1 of motion with constar Fig. 3) and the graph.c We wish to find the « to the points A and B points. Then, i: reg: of metres per second gives the distance trave number of metres cov number of seconds. Bu area of the rec gle « under the graph in thi: the area under the gre to the distance travelle We now propose to and we return therefor1e corresponding number aot mean the ratio of the y pees 3 10 20 Time(s) Fig. 1 > find the acceleration at, icated hy the point A on A! Draw in the lines AC and of sj between 4 and 1 BCand AC as numbers stadient of the chord AB ally equal to the average The Speed-Time Graph 7 “- Numerically, gradient of chord AB = average acceleration between Aand B, Now consider what happens as we move the point & along the graph nearer and nearer to the point 4. The chord AB moves more and more nearly into its limiting position, which is the tangent to the graph a ‘he average acceleration becomes nearer and nearet 10 the acceleraticg at A. But in each successive position the gradient and average acceleration are equal, as stated above. It is impossible for two equal quantities to tend to limits which are unequal Numerically, gradient of tangent at A= acceleration at A. Practical Procedure () Place the ruler as nearly as possible in the tangent position at A, ive, along the graph at A (see Fig. 2) 2) Draw in the tangent and mark where the ruler crosses two lines Parallel to the speed axis and reasonably far apart (about 4 ot 5 cm). G) Note the numbers of units corresponding to the increases of speed and time. (4) Calculate the gradient of the tangent. This is numerically equal to the required acceleration. Xt is hardly necessary to add that retardations are dealt wit similarly We regard this as a case of negative acceleration and negative gradient. To Find the Distance Travelled. We begin by considering the simpler case of motion with constant speed. All the ordinates of the graph are equal (see Fig. 3) and the graph consists of a line parallel to the time axis. ‘We wish to find the distance travelled between the instants corresponding to the points 4 and B on the graph. AC and BD are the ordinates at these Points. Then, if we regard CD as a number of seconds and AC as a number of metres per second, the product ACx CD gives the distance travelled; for it multiplies the number of metres covered per second by the number of seconds. But AC x CD also gives the area of the rectangle ABCD, which. is the area under the graph in this case. We conclude that © Time p the area under the graph is equal numerically Fie 3 to the distance travelled. We now propose to show that this result holds for all types of motion and we return therefore to the general case. We imagine the journey to be Speed| tl | | 8 MECHANICS divided up into a large number of small steps, as indicated by the ordinates drawn in Figure 4; for definiteness we have taken 21 of them, Speed Time Fig. 4 The area of the first rectangle gives the distance which would be covered if the speed remained constant at its value at A over the first time interval; since the time interval is small, this approximate distance differs little from the distance actually travelled. Similarly, the area of the second rectangle gives the distance which would be covered if the speed throughout the second interval remained equal to its value at the beginning of that interval. This is approximately equal to the distance actually travelled in the interval; and so on. "The sum of the areas of all the rectangles therefore gives an approxima- tion to the distance travelled in the interval from A to B. The greater the number of rectangles the better is the approximation. In fact, as the number is increased the sum of the areas tends to a limit which is the total distance travelled. But it is plain that as the number of rectangles is increased the sum of the areas tends to a limit which is the area under the graph between A and B. Quite clearly these two limits cannot be different. :. Numerically, distance travelled between A and B=area under the graph between the ordinates at A and B. Practical Procedure—Method 1 Speed Time Fig. 5 (1) By lines parallel t containing only comple remainder containing o: (2) Count the numbe squares. (3) Estimate the nun equivalent. (4) Add to find out ¢ (5) Calculate the dist the required distance: eg. If the sides of a 5 represents the distance Practical Proce =—h called Simpson’s Rule, area by giving an avera Suppose that 3 equa being boundari f the by dand the lengths of Simpson's Rule gives Note that what we d height, which is obtain over. This process is ca the middle ordinate fo stage. An analogy wot four of whom had the The rule mav--asily vided these are ually divide the area into th are common to two su ‘The rule becomes: as where d remains the di ‘The extension to al should now be clear. Note that the answeindicated by the ordinates 21 of them. 2 which would be covered ver first time interval; distance differs little from gives the distance which secor ‘interval remained al. Tiss is approximately srval; and so on. fore gives an approxima- 1A to B. The greater the on. In fact, as the number which is the total distance is increased the sum of \e graph between A and B. nt. and B=area under the The Speed-Time Graph 9 (1) By lines parallel to the axes, divide the area into two parts, the one containing only complete large squares (usually 1 cm by tom) and the remainder containing only parts of large squares. (2) Count the number of large squares in the section containing complete squares. (3) Estimate the number of large squares to which the other section is equivalent. (4) Add to find out the total number of large squares. (5) Calculate the distance corresponding to one large square and hence the required distance e.g. If the sides of a square represent 5 ms“! and 2 seconds, the area represents the distance travelled in 2 seconds at 5 m s~!, that is 10 metres, Practical Procedure—Method 2. In this method we make use of a rule, called Simpson’s Rule, which leads to an approximation to the required area by giving an average ordinate for the graph. Suppose that 3 equally spaced ordinates are drawn, the first and last being boundaries of the given area. We denote the distance apart of these by d and the lengths of the ordinates by 0;, 03, 05 Simpson's Rule gives as an approximation to the area: 0, +40, +03 Area =d x “T4e1 oe otters Note that what we do is to multiply the length of the base by an average height, which is obtained by counting the even (middle) ordinate four tinies over. This process is called weighting the average; it gives added weight to the middle ordinate for reasons into which we cannot enter at the present stage. An analogy would be the finding of the average height of six boys, four of whom had the same heights and the other two different ones. The rule may easily be extended to any odd number of ordinates, pro- vided these are equally spaced. Thus if thereaare seven ordinates, we may divide the area into three sub-areas of the type just considered; 0, and 0, are common to two such areas and are now counted twice. The rule becomes: dx Li t402+203+404+205+405+05 Area dx Tay pdb eT where d remains the distance apart of the extreme ordinates. The extension to any other odd number of equally spaced ordinates should now be clear. Note that the answer is approximate,ves a 1000373862 10 Example of Calculation, MECHANICS the data of Fig. 6, we calculate the approxi- mate distance travelled in the interval 5 seconds~25 seconds as follows: oamclaamaeT 3 Ordinate | Multiplier | Product 5 mel ia eke 2 | 1 20 Sn 30 4 | 10 ¥ a) 3 | 8 Ee 0 4 | 160 sos 10 1S 20 2 26 1 26 Time (s) L — Fig. 6 Touls | 12 | 398 Weighted average speed Distance travelled in given interval = °78 x 20 metres = 660 metres ‘Change of Units. Suppose that the speed in kilometres per hour is plotted against the time in minutes and that we are required to find from the graph accelerations in metres per second per second and the distance in metres, (1) The gradient of any tangent gives the acceleration in kilometres per hour per minute, 30 km h”* per min, say. 30 km ho? per min = 32510 my go per min 3010 = 200 ms? per seoond =0-14ms? (2) One large square indicates a certain speed in kilometres per hour carried on for a certain time in minutes, 5 km h~? for 2 min, say. Distance travelled at 5 km h~! in 2 min 1 large square = 167 m (3) Ifwe are using Simpson’s Rule, we obtain the weighted average speed 4 in kilometres per hour; : in hours. Alternatively y and multiply by the time speeds to metres per sec 1 The speed of a body Time (s) Speed (m s~ Draw a speed-time graph ar and (ii) the accelerations aj Question 5) 2 The table gives the « Time (6) Speed (im Use Simpson’s Rule to find \ 3 The speed Time (s) Speed (m s+) (© Draw a speed-time gra minute (i), Use the graph to find (iif) Use Simpson’s Rule tc 4 The speed of an elec ‘Time (s) 5 | Speed (ms“!) ° 10 Find by Simpson's Rule th 4 interval car i 5 In Question 1, read Rule to find the average sp 6 The table gives the + Time (6) ° Speed (ms~*}, | 40 Draw a speed-timé graph 40 seconds (iii) after 95 sec | Find the distance trav Find the average spee 4 7 The speed 1. mote { Time (, Speed (km h*) Estimate from a speed-time the average speed over thi Find also the retardat Read off the speed aft. (in kmh"); and deduce ti, we calculate the approxi- s-25 seconds as follows: __ | Multiplier | Product 1 4 2 4 1 i 398 nt ms 33ms"* 320 mere 660 r-tres metres per hour is plotted ‘ed to find from the graph ad the distance in metres. Aeration in kilometres per per min er second din *“ometres per hour * for - min, say. te weighted average speed The Speed-Time Graph ul in kilometres per hour; and we multiply this by the time interval expressed in hours. Alternatively we convert the average speed to metres per second and multiply by the time interval expressed in seconds; we do not change all speeds to metres per second before averaging, EXERCISE 1 (1-8) 1 The speed of a body moving in a straight line is given in the following table Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8 0 Speed(ms™) 0 3 8 14 172g Draw a speed-time graph and us it to find (9) the distance travelled in the 10 seconds; and (i) the accelerations after 3 seconds and after 7 seconds. (Keep your graph for Question 5.) 2 The table gives the speed of a car at 5 second intervals Time (3) Os 10 15 20 Speed(ms') 22 12 8628 Use Simpson's Rule to find the average speed and the distance travelled 3 The speed of a car in metres per second is given in the following table. Time (s) 0 5 10 1s 2 25 30 Spedims") 5 1422882629 (© Draw a speed-time graph and use it to estimate the distance travelled in the half minute, (i) Use the graph to find the accelerations after 8 seconds and after 25 seconds, (i) Use Simpson’s Rule to find the average speed and the distance travelled 4 The speed of an electric train is given by the following table: ‘Time (s) S10 15 2025 3035 ay gs Speed (ms) 10 2B 44 54 52 4 2 ot , 5 In Question 1, read off the Speeds after 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 seconds and ‘use Simpson's Rule to find the average speed and the distance travelled in the 10 second interval, © The table gives the speed of a car at intervals of 15 seconds. ‘Time (s) 0 1S 30 45° 60 75g 105 120 Speed (m s~*) 40 50 50 3405, 35 39 37 Foe peed-time graph and from it read off the accelerations () initially, (i) ater 40 seconds (iii) after 95 seconds. Find the distance travelled by square counting. Find the average speed and distance travelled by Simpson’s Rule. 7 The speed of a motor car is recorded as follows. Time (s) o 2 5 10 IS 20 0 Speed (km h~ 3 40 3020 14 10 5 Estimate from a speed-time graph the distance travelled in the ‘half minute and deduce the average speed over this interval. . Find also the retardations (in ms”) after 2 seconds and after IS seconds, Read off the speed after 25 seconds and find by Simpson's Rule the average speed. (in km h~); and deduce the distance travellednad n MECHANICS 8 The speed of a car is given by Time (min) 0 $1 uo2 2 3 3 4 Speed (kmh!) 10 20 2 34 33 2® au | 0 Draw a spestime graph and eximate from tthe aceeration in ms~?) after $ and } minutes. Find the average speed (in km h~‘, by Simpson’s Rule); and the distance travelled by both methods. A Special Case. We consider now the case when the speed-time graph is @ straight line It is plain (See Fig. 1) that there are equal increases (or decreases) of speed in equal intervals of time. Hence the motion is uniformly accelerated (or retarded). We note that the tangent at any point is the line itself, and that, in agreement with earlier results, the gradient is constant and numerically equal to the acceleration. We also note that we can find both area and grad- ient exactly in this case, so that the results involve no approximation. EXERCISE 1 (9-11) 9 A body is uniformly accelerated and its speeds after 3 and 10 seconds are 11 and 18 metres per second. Draw the speed-time graph and from it obtain the acceleration and the distance travelled between the given two times. 10 A car accelerates uniformly from rest at 1-5 m s~? for 20 seconds and then retards uniformly at 2:2 m s~? for 8 seconds. Draw the speed-time. graph and obtain from it the final speed and the distance travelled. 1A train starts from rest at one station and accelerates uniformly at 0-3 m s~* for 2 minutes. The train then travels uniformly for 3 minutes atthe speed it has attained and finally retards to rest in the next station, the entire journey taking 6} minutes. Draw the speed-time graph and find the distance apart (in km) of the two stations. Distance-Time Graph. If we draw a graph in which the distance travelled is plotted against the time taken, we see, by arguments similar to those of this chapter, that the speed at any instant is given by the gradient of the tangent at the corresponding point. No significance attaches, however, to the afea under the graph. ‘Acceleration-Time Graph. By reading off accelerations from a speed-time graph we may obtain the data necessary for plotting an acceleration-time graph. The area under an acceleration-time graph may be shown, by argu- ments similar to those of this chapter, to represent the change of speed between the times indica cance attaches to the gre 12. Drawa distance-tinr Time (8) 0 Distance (m) 0 Estimate the speeds after § 13, 14 Draw acceleratismo o3 3b 3°28 2 uO erations (in ms) after } and sul); and the distance travelled 1 the speed-time graph is a increases (or decreases) of on is uniformly accelerated nts the ine itself, and that, constant and numerically anfi, doth area and grad- ve no approximation. after 3 and 10 seconds are 11 ‘acceleration and the distance (s"? for 20 seconds and then 2 final speed and the distance lerates uniformly at 0-3 ms? utes at the speed it has attained re joumey taking 6} minutes. art (in km) of the two stations. ch the “istance travelled is snts si. .iar to those of this the gradient of the tangent shes, however, to the atea vations from a speed-time 1g an acceleration-time 4 may be shown, by argu- sent the change of speed The Speed-Time Graph B between the times indicated by the bounding ordinates. No special signifi- cance attaches to the gradient of the graph. EXERCISE 1 (12-14) 12 Drawa distance-time graph for the motion given by: ime 0 S 10 15 2 25° 30. 35 49 Distance(m) 0 6 8 9 10 12 16 23 35 Estimate the speeds after 5 and 30 seconds. 13, 14 Draw acceleration-time graphs for the motions given in questions 1 and 3,2 MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION ‘The case of motion which is uniformly accelerated or retarded is both important and easy to handle. It is important because many accelerations are approximately constant in practice, and we may obtain wseful results by assuming them to be constant; in particular, we approximate to the motion of bodies thrown into the air by assuming them to have a constant down- ward acceleration. The case is easy to handle because we can find equations which reduce the problem to one of algebra and arithmetic as soon as it has been analysed. ‘As was pointed out in Chapter 1, a retardation may be regarded as a negative acceleration. Consequently it is unnecessary to deal with retarded motion separately. ‘The Five Quantities Involved. We find equations cnnecting fivg, quantities involyed in the motion of a body, namely, its initial speed, its final speed, its accelé¥ation (supposed constant in this chapter), the distane covered and the timétaken. The equations each contain four of these five quantities and omit the fifth, so that five equations may be expected. In practice, however, the initial speed is almost invariably involved in a problem and we do not obtain the equation which omits it. Convention. It is convenient to retain the same five letters for the above five quantities throughout. ‘We suppose the constant acceleration to be a metres per second per second, the initial speed w metres per second, the final speed v metres per second, the time ¢ seconds, and the distance covered s metres. The reader should note that this is no more than a comention, ard that in solving a problem he may use any symbol he chooses to represent any of the quantities involved, He is not bound to reserve just one symbol for one quantity; so that if there are two distances involved in a question he may well call one x metres and one y metres. 4 M Speed-Time Equation (E: a metres per second per metres per second every Hence the gain of spe But the gain of speed In a given motion of fixed quantities; the fina the equation to find any given, there is a sense in speed after any time. W: uandaare const”, Tr by which we often refer Distance-Time T ation wwe use the fect, ourainec with a constant accelere ‘The graph cuts the sp when the time is zero, which the motion is tim _ From our previous « isa. It follows that the inc at units, Thus, from Fig. 7, definition, we easily ob Again using ..- resu the area under the gray Regarding the area a obtain Alternatively, regard angled triangle, we obt.CCELERATION rated or retarded is both ecauise many accelerezions ray obtain useful results by app ‘mate to the motion to have a constant down- ause we can find equations uithmetic as soon as it has ion n. J be regarded as a ‘sary to deal with retarded connecting five, quantities al speed, its final speed, its the distanke covered and of these five quantities and 2ted. In practice, however, a problem and we do not five . _ers for the above a metres per second per 2 final speed » metres per med « ~etres. ana _avention, arid that a00ses to represent any of e just one symbol for one ved in a question he may Motion with Constant Acceleration Is ‘Speed-Time Equation (Equation 1). By definition, the constant acceleration a mettes per second per second means that there is a gain Gi speed of a metres per second every second. Hence the gain of speed in # seconds is at metres per second But the gain of speed in that time is v—u metres per second, “ v—u=at y=utati ae @ ue In a given motion of this kind the infidf' peed and the acceleration are fixed quantities; the final speed vaties withthe time, Thus, although we wee the equation to find any one of the four quantities when the other three see siven, there is a sense in which it may be regarded as a formula giving the speed after any time, When looked at in this way, v and / are variables and twand a are constants. Thisis the reason for the name ‘Speed-Time Equation" by which we often refer to the equation Distance-Time Equations (Equations 2 and 3). To obtain these’ equations Wwe use the fect, obtained in Chapter 1, that the speed-time graph for motion with a constant acceleration is a straight line. The graph cuts the speed axis at a height u units, since this is the speed when the time is zero, i.e. at the instant from which the motion is timed. From our previous discussion the gradient — |Speed | isa dl > It follows that the increase in the ordinate is, at units, ml Thus, from Fig. 7, instead of from the pil definition, we easily obtain Equation 1 again, Fig.7 re )) Again using the results of Chapter 1, we find the distance by means of the area under the graph. . Regarding the area as a trapezium, with parallel sides « and units, we obtain Sait. -. Q Altematively, regarding the area as a rectangle surmounted by a right- angled triangle, we obtain s=ut+dat? - 2. @16 MECHANICS Connection between the Equations. It should be observed that these three equations do not imply that we have discovered three independent facts about the motion. There are only two of these, one which we may call the ‘gradient-acceleration’ fact, and one the ‘distance-area’ fact. We find that from Equations 1 and 2 we can obtain Equation 3; and from Equations | and 3 we can obtain Equation 2. We show how the first of these is done and leave the other to the readereas an éxercise in algebra. veuta . . . . a Substitute for v in Equation 2 ututat a) 4t(2u-+at) observed that these three ed three independent facts one which we may call the ice-area’ fact. We find that n 3; and from Equations 1 he first of these is done and algebra. ay xt @) te doe=not enter into this twee. _quations 1 and 2, 2 former process and leave ay (4) ons for use in problems, ily two independent facts. wher _.e distance is not Speed-Distance Equation ance-Time Equations, the the other for use when it | an: Motion with Constant Acceleration n Solution of Problems. Before beginning the writing out reader should mentally plan the whole solution of see eae sort out the data and make himself clear what is requite oe the solution requires several stages of working, the ozder of the Stages must be decided there must be no muddling on in the hope that the answer willemerge, The solution itself must be clearly presented. ts necessary 44 explain by 4 statement what a symbol represents before that symbol is wed sh to remember that the final answer is a precise verbal statement and nev the last ine of an equation. All steps and rough working should be shows The best test of the adequacy of a solution is whether it is possible for anyone i has written the answer of the solution, above rules are that numerical calculations, details of cancelling and steps in the solution of equations are sometimes omitted for the sake of brevity; the reader should not make these omissions in his own solutions. Fawations, An equation is a statement that two things are equal, We soine- times use an equation to state that two physical quantities are equal and Sometimes that two numbers are equal. As examples we may give two equations which have already occurred in the text. @ occur on either side. It is equations of this second type which we manipulate and solve and to which we refer in the remainder of this section Form of an Equation. When we use a standard ‘equation, i.e. one which has been justified once and for all, we make this clear by substituting numbers into it exactly as it appears. We'do not omit terms we see to be zero nor do we make any simplification in the first line; Subsequently, we simplify as quickly as possible. Thus, from the equation 10? = 07-23)18 MECHANICS the reader should conclude that we are dealing with a body which acceler- ates uniformly at 3 metres per second per second from rest to a speed of 10 metres per second and that the distance travelled is x metres. He should begin his solutions in similar manner. Note that itis the form of the equation and not the symbols or numbers used in it which makes it recognisable. The re should see that the four equations of the present chapter have the forms C=O )+0 00) C+) 6) =OFO0) C=O HOLY (PRC PHA) Use of Units. A physical quantity is measured as a certain number of units of that quantity and it is only specified when both number and units are stated. It is incorrect to give a length as 3, though we may give it as 3 m, 3cm or 3 km, Thus the reader should be careful not to assume an unknown speed x, but a speed x ms~! or x kmh” !. The ‘’ ig a plain number, not a speed. At a later stage it is sometimes convenient to omit units, not because units are not required, but because it is understood that some definite system is in use throughout. This device, however, is one only to be used by those who have already mastered the correct use of units, and it must not be used at the present stage. The reader should follow the worked examples closely in this matter. Algebraic symbols are also used in a sense slightly different from the above. A symbol is often used as a name for a quantity as well as to measure its magnitude. Thus we speak of velocities wand v in Chapters 3 and 4, the different letters being. used to distinguish one velocity from the other, as well as to indicate that the magnitudes are u units and v units. Similarly, we speak of forces P, Q, R in Chapter 10 and subsequently; and the gravita- tional acceleration g in the present chapter. Example 1 A car travelling at 72 km h~? has the brakes applied so that it retards uniformly to rest in 50 metres, Find the retardation and time taken. Solution Initial speed 2 Kem hh” be 0 ms ‘Suppose acceleration a S ms 10? +2 (a) (50) Mot Retardation ‘Suppose time to pull up Time to pull up Discussion There are two parts to tk setardation we usr eq) the equation whicu omit “Note that we take the retardation, though we k native is to suppe~~the r. tion is —x ms. and acceleration which ape: point is borne in mind ei to decide which he prefe Note that we first cha the application of the ren Example 2 ‘A cyclist freewheels fror acceleration $m s~? and retardation } ms”. Ho to pedal? Solution Suppose speed at foot o Speed at foot of hill ‘Suppose distance freewt Distance freewheeled uywith a body which acceler- nd from rest to a speed of slled is x metres. He should tis the form of the equation makes it recognisable, The e present chapter have the ¥ 3a certain number of units ‘oth number and units are igh we may give it as 3 m, fot te -ssume an unknown “i plain number, not © omit units, not because tstood that some definite er, is one only to be used use of units, and it must hould follow the worked lightly different from the intity as well as to measure vin Chapters 3 and 4, the slocity from the other, as and v units. Similarly, we quent'v; and the gravita- plied so that it retards on and time taken, po Motion with Constant Acceleration 400 100 - ~4 =4ms? seconds 19 Retardation. Suppose time to pull up 22040, 50=10r nts = 5 seconds Time to oull up Discussion There ate two parts to the question and either may come first. To find the ‘lardation we use the equation which omits the time: to find the ime we uss the equation which omits the acceleration (or retardation). — Note that we take the acceleration as an unknown quantity and not the retardation, though we know a negative answer will be obtained. The alter. native isto suppose the retardation to be, say, xm ¢~2, o that the accelera. tion is —x ms_?, and to substitute —"x into the equation (for it is the acceleration which appears there, not the retardation). Provided this latter point is borne in mind either method is quite sound, and it is for the reader to decide which he prefers. Note that we first change the speed to metres per second, and note also the application of the remarks on units, statements and form of an equation, Example 2 A cyclist freewheels from rest down an incline of length 100 metres with acceleration 4m s~* and continues to freewheel up the opposite slope with retardation 3 m s~?. How many metres are covered before it is necessary to pedal? Solution Suppose speed at foot of hill =oms?! + 2(8)(100) 00 Speed at foot of hill Suppose distance freewheeled uphill Oms7! =s metres 0? = 107 +2(-3)5 es + 0= 100-35 v= 67 Distance freewheeled uphill = 67 metresa 20 MECHANICS Discussion ‘The example brings out even more clearly than the last how the form of an equation may be used to save much verbal explanation, and how it makes the solution easy to follow. 5 EXERCISE 2 (1-15) 1 A car approaches traffic lights at the red at 18m st, and the driver pulls uP in 27 metres. Find the retardation, supposed uniform, and the time taken to pull up. i sroplane takes of at a spend of Om s°# after accelerating uniformly frof rest for 450 metres, What is the acceleration, and how long is the aeroplane in taking off? 3 A motor-car travels 80 metres while accelerating uniformly from 15 to 25 m Find the time taken and the acceleration, 4 The driver of an express train travelling at 108 km h7# sees on the same track 600 metres ahead of him a goods train at rest. If the goods train remains at rest, ‘what is the least retardation that must be applied to the express traia so a8 to avoid a collision? ¥ 5 Acar doubles its speed in travelling 960 metres in 80 seconds, the acceleration ‘being uniform, What is its speed at the beginning of the interval? 6 A car accelerates uniformly from a speed of 10 ms~* to a speed of 30m s™* in travelling 250 metres. What is its speed when 125 metres have bem covered? 7A train travelling at 25m s~! is brought to rest at a station, the brakes having been applied at a distance of 500 metres from the station. Find the retardation pro- duced by the brakes, assuming this to be uniform. If the brakes had been applied at a distance of 250 metres from the station, at ‘what speed would the train have passed through the station? 8 A train starts from rest in one station, accelerating tiniformly at $m s~? for 2 minutes, then travels at uniform speed for 3 minutes, and finallyretards uniformly for 1 minute to rest in the next station. What is the top speed attained and how far apart are the stations? 9A train starts from a station A and, after accelerating uniformly at $m s~? for 40 seconds, travels at a uniform speed until itis uniformly retarded for 30 seconds to rest at station B. If the total time for the journey is 2 minutes, find the distance (in kilometres) between A and B. 10 A train starts from a station and accelerates uniformly for 40 seconds until its speed is 90 km h#. It then travels uniformly for 5 minutes when it retards uniformly for 750 metres to rest at the next station. Find the distance (in km) between the stations and the uniform retardation (in m s~?). 11 A train has a top speed of 108 km h~! and is capable of a maximum accclera- tion | ms”? and a maximum retardation 3 m s~?. It starts from rest at one station and finishes at rest in the next, the journey being performed as rapidly as possible. The stations being 900 metres apart, find how far the train travels at top peed and the time taken for the journey. 12 A train travelling at a uniform speed of 90 km h™* passes a station A and 6 ‘minutes later the brakes are applied so that the train comes to rest, under a uniform Mo retardation, at a station B w: to travel from A to B and thi 13 A railway locomotiv ms7?, It starts from rest at ¢ ately retards to rest at the ne apart are the stations? -14-A train, starting fror speed of 36m"! at a point produce uniform retardation! FFind the distance of B from 15 A train is scheduled of 30 m s~*. If during this pa retardation in 900 metres, a in 2 minutes to the schedules is then behind its sc’ led Example 3 A train starts fro. esti \Speed 180-2 Time Fig. 8 Solution Suppose top speed and time taken in ac ‘Time taken in retare Consider the first rt 0 Consider the second par Simplify. Solve for ».the last how the form of an ‘lanation, and how it makes im s~', and the driver pulls up , and the time taken to pull up. ~ after accelerating uniformly xd how Iong is the aeroplane in uniformly from 15 to 25 ms“! km '~ sees on the same track ye ges train remains at rest, 'e express train so as to avoid a in 80 seconds, the acceleration simer 17 'ms" 0 a speed of 30 ms“! tres have been covered? ata station, the brakes having on. Find the retardation pro- 50 metres from the station, at ation? erating uniformly at $m s~? 8, and finally retards uniformly »p speed attained. and how far lerating uniformly at tm s~? ‘omly retarded for 30 seconds minutes, find the distance (in form 140 seconds until its ates Wuen it retards uniformly 2¢ (in km) between the stations able of a maximum accelera- starts vm rest at one station eda. _sidly as possible. The Wels at top speed and the time 1h" passes a station 4 and 6 ‘mes to rest, under a uniform Motion with Constant Acceleration 21 {Cardation, at gation 2 which is 95 km fom A, Find the time taken i to travel fom A to B andthe retardation (nm s“*) produced a brakes" 13 A railway locomotive can accelerate a train at 4m 4-2 and retard i m2 It starts from rsa on sation, attains tl ged of 362" wd it at IE Hye aan a How ng ae egeg a e ‘apart are the stations? ‘ow far 24 A fran stating from rest at A with uniform acceleration f m 2 speed of 36m s~" at a point 1-08 km from A. The brakes are thez, appli produce uniform retardation numerically equal to 3f, and at B the pees Find the distance of B from 4 and the time taken between 4 and 5 A train is scheduled totravela certain portion of its journey at a uniform speed of 30 ms”. If during this part ofthe journey it has to be brought to rest eae constant returdation in 900 metres, and after stopping for 3 minutes is uniformly accelerated in J anitutes tothe scheduled speed of 30 m s~*, find by how many mingtes nc train is then behind its scheduled time ied s0 as to is 18 ms! ® Example 3 A train starts from rest in one station, accelerating uniformly at 03 m s~? to top speed. Power is immediately shut speed off and brakes applied so that the train retards uniformly at 0-6 m s~? to rest in the next station, The complete journey takes 3 minutes. Find the top speed attained, Solution Suppose top speed =oms and time taken in accelerating = 1 seconds Time taken in retarding = (180-1) seconds Consider the first part of the motion. v=0+751 ee eS ay Consider the second part of the motion, O=0+(—7§)(180~p Q) Simplify. v=ae ae @ v= (180-1) Hoe SL Qe Solve for v. v= 36 Top speed attained = 36 m 5-1n MECHANICS Discussion The difference between Example 2 and Example 3 is that in the former each step can be fully worked out in turn, whereas in the latter the equations each contain two unknowns and have to be solved simultaneously. The pro- cedure is first to obtain the equations, next to simplify and then to solve In problems of this kind, the reader may find a rough speed-time graph helps him in thinking out his solution. It is by no means essential to the solution, but if it helps in presenting the facts it should be included. ‘Note that the top speed, which occurs in both equations, is useful in all problems of this type, even when it is not the answer to the question. Had the question asked for the distance apart of the stations, the method is to find the top speed first and then to calculate the distances travelled during the two parts of the journey. ‘Average Speed. The equation ute sate xt may be rewritten s_uto t 2 which states that the average speed over the interval is the average of the initial and final speeds. A glance at Fig. 7 (p. 15) shows that this is the speed at the middle instant of the interval. This fact is sometimes useful in problems. Itis important to remember that this is true only in uniformly accelerated motion. Example 4 ‘A body covers 7, 15, 19 metres in the 2nd, 4th and Sth seconds of its motion, : ‘Show that these figures are consistent with uniform acceleration and find its value. Solution “>. Assuming uniform acceleration Average speed over 2nd second .. Speed after 14 seconds Similarly, speed after 3} seconds Speed afier 4} seconds Let acceleration Apply the Speed-Time obtain: Each equation gives Figures are consistent w Discussion Note that we have not ; facts show that this is p distances to be covered : We do not equate a di speed over the ir’ -val acceleration, this . che s A longer algebraic me One begins by tting and so on. 16 Between two station of 1 ms~? until it attains its rate of 2m s~? until it come and the time taken between 17 A train starts from 1 top-speed is attained, power train retards with uniform 1 540 metres from the first. Fi 18 An electric train tak starting from and finishing a retardation is uniform for t ‘maining time. Fin¢ spec 19 A train takes 2 minu It accelerates uniformly from the next 960 metres and rete Find the top speed atta 20 A load is¢ a up starts from rest am. .5 unif constant speed Vm s~* unt retarded and comes to rest « 21 A body moves from seconds travels 12 metres an body, its velocity at the enc from rest up to the end of t123 is that in the former each the latter the equations each d simultaneously. The pro- simplify and then to solve. da rough speed-time graph y no means essential to the { should be included. th equations, is useful in all inswer to the question. Had e stations, the method is to ve distances travelled during terval is the average of the shows that this is the speed ct is sometimes useful in nly in uniformly accelerated 4th and Sth seconds of its aifor. dceleration and find ns Motion with Constant Acceleration 2B Apply the Speed-Time Equation, taking 7m s~! as the initial speed, We obtain: 7+a (2) T+a(3) Each equation gives a=4 Figures are consistent with uniform acceleration of 4 m s~2. Discussion Note that we have not proved the acceleration is uniform; only that the facts show that this is possible, It would be possible to arrange for these distances to be covered as stated without the acceleration being uniform, We do not equate a distance of 7 metres to 4 speed; we infer the average speed over the interval to be 7 ms~'. On the assumption of uniform acceleration, this is the speed at the middle instant of the interval A longer algebraic method is possible using =ut+dar? One begins by putting ¢=2, then ¢= 1, subtracting and equating to 7; and so on. EXERCISE 2 (16-26) 7/16 Between two stations 4:2 metres apart a train i at first accelerated at the rate of | ms~? until it attains its maximum speed, and is then immediately retarded at the rate of 2 m s~* until it comes to rest at the second station. Find its maximum speed and the time taken between the stations. 17 A train starts from rest at a station with unfirom acceleration } m s~?, When {op speed is attained, power is shut off and the brakes applied, with the result that the ‘train retards with uniform retardation 3m s~? and comes to rest in the next station 540 metres from the first. Find the top speed and the time of the journey. AB fn electric train takes 1} minutes to go between two stations 1-875 km apart, 1s A train takes 2 minutes ty travel between two stations which are 192 km apart {t accelerates uniformly from rest forthe first 576 metres, travels at constant speed aver the next 960 metres and retards uniformly to rest in the next station. Find the top speed attained 20 A load is drawn up a vertical shaft 180 metres deep Starts from fest and is uniformly accelerated for 6 seconds; it is then hauled at 4 Soargnt speed V m st until it is 24 metres from the top, after which itis uniformly retarded and comes to rest at the top of the shaft. Find the value of V. 21 A body moves from rest with uniform acceleration and later in two consecutive stvonds travels 12 metres and 15 metres respectively. Calculate the acceleration of the body, its velocity at the end of the two-seconds interval and the distance travelled from rest up to the end of the interval rs 20 seednds. The load4 MECHANICS 22. A train accelerating uniformly from rest passes in succession three telegraph poles spaced 96 metres apart. The times between the first and second poles and between the second and third poles are 12 seconds and 8 seconds respectively. Find the accelera- tion of the train and the distance of the starting-point from the first pole. 23 A car travels 8 metres in the third second, 11 metres in the fifth second and 15-5 metres in the eighth second. Show that these figures are consistent with a uniform acceleration and fin value. 24 Two particles 4 and B start to move along a straight line from a point 0. 4 starts first, moving from rest with an acceleration of 2 m s~? and 2 seconds dater B starts and keeps up a uniform velocity of 9 m s~'. Show that A and B meet twice, and that the distance between the two points where they meet is 27 metres. 25 A car A which is travelling at a uniform speed of 20 ms" passes a cat B when itis starting from rest. 8 moves in the same direction with an acceleration 1'5 ms~? until its speed is 30m”, after which its speed remains constant. At what distance from the starting-point does B overtake A? 26 A train, moving with uniform acceleration, takes 3 minutes to travel between two bridges which are 5:4 km apart. During the third minute the train travels 2:16 km. Find the uniform acceleration and the speed (in m s~%) at the first bridge. VERTICAL MOTION UNDER GRAVITY ‘The earth exerts a pull upon a body, the pull being called the weight of the body or, sometimes, the force of gravity. At any given place on the earth the direction of the pull is towards the centre of the earth and this direction is called the vertical at the place considered. Consequently, when a body is, let fall it falls vertically and when it is suspended by a string the string hangs vertically. The plane at right angles to the vertical direction at any place is the horizontal plane at that place. If we drop a cricket ball, a golf ball and a stone from a height of several metres, we find that they strike the ground simultaneously, as nearly as wwe can judge. This result holds for any moderate height. We conclude that bodies falling under gravity gain speed at equal rates; ic. at any instant their accelerations are equal. More accurate experiments show that not only are the gravitational accelerations of different falling bodies equal at any instant, but that they ‘are constant throughout and approximately of magnitude 9-8 metres per second per second. Thus a body falls under gravity with an acceleration of approximately 9-8 metres per second per second. Moreover, we find that bodies projected vertically upward have the same constant retardation 9-8 metres per second per second, so that we may include upward motion in our discussion of bodies falling under gravity. ‘The theoretical explanation of this fact is to be found in Section A of Chapter 6, We denote the gravitational acceleration by g. Ve Air Resistance. The reader type of bodies dropped an ‘The reason is that, strictly, tion at a given place only if mately for compact bodies bodies are not compact, ¢ acceleration is neither con second. For the air resistan the shppe and extent of th speed at which itis travellir and if the height from whic attains a terminal velocity. air resistance now counte) extent of surface of ” + bo descending parachu... or designed to reduce air resi Archimedes’ Princi, Ace to an upthrust which is ¢ observation balloon floats equals the weight of the bi we shall consider the upt ignored, Effect of Locality. When displacement are disposed find that all bodies fall at gravitational acceleration : It varies with the radius 0 carth’s raditis is least. It being greatest aga’ the The extreme value’ of g ¢ 9-8 ms“? which is in com figures. Tn numerical calculatior of 98ms~?. Thi les convenient in calculation especially bearing in minc accuracy impossible. The reader should be clsses in succession three telegraph trst and second poles and between ds respectively. Find the accelera- xt from the first pole. 1 metres in the fifth second and niform acceleration and find its 1 straight line from a point O. A £2ms"? and 2 secondsilater B Show that 4 and B meet twice, hhey meet is 27 metres, ‘eed of 20ms~" passes a car B irection with an acceleration 1:5 seed remains constant. At what akes 3 minutes to travel between ‘minute the train travels 2:16 km, ms”) at the first bridge. GRAVY eing called the weight of the ny given place on the earth * the earth and this direction onsequently, when a body is nded by a string the string che vertical direction at any one from a height of several imultaneously, as nearly as te height. We conclude that al rates; i.e. at any instant only 2 the gravitational t any instant, but, that they f magnitude 9-8 metres per vity with an acceleration of ad. Moreover, we find that ne cc ant retardation 9-8 incluaé upward motion in be found in Section A of ation by g. | | . Vertical Motion under Gravity 25 Air Resistance. The reader will note that we have made restrictions on the type of bodies dropped and on the heights from which they are relessed The reason is that, strictly, all bodies fall with the same constant acvelera, tion at a given place only if they fall ina vacuum, The result holds approxi- maiely for compact bodies dropped from moderate heights in air; burt co bodies are not compact, or if they are dropped from great heights, the acceleration is neither constant nor as large as 9-8 metres per second per second. For the air resistance, which reduces the acceleration, depends upon the shppe and extent of the surface of the falling body and alse upon the speed at which itis travelling, The resistance increases greatly at high speeds, and if the height from which the body falls is great enough the body finally attains a ferminal velocity. There is no further increase of speed because the air resistance now counterbalances the pull of the earth. The shape and extent of surface of the body obviously have a large effect in the eave ofa descending parachute or of a falling leaf Streamlining of a surface is designed to reduce air resistance to a minimum, observation balloon floats horizontally when the weight of air displaced equals the weight of the balloon. However, for the compact type of bodies we shall consider the upthnust of displaced air is negligible and will be Effect of Locality. When the inaccuracies due to air resistance and air displacement are disposed of by dealing with bodies falling ina vacuum, we gravitational acceleration at different places is not, however, quite constant. It varies with the radius of the earth, being greatest at the poles, where the farth’s radius is least. It vaties also because of the rotation of the earth, being greatest again atthe poles, which are at rest, and least on the equator. he extreme values of g are 978m s-? and 9-83 ms"? so that we value poms”? which isin common use is everywhere accurate to two significant figures, ¢ Jn numerical calculation, we often take the value 10 m s~ for g instead of 98m s~*. ‘This is less accurate, being about 2% in error, but very convenient in calculation and sufficiently accurate for many purposes; “specially bearing in mind that the neglect of air resistance renten areat accuracy impossible. The reader should be clear that the 10 is neither an exact value; nor is itCO ————— 6 MECHANICS connected with the multiplier 10 which occurs throughout the Metric The reader may be inte system. the initial velocity being verify the area beneath { éxceeds the area above b The second solution to things may be said. First quadratic; and the quadr is no réason why both c The difference is analogo one can think of a physic had been thrown upwai second earlier (at 11 ms travelling at 9m 7" sot Displacement and Distance. So far in the examples and exercises of Chapters 1 and 2 motion has been in one direction only in any question. The distance travelled and the displacement from the starting point have been the same. But (as stated on p. 4), displacement is a signed quantity; a displacement of —2 is a movement of 2 units in the negative direction. Thus, if a body undergoes displacements of +5 and —7, its final displacement frdm the starting point is —2; whereas the total distance it has travelled is 12 units. In such a case the two terms differ. The s in the equations of this chapter is a displacement; it is a signed coordinate fixing position with respect to the initial position (or origin). If motion is not all in one direction in a problem the distinction is important Example 5 makes profitable use of the sign convention. If one draws the Speed-Time graph in such a case, part of the graph lies beneath the time axis. The area under the graph (now above, in fact) corresponds to negative displacement and is considered to be negative. Example 5 ‘A ball is thrown vertically upward at 9ms~!, the thrower’s hand being 2 metres above ground level. ‘ 27 How far does a stom: Find how long it is before the ball hits the ground. seconds? How far in the ten 28 In which second of i 29 A stone is thrown ve point and the height of this 30 Find the vertical vele a height of 45 metres. How long will it take tc Solution Suppose time in the air =+ seconds Take the upward direction as positive 9144-10)? 15 0 cies 31 A cricket ball is thr 2. (261+) =0 (i) Find the height to whi wts2or—$ (ii) the time to th ates ees 35 seconds Fig. 9 (Gil) the speed and wurection (iv) the height of the ball » Discussion & ea my when the bal (i) the total time in the ai Without the sign convention we should have to separate the upward and If the ball falle down 7 downward parts of the motion and find (1) the time to reach the greatest find also height, (2) the greatest height, (3) the time to fall to the ground from this (vii) the depth below groun height (viii) after how Jong (from t ‘Had we chosen the downward direction as positive, this would merely 32 A ball is thrown ver change the signs of the 2, 9, 10 in the equation, thus multiplying both sides | wit eee aon by —1 and leading to the same result. Find alc ths thee neeurs throughout the Metric les and exercises of Chapters any question. The distance g point have been the same xd quantity; a displacement ¢ direction. Thus, if a body final displacement frdm the » it has travelled is 12 units displacement; it is a signed init?! position (or origin). the tinction is important. vention. ; ‘case, part of the graph lies raph (now above, in fact) mnsic to be negative. » the thrower’s hand being xround, to separate the upward and ¢ time to reach the greatest fall: te ground from this positive, this would merely thus multiplying both sides Vertical Motion under Gravity nu ‘The reader may be interested to draw the Speed-Time graph of the motion, the initial velocity being 9m s~¥ and the final —10 m s~", He should verify the area beneath the axis corresponding to the downward journey exceeds the area above by 2 units, thus giving a final displacement of > The second solution to the quadratic, «= —f, may provoke enquiry. Tw things may be said. First, the data of the problem imply that ¢ satishes the quadratic; and the quadratic supplies the only two possible numbers. There is no rgason why both of these should provide solutions to the problem, ‘The difference is analogous to that between theorem and converse. Second, one can think of a physical interpretation of ¢=—4 in this case. Ifthe ball had been thrown upward from —2 metre level, that is ground level, 4 second earlier (at 11 ms~"), the reader may verify it reaches the zero level travelling at 9m s~* so that it continues as in the actual problem EXERCISE 2 (27-34) (Take g=10 m 5-2) 27 How far does a stone fallin the first second? How far in the second and thitd seconds? How far in the tenth second? 28 In which second of its fee fall from rest does a stone fall 5$ metres? 29 A stone is thrown vertically upward at 15 m s~, Find the time to the highest point and the height of this point. = ae rind the vertical velocity with which a ball must be projected if itis to attain a height of 45 metres. How long will it take to do this? 31 A cricket ball is thrown vertically from ground level at 25 ms", (i) Find the height to which the ball rises; (ii) the time to the greatest height: Gd the speed and direction of the ball after 3 seconds; $ Gv) the height of the ball after 3 seconds; (¥) the times when the ball is 20 metres high; (vi) the total time in the air. If the ball falls down into a well 70 metres deep instead of hitting the ground, find also (cid the depth below ground level 6 seconds after being thrown up; (ii) after how long (From the star) it will hit the bottom of the cel 22 A bal is thrown vertically upward from the bottom ofa pit 13 metres deep with velocity 18 m s~} Find the greatest height attained above ground level Find also the time interval during which the ball is above ground.————————_—S———— Ee MECHANICS 33 A sandbag is dropped from a rising observation balloon when the latter is at a height of 39 metres and is observed to strike the ground 3 seconds later. Find the speed with which the balloon was ascending when the sandbag was released, 34 A stone is thrown vertically with initial speed 24 m s~*, How far does the stone rise during the first and second seconds? What are the speeds of the stone after one, two and three seconds? “ For how long does the stone gain height and what is the greatest height attained? ADDII Body having Two Motions possesses two motions, th provides a simple examp! and it also moves v. the The pilot knows by rez the air (airspéed) and the « often possess information from which it blov He w is moving over the earth's route he is following ove account not only of speed: Other cases of bodies | problems similar to the n ship in an ocean current, (; vehicle, (3) the motion of case the reader should see were released from rest, for motion of the aeroplane. gravity superposed upon it Velocity. In the abuve ill upon the speed and direc manner we have yet to det We define a velocity to velocity isa vector nit Thus 3 knots is nut av direction is a velocity. The size (or magnitude) ‘Whenever a velocity is re speed and direction.— ‘on balloon when the latter is at a and 3 seconds later. ‘cending when the sandbag was ed 24 m s~!, How far does the 3 aft ae the speeds of the stone after ADDITION OF VELOCITIES. Ais the greatest height attained? Body having Two Motions. There are numerous instances of a body which possesses (Wo motions, the one superposed upon the other. Air navigation provides a simple example. An aeroplane moves forward through the air and it also moves with the air, ic. it is carried by the wind, The pilot knows by reading his instruments what is his speed through the air (aitspéed) and the direction in which he is steering (conf). He will often possess information about the speed of the wind and the direction from which it blows. He will then wish to determine the speed at which he is moving over the earth’s surface (groundspeed) and the direction of the route he is following over the earth (track made good). He has to take account not only of speeds but also of directions. Other cases of bodies possessing two superposed motions, leading to Problems similar to the navigational one above, are (1) the motion of a ship in an ocean current, (2) the motion of a man who steps from a moving vehicle, (3) the motion of a bomb released from an aeroplane. In the last case the reader should see that the bomb does not dtop vertically as if it Were released from rest, for at the moment of release it possesses the forward motion of the aeroplane. Subsequently the bomb has a motion due to sravity superposed upon its motion due to the aeroplane. Velocity. In the above ilhistrations, the resulting motion depends both upon the speed and direction of the separate motions, though in what manner we have yet to determine. We define a velocity to bea speed associated with (or in) a direction; velocity is a vector quantity. Thus 3 knots is not a velocity but a speed; 3 knots in a north-easterly direction is a velocity, The size (or magnitude) of the velocity of a body is its speed. ‘Whenever a velocity is required, it is important to remember to give both speed and direction, 290 MECHANICS Combination or Addition of Velocities. The problems presented by the illustrations of the first section of this chapter may now be restated. In the first case we have to combine the velocity of the aeroplane with the velocity of the wind, and to find what velocity results. Similarly, the velocity of the ship is to be combined with the velocity of the ocean current; the velocity of the man stepping from the vehicle with the velocity of the vehicle; and the velocity of the bomb due to gravity with its velocity due to the aeroplane, The velocity which is the combined effect of two other velocities is called their resultant, We may also conveniently describe the resultant velocity as the sum of the separate velocities and the process of combining them as addition. In many ways the latter terms are clearer and more expressive, and we shall make frequent use of them. The process of adding velocities is clearly not as simple as the arith: metical process of adding speeds. The reader should see that the sum of velocities of 1 knot due north and due east respectively is a velocity in a north-easterly direction. But the speed in that direction is less than 2 Yanots (the sum of the separate speeds). Rule for Adding Velocities. The rule for adding velocities follows at once from the following coincrete example. Suppose that a ship is steering due south, the speed A indicator reading 20 knots. The water through which the ship moves is moving at 5 knots from the north-easterly D direction. We wish to find the resultant velocity of the leo ship. In the absence of the current, the ship would travel 20 nautical miles from its starting position A to the point B in Bone hour. On the other hand, a drifting log which started at ‘A would have reached the position D, and a similar log a starting from B would have reached C, in one hour. In fact, Fig. 10 the whole ‘line of water AB’ along which the ship would move if there were no current is drifting in the direction AD. It seems clear that as the ship is being carried by the current in the same way as the log, it must, after one hour, be somewhere along the ‘line of water DC, the new position of the ‘line of water AB’. Moreover, it will have advanced 20 nautical miles due south along this ‘line’ and must therefore be at C. ‘We may apply a similar argument to show that after, say, 20 minutes the ship is at E, one-third of the way along AC: for we have only to use the distances 42 and § nautical miles instead of 20 and 5 nautical miles, in the above. The result then fol This shows that, as we © uring the whole hour; im velocity. Moreover, the d represents the resultant sy “AD represent the separate Notation. We are now in z However, it is convenien senting a velocity. A line AB represents tl the speed of the body velocity is parallel {Br a velocity equal and oppe that the following three p velocity represented in m represented by A” 3) thy The rule to whiu the ¢ Parallelogram of Velocitie The sum (or resultant) of sented by 4B and AD represented by the diag parallelogram ABCD. We note that since E parallel to AD, the vele by BC is the same as th sented by AD. Hence we rule for adding velocities Triangle of Velor s. The sum (or resultant) of sented by AB and BC represented by AC. Note particular” how situated in Fig. 1. nose to be added follow on, v resultant may well be det the ‘short-cut’, We refer to this rule assroblems presented by the may now be restated. ity of the aeroplane with the ‘sults, Similarly, the velocity y of the ocean current; the ie with the velocity of the avity with its velocity due to two other velocities is called “ibe the resultant velocity as yeess of combining them as learer and more expressive, not simple as the arith- should see that the sum of respectively is a velocity in hat direction is less than 2 g velocities follows at once ing due south, the speed : water through which the ots from the north-easterly 2 resultant velocity of the i, the ship would travel 20 position A to the point B in drifting log which started at ition D, and a similar log hed C in one hour. In fact, long ich the ship would drifting in the direction AD. the current in the same way rere along the ‘line of water AB’. Moreover, it will have ais‘. and must therefore ‘ that after, say, 20 minutes : for we have only to use the and 5 nautical miles, in the —_— Addition of Velocities 3 above. The result then follows from the similarity of the triangles involved. This shows that, as we should expect, the ship is at some point of AC during the whole hour; in other words, AC is the direction of the resultant velocity. Moreover, the distance AC is travelled in one hour, so that AC represents the resultant speed on the same scale as that on which 4B cad ‘AD represent the separate speeds. : Notation. We are now in a position to state a rule for adding two velocities, However, it is convenient to explain first-what we mean by a line repre. senting a velocity. A line 4B represents the velocity of a body if the length AB represents the speed of the body on some suitable scale and the direction of the velocity is parallel to 4B reading from A to B. It follows that BA represents a velocity equal and opposite to the velocity represented by AB. We note that the following three phrases are used with the same meaning: (1) the velocity represented in magnitude and direction by 4B, (2) the velocity represented by AB, (3) the velocity AB. ‘The rule to which the above example leads us is known as the Parallelogram of Velocities, The sum (or resultant) of velocities repre- sented by 4B and AD is the velocity represented by the diagonal AC of the 9 cI parallelogram ABCD, We note that since BC is equal and parallel to AD, the velocity represented by BC is the same as the velocity repre. ™ 8 sented by AD. Hence we obtain another tule for adding velocities. This rule is the Fig. 11 Triangle of Velocities. The sum (or resultant) of velocities repre- sented by AB and BC is the velocity represented by AC. F Note particularly how the arrows are situated in Fig. 12. Those on the velocities to be added follow on, while that on the resultant may well be described as giving the ‘short-cut’, io We refer to this rule as the triangle rule, Fig. 1232 MECHANICS Note. It should be emphasised that the diagrams for adding velocities are not intended to indicate position. When, as frequently happens, position enters into a problem where velocities are added, care must be taken not to confuse the velocity and position figures, even though they overlap, Each must have its own scale and the velocity triangle must have direction arrows upon it Method for Examples. In this section we use the graphical method of scale drawing. We use the triangle rule to add velocities, since this involves less drawing than does the parallelogram rule. The following procedure is suggested for the graphical sections of the present chapter and Chapter 4: (1) First, draw a rough diagram showing as much of the data as possible and indicating the solution. (2) Next, check that the direction arrows follow correctly in the velocity triangle or triangles. ) Use the rough diagram to decide upon a suitable arrangement for the accurate figure and a suitable scale (or suitable scales, if lengths are involved as well). Note that in the latter case the scale of length and the scale of velocity may be numerically different. For nautical miles and knots measure quite different quantities and there is no reason why 1 cm should not be taken to represent both 100 knots and 20 nautical miles. (4) Draw the accurate figure, state the scale or scales and insert direction arrows and any other data which make the solution clearer. (5) Give any verbal explanation of the method and of the figure which may be necessary. (6) Read off the required lengths and directions, perform the necessary calculations and state the answer to the question. Note, Obviously all results from a drawing are approximate. For the sake of brevity, accurate figures are omitted in the worked examples. Direction Convention. In stating directions we make use of the 360° compass, measuring angles clockwise from due north. Thus east is 090°, south is 180°, west is 270°; whilst north west is 315°. Example 1 ‘An aeroplane is flying wi is blowing from 354° a groundspeed and the tra Solution ABC is a triangle of vi yelocity BC of the wind i: AB through the air to giv the ground. From an accurate figu groundspeed 206 knots. Example 2 A ship is sailing ine di 158° at 6 knots, The ship house. Find (1) the true the lighthouse, (3) what lighthouse. Solution ABC is a triangle of vek added to the velocity 4. AC represents the true v Lis the lighthouse and ship when it is nearest t the distance the ship has AC to reach the nearest From an accurate figu (1) True direction of shij True speed of ship (2) Shortest distance apa (3) Distance AM ‘near Time to reach neares __ 1 A machine-gun of mu airspeed is 250m s~1, the gu Find the true speed of the bi the path of the aircraft3 for adding velocities are tion ently happens, posit Pare must be taken not ven though they overlap. iangle must have direction graphical method of scale ies, since this involves less graphical sections of the Ich o1 the data as possible w correctly in the velocity itable arrangement for the table scales, if lengths are se the scale of length and ferent. For nautical miles and there is no reason why 100 knots and 20 nautical cales and insert direction olution clearer. .d of the figure which may ms,’ ‘orm the necessary astion, approximate, For the sake vorked examples. ike use of the 360° compass, Thus east is 090°, south is Addition of Velocities 33 Example | ‘An aeroplane is fying with airspeed 220 knots on a course 289°. The wind is blowing from 354° at 40 knots. Find the groundspeed and the track made good. Solution ABC is a triangle of velocities in which the velocity BC of the wind is added to the velocity AB through the air to give the velocity AC over | © Fig, 13 the ground. From an accurate figure: Aeroplane makes good a track 279° and has groundspeed 206 knots. Example 2 A ship is sailing in the direction 073° at 18 knots in a current flowing from 158° at 6 knots. The ship is initially 10 nautical miles due south of a light- house. Find (1) the true velocity of the ship, (2) when the ship is nearest the lighthouse, (3) what is the shortest distance apart of the ship and the lighthouse, Solution ABC is a triangle of velocities in which the velocity BC of the current is added to the velocity 4B of the ship, so that AC represents the true velocity of the ship Lis the lighthouse and M the position of the ship when it is nearest the lighthouse. 4M is the distance the ship has to travel with velocity AC to reach the nearest position, From an accurate figure: (1) True direction of ship is 054° True speed of ship = 185 knots Fig. 14 (2) Shortest distance apart, LM 10 n mile (3) Distance 4M to nearest position = 5-85 n mile Time to reach nearest position = is hours = 19 min EXERCISE 3 (1-8) 1 A machine-gun of muzzle velocity 500 m s~* is fied from a fighter plane whose airspeed is 250 ms, the gun pointing ina direction at 62° with the path of the plane. Find the true speed of the bullets through the air and the angle their path makes with the path of the aircraft.— 34 MECHANICS 2. An aeroplane flying at 180 knots on a course 128° is carried by a wind blowing at 36 knots from 233°, Find the groundspeed and track made good. 3 A man walks across the platform of @ bus (i.e. at right angles to its direction of motion) which is moving at 10 km h~' and steps off at 4 km h-'. Find the actual speed with which he moves towards the ground and the angle through which he must turn as he does so, in order that he may not tend to fall over sideways when he reaches the ground. 4 A man throws a stone ftom a car travelling at 30 km h”1. He projects the stone horizontally with a velocity (relative to-the car) of 42 km h~* in a direction making an angle of 45° with the direction of the car. Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the stone over the ground. 5 A ship is steering 194° at 15 knots towards a buoy initially 2 miles ahead. The ship is carried by a current flowing from 117° at 4 knots, What is the actual velocity of the ship, and by how much does it miss the buoy’ 6A ship steams at 15 knots on a course 105° towards a port which is initially 40 n miles away in that direction. The ship is carried off course by a current of 7 knots flowing from 225°. Find the true velocity of the ship. Find also the distance and bearing of the port from the ship after sailing for 14 hours. 7 An aeroplane fiying at 180 knots on a course 047° is carried by a wind blowing at 40 knots from 335°. Plot the position after 2 hours and read off the distance and bearing of the aeroplane from its starting-point. ‘The aeroplane now changes course t0 100° for a period of 1} hours. It then ‘changes course again to 215° for a further I hour. Plot the path of the aeroplane (taking account of the wind) and read off its distance,and bearing from its original starting-point. 8 A ship steams at 20 knots on a course 290°. A current flowing at 5 knots from 039° takes the ship off its intended course. Find, by plotting its position, how far (in n miles) the ship is off its intended course after 2 hours. "A course 323° is now set, until the ship is again on its intended route. By plotting, find how far from the starting-point it strikes the route and the time taken to get back to the route. Calculation of Resultant Velocity. For theoretical purposes, or because a drawing does not provide a sufficiently accurate answer, we may need to calculate the resultant of two velocities. It will be seen that this amounts to calculating sides and angles of a triangle which is fixed by the data. Thus the formulae that are appropriate are those needed to solve the triangle of velocities. Whether we make use of the sine rule and cosine rule, or of more advanced but more convenient formulae, depends upon the amount of trigonometry we know. The point is that there is no reason at all for earning and using formulae for the resultant, since the calculation is essentially trigonometry and not mechanics; the mechanics is completed with the application of the triangle of velocities. We make one excepti velocities to be added calculation, and is, mo with later in this chapt ‘Components of a Veloci this chapter and to split produce the same mot are then called comport ‘Thus, referring back velocity AC. It is plain that less tothe number 0. si for we are given velocit choose. In practical exe of greatest importance each compone: 2) t1 the first case we are giv side AB, so that the tri ‘The Right Angle Case. v @ Fig. 15 To add the velocities use the results: Resolved Part ot a Vek have a velocity represe to know the velocity w the ship is getting near. wards get further and