RPH Module PDF Free

Readings in Philippine History
 Table of Contents 
Content Page
List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………. iii

Preface...………………………………………………………………………………………. v
Unit 1
UNDERSTANDING HISTORY USING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES
Lesson 1.
Meaning and Relevance of History ............................................................................. 2
Lesson 2.
Test of Authenticity and Credibility ............................................................................. 8
Lesson 3.
Test of Authenticity and Credibility: The Tejeros Convention of 1897 ..................... 14
Unit 2
SPANISH COLONIZATION TO THE PRESENT
Lesson 1.
Chronicles about the 16th Century Filipinos: The First Voyage
Around the World and the Customs of the Tagalogs ................................... 35
Lesson 2.
Kartilya ng Katipunan ................................................................................................. 48
Lesson 3.
The Declaration of Philippine Independence ............................................................ 54
Lesson 4.
The Malolos Constitution and the First Republic ....................................................... 62
Lesson 5.
Visual Sources in the Stud of History ......................................................................... 72
Lesson 6.
Raiders of the Sulu Sea: A Documentary Presentation ............................................ 83
Unit 3
HISTORIC CONTROVERSIES
Lesson 1.
The Site of the First Mass .......................................................................................... 88
Lesson 2.
The Cavite Mutiny ...................................................................................................... 92
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Unit 4-A
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC and CULTURAL ISSUES
A General Discussion
Lesson 1.
The Constitution of the Philippines ..................................................................................... 113
Lesson 2.
The Indigenous People: Some Notes .................................................................................. 118
Lesson 3.
History of Agrarian Reform in the Philippines ....................................................... 124
Unit 4-B
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL ISSUES
With Adaptations to the Disciplines of the Students
Lesson 1.
Bridges in the 19th Century Philippines Through Selected Photographs
(For Engineering and Architecture Majors) ........................................................... 128
Lesson 2.
The “Moro” Problem (For Liberal Arts Majors) ................................................................ 134
Lesson 3.
Implementing Public Order through the Claveria Decree of 1849
(For Computer Science, Accountancy and Business Admin. Majors) …. .................. 138
Lesson 4.
The School Curriculum in the Philippines: Its Historical Development
(For Education Majors) …. ........................................................................................ 144
Unit 5
APPRECIATING HISTORIC AND HERITAGE SITES
Lesson 1.
Dealing with Local History ................................................................................................... 151
Lesson 2.
Philippine Heritage and History............................................................................................ 158
Appendices
Appendix A.
Dealing with Local History ................................................................................................... 163
Appendix B.
Philippine Heritage and History............................................................................................ 164
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 List of Figures 
Figure Page
Figure 1.
Reseña Historica de la Inauguracion de la Iglesia de
San Ignacio de Loyola de Manila en 1889 ............................................................. 1
Figure 2.
The book Katipunan and the Revolution............................................................................... 16
Figure 3.
The book Revolt of the Masses .......................................................................................... 23
Figure 4.
The Main Academic Building of PUP and its environs .................................................. 34
Figure 5.
Photo of Emilio Jacinto courtesy of Ambeth Ocampo .................................................... 49
Figure 6.
The Malolos Congress which convened at the
Barasoain Church in September 1898 ................................................................... 63
Figure 7.
Equal Work, Unequal Salary, Why? and
American Worker/Filipino Worker .................................................................... 77
Figure 8.
Tanong na Makahulugan ................................................................................................... 78
Figure 9.
The painting Planting Rice (1951) by Fernando Amorsolo ……………………………81
Figure 10.
Ambeth Ocampo’s picture of Jose Rizal’s alleged retraction document ...................... 87
Figure 11.
Photo of the Spanish arsenal in Cavite taken during the American Period................. 93
Figure 12.
Map of Cavite Arsenal. ..................................................................................................... 104
Figure 13.
Sergeant Fernando La Madrid, a mestizo who served as one
of the leaders of the Cavite Mutiny .................................................................... 108
Figure 14.
An Indian carpenter of the Cavite Arsenal .................................................................... 108
Figure 15.
Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora, the martyrs of Filipinism. . ............................. 110
Figure 16.
The destruction of downtown Manila during the liberation campaign. .................... 112
Figure 17.
Manuel Roxas signing the constitution of the Philippines .......................................... 115
Figure 18.
History of Government Agencies on Indigenous People ............................................ 119
Figure 19.
Ethno-Linguistic Map of the Philippines ....................................................................... 120
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Figure 20.
Four Bundles of Rights from Republic Act No. 8371. . ................................................ 121
Figure 21.
The Absence of regulatory measures on the consumption of
tobacco made the children addicted to it. .......................................................... 127
Figure 22.
The Puente de Malagonlong in Tayabas, Quezon ........................................................ 130
Figure 23.
The Puente de España. ...................................................................................................... 131
Figure 24.
The system of writing by the Pre-colonial Filipinos called Baybayin ……………….145
Figure 25.
The transcript of records of Rizal at the Ateneo Municipal ………………………….146
Figure 26.
The subjects taken Up by Rizal at UST ……………………………………………….147
Figure 27.
The world heritage icon Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte ............................................... 150
Figure 28.
The Ruins in Bacolod City ................................................................................................ 159
Figure 29.
Heritage Cycle..................................................................................................................... 160
Figure 30.
Cultural Agencies and their role in heritage
management in the Philippines .......................................................................... 161
Figure 31.
Categories of Cultural heritage in the Philippines ....................................................... 161
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 PREFACE 
“The very concept of objective truth is fading out of the world.

Lies will pass into history.” – George Orwell
It is difficult to read history—dealing with it makes even worse. Yet, the faculty
members of the Department of History of the University who kept these pieces together tried
with ardor to respond to the challenge of the University in its call to write an instructional
material for the online classes as a consequence of the dreadful pandemic. The task is tough
and demanding because it seeks a thorough review and analysis of sources—something
which cannot just be done in a given limited period of time.
It is with great pleasure to write an instructional material for the benefit of the students
of the University and, perhaps, as a contribution to the discipline. However, it is equally
terrifying to succumb to inadvertent mistakes and criticisms that may arise from clerical errors,
editing and haphazardness. This is because history is always enlightening and therefore
inaccuracy is not permitted--there is no room for mistake, no room for doubt! Whatever
inexactitude and lapses committed herein, the indulgence of the readers is earnestly sought—
mea culpa. Those who prepared this material do not claim title to certain ideas, visuals and
illustrations. In fact, they are also committed students of history.
This material came up with the concerted effort of certain faculty members in the
Department: Prof. Jasper Christian L. Gambito wrote Lesson 1 (The Meaning and Relevance
of History) in Unit 1; Lesson 1 (Chronicles About the 16th Century Filipinos) and Lesson 6
(Raiders of the Sulu Sea) in Unit 2; Lesson 1 (The Site of the First Mass) in Unit 3; and,
Lesson 2 (The “Moro” Problem) in Unit 4-B. Prof. Mc Donald Domingo M. Pascual, the editor
and chair for this module, dealt with Lesson 2 (Tests of Authenticity and Credibility) and
Lesson 3 (The Tejeros Convention) in Unit 1; Lesson 2 (The Declaration of Philippine
Independence) and Lesson 5 (Visual Sources in History) in Unit 2; Lesson 2 (The Cavite
Mutiny) in Unit 3; Lesson 1 (Bridges in the 19th Century) and Lesson 3 (Implementing Public
Order Through the Claveria Decree of 1849) in Unit 4-B; and, Lesson 1 (Dealing with Local
History) in Unit 5.
Atty. Melchor A. Pelleja, on the other hand, tackled Lesson 4 (The Malolos Constitution
and the First Philippine Republic) in Unit 2; Lesson 1 (The Constitutions of the Philippines)
and Lesson 3 (History of Agrarian Reform in the Philippines) in Unit 4-A; and, Lesson 4 (The
School Curriculum in the Philippines: Its Historical Development) in Unit 4-B. Prof. Sherrenne
R. De Amboy, the co-chair and layout in-charge of the team, presented Lesson 2 (The
Indigenous Peoples: Some Notes) in Unit 4-A and Lesson 2 (Philippine Heritage and History)
in Unit 5. Finally, Prof. Ma. Rhodora Agustin examined Lesson 2 (Kartilya ng Katipunan) in
Unit 2.
The team wishes to thank Prof. Marlon F. Agoy-Agoy, the chairperson of the
Department of History, for his unfaltering support and understanding towards its members—
he has never failed to remind them with great compassion; to Dr. Nicolas T. Mallari, the dean
of the College of Social Sciences and Development for his usual considerations; to the
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University Administration for this opportunity; to Ms. Angelica Sevilla for her cooperation and
effort; to Mr. Lito S. Lacaba, Jr. for the cover design; and, to all of those who, in one way or
another, helped in carrying out this task.
“To err is human, to forgive is divine.” It is hoped with great zeal that this humble
material shall be used meaningfully by the students, less the shortcomings. It is anticipated
that, from here, they will be able to learn the ideas and information they need in order to
accomplish their pursuits in the course Readings in Philippine History (RIPH) and, of course,
to satisfy the quest for the truth about the past in their attempt to understand the present and,
perhaps, the future better. Be it like that, all the hardships and challenges in doing this piece
will be paid off.
Mabuhay ang Department of History, ang College of Social Sciences and

Development at ang Polytechnic University of the Philippines!
The RIPH Team
❖
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UNIT 1
UNDERSTANDING HISTORY
USING PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY SOURCES
Figure 1. Reseña Historica de la Inauguracion de la Iglesia de San Ignacio de Loyola de Manila

en 1889. (Reseña, 1890).
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 Lesson 1 
MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF HISTORY
Introduction
History is a boring subject for many. Students find it dull due to certain reasons as
previous techniques in teaching which tended to focus on memorizing the dates of historical
events, as well as the names of historical figures and the places where these events took
place. As such, it is the aim of this lesson to shed light on the meaning and relevance of
History in the daily lives of the Filipinos. Without dismissing the necessity of knowing the
answers to the basic questions of what, where, and when, studying history should be more
concerned in answering questions like “Why a certain event happened?” and “How did it
happen?” In the first place, why is it necessary to write history? Is it just a mere caprice of
the academician for him to brag his technical expertise? Can the study of history be useful in
understanding the different factors that led to the development of the present society?
Notwithstanding the necessity of writing history, the knowledge of identifying sources

and where to locate them are two of the basic lessons which a student of history should learn.
Sources are the primary foundation of history, needless to say in dealing with it. Without the
sources, the so-called historical narratives can be easily dismissed as historical fiction. This
lesson aims to give the students a preliminary background on the various sources that could
be employed in studying Readings in Philippine History, including certain information on the
repositories of these sources--physical or digital—so that the students would know where to
access them.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Identify credible and authentic primary sources and know how to evaluate their
provenance.
2. Determine the various repositories of historical sources where
What is History?
History originated as a derivation of historia, an ancient Greek term for learning

through inquiry (Hoefferle, 2013). It is usually defined as the study of past events. Merriam
Webster Dictionary denotes that history refers to a chronological record of significant events
such as those affecting a nation or institution, often including an explanation of their causes.
The American Historical Association, on the other hand, currently defines history as the never-
ending process whereby people seek to understand the past and its many meanings.
Therefore, history is not only a mere collection of narratives compiled or collated by authors,
rather history employs a system to organize narratives. As what the Greek philosopher
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Aristotle once said, history is a systematic account of a set of natural phenomena. It is also
an investigative work because people aim to satisfy their thirst for truth. History attempts to
know the actions of human beings that were accomplished in the past (Collingwood, 1976).
In the Philippine setting, the classic definition of history is given by Zeus Salazar, a
notable historian and retired professor of the University of the Philippines. To him,
Kasaysayan, the counterpart of history in the mother tongue, is an essential narrative with to
a group of people that is characterized by uniqueness and identity. This uniqueness, as
opined by Salazar, is largely based on their own language and heritage, hence “Ang
Kasaysayan ay salaysay na may saysay para sa isang grupo ng tao na may kakanyahan,
identidad na nakasandig sa sariling wika at kalinangan (Sebastian and Rosales, 2008).
Through this definition, Salazar reiterates that the essence of history depends on whose
history is being narrated and who the intended audiences are.
It is important to note that history is not the past, but rather a glimpse of the past. The
entirety of the past cannot be narrated and included in all of the written histories for the main
reason that not everything which happened in the past were recorded and/or documented.
Therefore, history does not create narration of past events; rather a recreation of past events
based on available materials.
The Relevance of History
Collingwood (1976) tells that history is valuable because it teaches people what they
have done and thus what man is. Through history, the present generation could assess the
feats and defeats of the previous generations and can learn not only from their errors but also
from their victories. The following relevance of history were enumerated by Peter Stearns
(1998).
• History contributes to Moral Understanding

• History helps us understand people and societies
• History provides Identity
• History is essential for Good Citizenship.
The Repositories of Historical Sources
Philippine Depositories. The foremost depository where students of history can go to is the
National Library of the Philippines (NLP). Holding a wide array of general and rare collections
on Philippine history, it includes the following units: (1) Filipiniana Division and (2) Microfilm
Section. These units, indeed, are very helpful to students in their academic pursuits and
research endeavors. Important documents such as the Historical Data Papers and the
Philippine Revolutionary Records are housed in this library.
The Archives of the University of Santo Tomas contains rich Spanish-era collection,
especially with regards to education-related records during the Spanish Period. The National
Archives of the Philippines (NAP) also contains rich Spanish-era collection, more particularly
when it comes to government-related records of the Spanish regime. If the students wish to
conduct researches on ecclesiastical-related topics, they can go and visit the Archdiocesan
Archives of Manila which is located in Arzobispado, Intramuros. This depository contains vast
information on Church affairs. It is also here where the infamous Retraction Letter of Rizal
was found. Moreover, the Manila Observatory Archives contains pertinent data regarding the
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various weather disturbances and conditions. This is due to the fact that the Observatorio
served as the weather forecasting bureau of the Spanish colonial government.
Other institutions of higher learning boast their rich collections of both primary and
secondary sources. Among them are the University of the Philippines Main Library in Diliman
Quezon City; the Ateneo de Manila University’s Rizal Library and Historical Collection of the
United States Embassy in Loyola Heights, Quezon City; and, the De La Salle University
Libraries in Ermita, Manila.
Students who wish to conduct researches on ethnic groups can visit the SIL
Philippines in Horseshoe Drive, Quezon City. The said archives offer almost 2,000 titles
relating to the languages of the Philippines. The archives of the Congregation of the
Immaculate Heart of Mary (CICM), also in Quezon City, offers collections on documents
written by CICM missionaries who were posted in the northern parts of Luzon. Other
depositories are the centers established by local historical networks. These centers provide
helpful sources about the history of their towns or provinces, thus the study of local history
becomes easier.
Spanish Depositories. The following are the principal Spanish depositories which contain
tons of collections pertaining to the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines:
1. Archivo General de Indias (Seville)

2. ArchivoHistorico Nacional (Madrid)
3. Museo Naval de la Ministerio de Marina (Madrid)
4. Real Academia de la Historia (Madrid)
5. Biblioteca Nacional de Espana (Madrid)
6. Archivo de Ministerio de AsuntosExteriores (Madrid)
The Spanish government through the Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte launched the
Portal de Archivos Españoles (PARES) which offers free access to digitized copies of
documents and other sources that can be found in Spanish Archives. Through this initiative,
students of history in the Philippines can freely access digitized documents and other sources
online.
Mexican Depository. The Philippines was a part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the capital
of which was situated in Mexico. The ties between the two Spanish territories ended when
Mexico gained its independence in 1821. Because of this, a multitude number of sources
could possibly be sitting in the Archivo General de la Nacion de Mexico which can be very
useful to students.
British Depository. For a brief period of time, that is from 1762–1764, the British occupied
Manila. It was through this invasion that some historical sources written during the Spanish
period made its way to the British Museum. As a matter of fact, Jose Rizal took some time to
research inside this facility in an attempt to annotate the Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas of
Antonio de Morga.
American Depositories. Among the main depositories in the United States of America
include the following:
1. National Archives and Records Service (NARS)

2. Library of Congress (Washington D.C.)
3. Ayer Collection of the Newberry Library (Chicago, Illinois)
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4. Lily Library (Bloomington, Indiana)

5. Harvard University
6. Stanford University
7. University of Michigan
The proliferation of online archives is also beneficial to researchers who do not have
the capacity to conduct research in any of the above-mentioned depositories. Although many
of their collections are yet to be digitized, archive.org and Project Gutenberg offer a wide array
of scanned sources which are available for download.
Classification and Types of Historical Sources
Sources are defined as artifacts that have been left by the past. They exist either as
(1) relics, (2) what we can call as remains, or (3) as the testimonies of witnesses of the past
(Howell and Prevenier, 2001). Based on this definition, the students can infer that historical
sources are not only confined to written documents but also to artifacts and ecofacts. A basic
definition from Collins English Dictionary relates artifact as ‘something made or given shape
by humans such as a tool or a work of art. On the other hand, Merriam Webster Dictionary
denotes artifact as a simple object showing workmanship or modification as distinguished
from a natural object. Basically, it is an object remaining from a particular period. Examples
are tools and ornaments.
It is easy to say that an artifact does not only refer to antiquated objects which are
usually associated with archaeological finds but to any object which were modified by humans
for their own purpose or consumption. Also, an artifact is a mute witness of the period of its
existence. On the other hand, ecofact, according to the Oxford Dictionary pertains to an
excavated piece of evidence consisting natural remains, as opposed to an objects of human
workmanship. To make it simple then, an ecofact is the direct opposite of an artifact.
Main Types of Written Sources
Primary Source
A good definition of primary source is provided by Louis Gottschalk (1950) in his book
Understanding History. According to him, a primary source is “the testimony of an eyewitness,
or of a witness by any other of the senses, or of a mechanical device like the Dictaphone–that
is, of one who or that which was present at the events of which he or it tells.” Based on this
definition, a myriad of examples include the following: diaries, audio recordings, artifacts,
letters, newspaper articles and documents such as birth certificates, marriage contracts, and
death certificates. Visual sources like works of arts, photographs and videos are also included
in this category.
Secondary Source
Gottschalk (1950) defines a secondary source as “the testimony of anyone who is not
an eyewitness–that is, one who was not present at the events of which he tells.” Thus, the
main difference between it and a primary source is the presence of the writer or author or
observer to the event being described. Secondary sources may include sources as
bibliographies, commentaries, annotations, dictionaries, encyclopedias, journal articles,
magazines, monographs, and textbooks.
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Unwritten Sources.
Unwritten sources include the following: (1) archaeological evidence; (2) oral
evidence; and (3) material evidence.
Types of Unwritten Sources
Archaeological Evidence. Archaeological evidence refers to remains such as artifacts and

ecofacts which help a historian in determining the culture of the area where the evidence was
found. Similarly, the ways of life of the people, including their artistic expressions, have been
etched in these materials. Archaeological pieces of evidence include tools, ornaments,
fixtures, etc.
Oral Evidence. Oral evidence pertains to folk tales, myths, legends, folk songs and popular
rituals. These sources might contain information pertaining to the culture of the people who
created them. These pieces of evidence can also give a glimpse of the people economic
activities at a given time, especially their socio-political organization and social condition.
Material Evidence. Material evidence includes photographs, art works, videos, and sound
recordings.
Activity
Propose a title for a possible research and come up with at least three (3) statements of
the problem or arguments. Prepare an outline which would determine the flow of your
research. Using digital archives, prepare a bibliography of the sources which you can
use in your research. Classify your sources according to type.
❖
References
Gottschalk, L. (1950). Understanding history. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Hoefferle, C. (2013). The essential historiography reader (1st Ed.). Pearson.
Howell, M., & Prevenier, W. (2001) From reliable sources: An introduction to historical
methods. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
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Rosales, A., & Sebastian, R. R. (2008) Historia: Pag-usbong, pakikipagtagpo at pagbubuo.

Manila: Mary Jo Publishing House.
Stearns, P. N. (1998). Why study history? Retrieved from https://www.historians.org/

about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/historical-archives/why-study-
history-(1998).
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TESTS OF AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY
Introduction
The usual mistake committed by a researcher, especially a budding one, is when he

considers any apparent authentic record as credible source of information. When there is no
regard for examining and establishing the originality and the competence of the source, make
no mistake that the readers of the account shall be misled or worse misinformed and live
through with it for the rest of their lives. As such, sources must be examined and should be
dealt with high regard in order to ascertain the accuracy of information for the greater benefit
of the readers.
Sources are said to be worthless if they are not used by historians. The accounts of
historians are insignificant likewise if they are not read by readers, especially the students of
history. This is the reason why every information to be used must be accurate, hence the
importance of internal and external criticisms. These criticisms are parts and parcels of the
so-called methods of history.
Learning Outcomes
1. Discern the significance of External and Internal Criticisms

2. Apply External and Internal Criticisms in the scrutiny of sources.
What is the Difference between Method [of History] and Historiography?
Method pertains to the process of thoroughly examining and critically analyzing the
records and survivals of the past. Likewise, it means the accumulation of data about the past
to be thoroughly examined and critically analyzed by a set of scientific rules so that a certain
past that is attempted to reconstruct can be determined whether it actually happened or not.
On the other hand, Historiography refers the process of reconstructing historical data
that have already been tested by the method. Also, it means the synthesizing of historical
data into a narrative or discourse. The writing of history books, researches such as theses
and dissertations or articles for publications or for lectures in conferences and seminars
undergo historiography.
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External Criticism: The Test of Authenticity
Authenticity means originality. In history, it is more important to use original sources

than secondary sources because they provide raw data that have not been subjected to the
interpretation of historians. They also lead directly the researcher or historian to the
perception and milieu of the eyewitness in relation to the event being studied. Genuine
sources are usually the sources from which secondary materials derived their data.
Why the Test of Authenticity is done? It is done in order to determine the genuineness
of sources. It is necessary to determine real accounts from hoax stories or those that were
fabricated covertly by persons who wanted to have false claims on documents that allegedly
prove certain phenomena in the very remote past. An example to this is the alleged Maragtas
which was purported by Pedro Monteclaro. William Henry Scott (1984) argued in his book
Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History that Maragtas was made by
Monteclaro based on suspicious oral and fabricated written sources.
Sources are likewise fabricated in order to justify the supposed occurrence of events.
A classic case on this matter is Negative Revisionism which, in anyway, attempts to alter
history or its course by means of trying to moderate or restrain the impact of history to a
person, institution or groups.
Another reason in performing the Test of Authenticity is for the historian to detect
misleading sources. Sources that mislead purposively can misinform and, therefore,
miseducate people because they divert the value or real meaning of events. Moreover,
identifying the authorship of a source, the time of an event, including the time when the source
was written, and the space of an event are equally important. The authorship of the source
provides strong authenticity and credibility to it while time and space, together with the
prevailing practices of that period, become the bases of the context of an event, the building
blocks of a historical process. It must be noted that an event being studied must be situated
in its proper context in order to adequately comprehend, analyze and interpret its historical
value.
Internal Criticism: The Test of Credibility
After ascertaining the genuineness or originality of sources, the historian has to

perform internal criticism in order to determine their credibility. What then makes the credibility
of a source important? It is important because it tells whether the source is worthy to use by
the historian in his study. For a source to be regarded credible, the historian must be able to
discern the following:
1. Competence of the source in telling the truth

2. Willingness of the source in telling the truth
3. Adequacy of data relayed by the source
4. Reliability of the source when corroborated by other independent sources.
According to Gottschalk (1950), in examining the credibility of a source, the historian

or the skilled history researcher plays the role of a “prosecutor, attorney for the defense, judge,
and jury all in one. But as a judge, he rules out no evidence whatever if it is relevant. To him,
any single detail of testimony is credible—even if it is contained in a document obtained by
force or fraud, or is otherwise impeachable, or is based on necessary evidence, or is from an
interested witness—provided it can pass the four tests” enumerated above.
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An independent source, even when it states certain pieces of information claimed by

another source, is a kind of source that derived its information from the occurrence of the
event itself. In other words, its author was there both in time and space and that he was
mentally mature and conscious to absorb the building blocks of an event as they happened
before his eyes. This means that an independent source is an account that did not rely on
some extrinsic informants. Certainly, secondary sources cannot be considered independent
sources because of their reliance to primary sources. In order to adequately establish the
credibility of a source, two other independent sources—written or unwritten—must
corroborate its claims.
In History, there is no such thing as objectivity or judgment-free account. Even

primary sources contain biases. Biases can be seen in the author’s [or eyewitness’]
perspective, affiliation, acclamation or appreciation of certain individuals and institutions,
preferences, manner of description and worse, one-sided view, etc. But biases must be
minimized in order that the account would not be considered a product of what is known as
yellow journalism.
Basic Assumptions with Sources
Here are some assumptions which can guide historians or researchers in examining
primary sources:
1. Sources like relics, artifacts, remains, documents, and witnesses are accurate when
proven to be authentic and credible. Relics, artifacts, and remains, though, are more
reliable while documents (or narratives) and witnesses are more detailed and specific.
2. The authenticity of a source increases the credibility of that source.
3. A primary source is more reliable than a secondary one.
4. The credibility of a source is increased if it is corroborated by independent sources.
5. Sources would tend to be bias, especially to its provenance or to the one who made it
or held its custody.
6. If sources like witnesses or their testimonies do not have immediate interest or direct
involvement to the event, they become more credible than those who have interest or
direct involvement.
7. If all independent sources agree to a certain event, then the event becomes usually
acceptable or factual.
8. Testimonies of witnesses are credible if the witnesses are mentally and emotionally fit
at the time of the interview or declaration.
9. The source that does not conform to its milieu is considered a fabricated source.
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What to Consider with Disagreeing or Hostile Sources?
Disagreeing or hostile sources are difficult to deal with, particularly when there is no
enough evidence that deal with the event being studied. Here are some tips that a historian
needs to consider when dealing with them:
1. If two sources disagree with each other and there is no way wherein one could be
examined over the other and vice-versa, the source with more logical reasoning and
which accords common sense would be considered.
2. If sources or witnesses do not agree on certain points, the source that gives more proofs
to its authenticity and credibility becomes more reliable.
3. If the source or witness is hostile, it becomes less credible. Corroboration to other

independent and types of sources would be more necessary.
4. A source or witness that holds orientation from one school of thought or philosophy—
e.g., Marxism—is usually argumentative or hostile with other sources. Thus, the milieu
of the source or the events tackled must be examined by looking at other sources that
convey the same theme and that do not hold orientation from any school of thought.
Ethics in Historical Research
There are certain values that must be observed in doing historical writing or research.
It is expected that a historian should exude the following:
❖ Conscious as to where he is coming from (biases, e.g., point of view, presuppositions,

personal values, prior knowledge, etc.)
❖ Objective and accurate in examining and analyzing his sources.
❖ Impartial and rational in interpreting his data and in synthesizing his work.
❖ Open to the use of all available and relevant sources, including those that contradict
his arguments.
❖ Free from the influence and subjection of others; he must subject himself only to the
truth.
❖ Conscientious in properly citing his sources.
❖ Thankful to those who helped him in pursuing his research in one way or another.
❖ Adhere himself to the highest integrity of scholarship by avoiding academic or

intellectual dishonesty such as plagiarism, fabrication, deception, cheating or
sabotage.
❖ Engage himself in a scientific scholarship through the proper application of the

established methods of the discipline.
11
❖ Establish a serious and rational familiarity with sources and a critical dialogue with
other historians and the reading public.
❖ Secure all forms of sources and allow them to be used by other historians.
❖ Offer authentic pieces of evidence to any serious claims or arguments.
❖ Refrain from duplicating what has been done before.
❖ Acknowledge indebtedness from other historians or those who extended assistance.
❖ Exude respect for criticisms from peers and other historians.
❖ Abstain from unreasonable interpretation of his data in order to achieve his intended
purpose.
❖ Show respect to other viewpoints.
❖ Avoid irresponsible use of sources in order to deliberately mislead readers, conceal

incidents in the past or modify history for one’s benefit.
It must always be borne in mind that History is a relevant and moralizing discipline that
is why it must always be objective and accurate.
Activity
Get the original copy of your birth certificate issued by the Philippine Statistics Authority
(formerly National Statistics Office) and discuss its (1) competence and impartiality in telling
the truth, (2) willingness in telling the truth and (3) adequacy of data that it conveys. What
other sources do you have at home do you think you can corroborate with your birth
certificate? What corroboration did you establish?
❖
❖
References
Block, M. (1953). The historian’s craft. Alfred A. Knopf.
Gottschalk, L. (1950). Understanding History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
12
Gripaldo, E. M., Boquiren, R. R., Miranda, E. A., Jose, R. T., Ignacio, V. S., Ambrosio, D. L.
… Mata, R. C. (2009). Kasaysayan ng Filipinas at mga institusyong Filipino. Sentro
ng Wikang Filipino. Unibersidad ng Pilipinas.
Howell, M., & Prevenier, W. (2001). From reliable sources: An introduction to historical
Pascual, M. (n.d.) Ethics in historical research [PowerPoint Slides].
Scott, W. H. (1984). Prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history. New
Day Publishers.
13
TESTS OF AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY:

THE TEJEROS CONVENTION OF 1897
Introduction
The Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or simply

the Katipunan suffered a debacle when its factions, Magdiwang and Magdalo could not
resolve their conflict. These factions, each which started as Sanguniang Balangay¸ were
eventually elevated into the rank of Sangguiniang Bayan because of the rapid growth of
membership, emanating from the repugnance of the Filipinos to the colonial system and
conditions. The Kataas-taasang Sanggunian subsequently allowed these factions to establish
their respective balangays that would be beneficial to their expansion. With Mariano Alvarez
as its leader, the Magdiwang established itself in Noveleta while the Magdalo, led by
Baldomero Aguinaldo, was founded in Kawit (Richardson, 2013).
A rift began between the two factions when differences between Andres Bonifacio and
Emilio Aguinaldo regarding the strategy of confronting Spain became obvious. Bonifacio, the
Supremo, based his decisions on the consensus of prominent katipuneros while Aguinaldo
believed on a centralized institution in effectively carrying out plans (May, 2017). This, and
the series of defeats he suffered against the Spaniards, caused his reputation as leader of the
Katipunan to dwindle in favor of Aguinaldo, apart from the continuing suspicion and jealousy
that would characterize the members of the Magdiwang and Magdalo. His engagements with
the Spaniards, no matter how extraordinary and perilous the battles were, considering the
armaments they had, spawned the gradual loss of esteem and confidence as evidenced by
the disrespect of certain members of the Magdalo Council in his attempt to solve their
predicament. Though the conflict was limited in Cavite and certain parts of Batangas, it
affected the solidarity of the Katipunan until the demise of Bonifacio and his brother in May
1897.
Learning Outcomes
1. Apply External and Internal Criticisms in the scrutiny of sources.

2. Distinguish the varying claims of sources and determine which claim becomes more
credible.
The Books and Their Authors
The sources to be used in discussing the Tejeros Convention are the books Katipunan
and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General by Santiago V. Alvarrez (1992) and The Revolt of
the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan by the late historian Teodoro Agoncillo
(2005).
14
Santiago V. Alvarez and His Background
Born in Cavite in 1872, Santiago Alvarez was a member of the Magdiwan Council by
serving as Captain-General of its forces. Because of his unfaltering courage and tenacity, he
valiantly fought the Spaniards in the Battle of Noveleta in 1896 with his father, General
Mariano Alvarez, and cousin, General Pascual Alvarez. This led to the death of two Spanish
officers and the capture of the civil guards and their weapons. He likewise participated in
various assaults in Maragondon, Magallanes, Alfonso, Silang, Imus, San Francisco de
Malabon and the coastal towns of Naic and Tanza. He earned the nom de guerre Kidlat ng
Apoy or Kapitan Apoy among the revolutionary forces due to his extraordinary bravery in the
Battle of Dalahican where he decisively defeated the Spaniards. Although discriminated by
Emilio Aguinaldo, Alvarez continued to support the revolutionary cause until his retirement
from the battlefield when the Americans finally defeated the Filipino insurgents.
Alvarez enrolled at the University of Santo Tomas yet he later transferred to San Juan
de Letran where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree. Subsequently, he took up law at
the Liceo de Manila. He took part in the reorganization of the Nacionalista Party which aimed
at securing independence from the United States of America in its appropriate time (Filipinos
in History, 1995).
In the Preface of his book, he said the following about his participation in the
Katipunan and the Revolution.
15
The Book and Its Content
The book Katipunan and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General by Santiago V. Alvarez
was published by the Ateneo de Manila University in 1992 and reprinted in 1996. With the
original Tagalog text, the book contains the English translation by Paula Carolina Malay. The
Tagalog text was initially published in the 1920s by the Tagalog weekly Sampagita. The book
relates what other Filipino and American historians have disregarded without deprecating the
struggle for independence (Alvarez, 1996).
The book narrates the personal

experiences and observations of its author
as a general during the Philippine
Revolution of which both Katipunan and
the government that succeeded it
championed with great vigor. He narrated
the events that took place prior to the
outbreak of the revolution, the activities of
the Katipunan, the election at Tejeros and
the events that culminated the revolution
after the untimely death of Andres
Bonifacio, the Supremo of the Sons of the
People, using authentic and credible.
Below is an excerpt (pp. 82-88)

taken from the book for your reading
convenience.
Figure 2. The book Katipunan and

the Revolution. Photo
by M. Pascual
Excerpt from the Katipunan and the Revolution by Santiago V. Alvarez.
16
17
18
19
20
21
Teodoro A. Agoncillo and His Background
The late Teodoro Agoncillo was an eminent Filipino historian who authored numerous
books and articles on Philippine history and literature. He is known for his History of the
Filipino People (8 editions, 1960, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1977, 1984, 1986, 1990), Malolos: The
Crisis of the Republic, The Fateful Years: Japan’s Adventures in the Philippines (2 Vols.,
1965), The Burden of Proof: The Vargas-Laurel Collaboration Case (1984) and more. His
Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan which is regarded as a classic
work in Philippine historiography gained him prominence.
The book initially espoused the idea of a nationalist historiography by contending that
the writing of Philippine must be in the Filipino point-of-view (Quibuyen, 2008). He regarded
that the masses made the revolution successful while the Ilustrados were forced to join it upon
seeing its imminence to success. As such, the book has made an impact among scholars
when it comes to studying the revolution as a product of the collective struggle of the masses
(Aguilar, 2020).
Agoncillo earned his Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy at the University of the Philippines
in 1934 and obtained a master’s arts degree the year after. He taught at Far Eastern
University, then at Manuel L. Quezon University, before he accepted the invitation of Dean
Tomas Fonacier to teach at the Department of History of the University of the Philippines
where he also served as chairman (Ocampo, 2016). In 1985, he was named National
Scientist of the Philippines by the late President Ferdinand Marcos for his outstanding
contributions in history.
The Book and Its Content
The book Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan was initially
published by the College of Liberal Arts of the University of the Philippines in 1956. Then the
22
second edition and printing were respectively

printed in 2002 and 2005. The book is an in-
depth discussion on the Katipunan and the
life history of its Supremo Andres Bonifacio
through the use of pertinent primary sources
concerning the Philippine Revolution against
Spain. Between the two, however, Agoncillo
gave more emphasis on the Katipunan
because of his belief that “Bonifacio can best
be seen and appreciated against the
backdrop of the revolutionary society”, apart
from the scarcity of materials about the life of
the Supremo (Agoncillo, 2005). Just like its
sequel, the book began as notes and was a
project initiated outside the University of the
Philippines (Ocampo, 2016).
Below is an excerpt (pp. 206-217)

taken from the chapter of the book titled
Seeds of Discontent for your reading
convenience.
Figure 3. The book Revolt of the

Masses. Photo by M. Pascual
.
Excerpt from the Katipunan and the Revolution by Santiago V. Alvarez.
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Activity
Read the Katipunan and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General by Santiago Alvarez
and The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan by Teodoro
Agoncillo and examine their respective claims about the Tejeros Convention. Your
answers should be written comprehensively in the matrix below.
A. Test of Authenticity
Brief Description of Origin of the Date of the

The Competence of
SOURCE the Source Information Information and
the Author
Narrated Milieu
Katipunan and the
Revolution:
Memoirs of a
General
The Revolt of the

Masses: The Story
of Bonifacio and the
Katipunan
32
B. Test of Credibility
Similarities and
Objectives of the Persons involved in Biases of the Difference with
SOURCE
Event the Event Author Other Independent
Testimonies
Katipunan and the
Revolution:
Memoirs of a
General
The Revolt of the

Masses: The Story
of Bonifacio and
the Katipunan
C. Finding/Conclusion
In your examination of
the sources, what did you
find out?
❖
References
Agoncillo, T. A. (2005). Revolt of the masses: The story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan.
Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
Alvarez, S. V. (1996). Katipunan and the revolution: Memoirs of a general (P.C. Malay,
Trans.). Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Filipinos in History. (1995). National Historical Institute.
May, G. A. (2007). Warfare by "pulong" Bonifacio, Aguinaldo, and the Philippine revolution
against Spain. In Philippine studies (Vol. 55, No. 4, pp. 449-477). Quezon City:
Ateneo de Manila University. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42633930.
Ocampo, A. R. (2016). Talking history: Conversations with Teodoro A. Agoncillo. University

of Santo Tomas Publishing House.
Quibuyen, F. C. (2008). A nation aborted: Rizal, American hegemony and Philippine

nationalism (Rev. Ed.). Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Richardson, J. (2013) Light of Liberty: Documents and Studies on the Katipunan, 1892-
1897. Manila: Ateneo de Manila.
33
UNIT 2
SPANISH COLONIZATION
TO THE PRESENT
Figure 4. The Main Academic Building of PUP and its environs. (PUP Memorabilia).
34
CHRONICLES ABOUT THE 16TH CENTURY FILIPINOS: THE FIRST VOYAGE

AROUND THE WORLD AND THE CUSTOMS OF THE TAGALOGS
Introduction
The so-called Age of Exploration and Discovery which commenced between the 15th
th
and 16 centuries is considered by most historians as the turning point in the development of
Philippine history. In 1521, Magellan accidentally reached the Philippines which marked the
succeeding expeditions by subsequent explorers and by the conquest of the Philippines by
Adelantado Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. The arrival of Legaspi in 1564 and his effective
occupation of Cebu in 1565 started the 333-year rule of the Spaniards in the Philippines. This
lesson hopes to give the students an overview on the various events and turning points which
helped in shaping the course of the history the country.
This unit and its lessons include certain discussions on the expeditions commenced
by Spanish navigators, initial impressions made by the Spaniards towards the natives, the
resistance of the Filipinos against colonial rule, and the eventual foundation of the present-
day Republic of the Philippines. The flow of discussion is somewhat peculiar. Unlike the usual
method of teaching history which is based solely on chronology of events, the sequencing of
the topics is thematic and shall challenge the critical thinking ability of the students. This
lesson which is focused on the Magellan Expedition and the Customs of the Tagalogs will look
into the state of the Philippines through the narratives made by the chroniclers in the 16th
century.
Learning Outcomes
1. Determine the importance of the Philippines for the economic gains of Spain.
2. Develop concepts on the state of the Philippines during the initial East-West
encounter in the first quarter of the 16th century.
3. Evaluate the authenticity and credibility of sources based on provenance and
critical evaluation of content.
THE FIRST VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD
Antonio Pigafetta and His Background
The author of the account for this topic is Antonio Pigafetta who lived sometime
between 1491 and 1531. Hailed from Vicenza, he was an Italian scholar and explorer who
belonged to a rich family. This allowed him to have the means to study astronomy, geography
and cartography. Being a member of a rich and influential family, Pigafetta was able to make
35
his way and become the chronicler of the Magellan Expedition. He was among the 18 crew
members who were able to return to Spain out of the approximately 270 crew members of the
ill-fated expedition.
Apart from de Moluccis Indicis of Maximilianus Transylavanus, Pigafetta’s account is

the main source for most of the knowledge we have about Magellan and Elcano’s voyage.
The difference between the two sources is that Pigafetta’s account is a primary source
because he was with Magellan during the expedition while Transylavanus’ account is primarily
a compilation of interviews from some of the surviving crew of the same voyage. However,
what makes Pigafetta strange is that his name is nowhere to be found in any official document
in the Casa de Contratacion in Seville, Spain. The Casa is significant because prior to the
establishment of the Council of Indies in 1524, all matters pertaining to overseas expeditions
was handled by this crown agency. Historian Martin Fernandez de Navarrete in his Coleccion
de los Viages y Descubrimientos que Hicieron por mar los Espanoles, Volumen IV tells of the
name Antonio Lombardo. The volume suggests that Pigafetta was referred to as the person
Antonio who came from Lombardy, the neighboring state of Vicenza. Vicenza, where
Pigafetta is said to have come from, was a dominion of Venice from 1404 until the end of the
eighteenth century.
Background of Pigafetta’s Account
What is written in Pigafetta’s account? The account narrated Magellan’s expedition

from its launching until its return to Spain. Apart from the description of the various groups of
peoples which the expedition encountered, as well as the hardships and struggles they
encountered during the voyage, the account narrated Magellan’s arrival in the Philippines, his
initial exploits, the friendships he established with the natives and his eventual death. The
account also includes the subsequent trials that the surviving crew endured before they were
able to return to Spain. To scholars, Pigafetta’s account serves as an important eye-witness
account on the first circumnavigation of the globe.
How was the account written? There are four known manuscripts or versions of
Pigafetta’s account. One version which is located at the Ambrosiana Library in Milan is written
in Italian. Three other versions were written in French. The first French version titled Le
Voyage et Navigation was found in Paris sometime in 1525. This version was translated into
Italian in 1536 with the title Il Viaggio fatto dagli Spagnivoli. Subsequently, it was included in
the first volume of Navigationi et Viaggi published in 1550 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio. This
French version had been the basis of subsequent translations to different languages.
According to Giovanni Battista Ramusion, ‘the traditional understanding has been that
Pigafetta first wrote a brief summary of events in Italian, which he presented to Louise de
Savoy, the mother of King Francis I of France, at the behest of whom Jacques Antoine Fabre
prepared a translation to French, which was published as a translation of French, which was
published as the c. 1525 first edition. According to this tradition, Pigafetta later composed a
more complete version, in either French or Italian (McCarl, 2019).
36
Summary and Highlights of the Account
Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition left Seville, Spain on August 10, 1519, although their
actual voyage started on September 20, 1519. There were five ships that comprised his fleet.
These were the Victoria, Concepcion, San Antonio, Santiago, and Trinidad along with some
270 crew members. The expedition was able to reach the West African coast prior to the
crossing of the Atlantic. They then reached Brazil and other parts of the South America in the
Atlantic. While exploring the southern portion of the South American continent, the Spanish
captains who had resentment towards their Portuguese leader made a mutiny. The mutiny,
though, was quickly crushed later.
On October 21, 1520, after more than a year of naval voyage, Magellan was able to
discover a passage which connects two great bodies of water, the Atlantic and the newly-
discovered Pacific Ocean. This passage was named as the Strait of Magellan. During this
time, however, only three out of the five original ships were able to cross the passage because
the ship San Antonio deserted the voyage by reversing its course while the ship Santiago was
wrecked by a strong squall in the Brazilian coast. The crew members of the expedition
experienced horrible conditions while crossing the Pacific Ocean. It was even described that
some of the men were forced to eat the leathers of their gears and garments and ropes, mice
and saw dusts just to keep them alive. Their agony ended when they were able to replenish
their stocks in Guam on March 6, 1521. They initially called the island as the Island of Sails
but later changed it to Isla de Ladrones when natives stole a boat from the ship Trinindad.
Ladrones, a Spanish term, means thief in English.
On March 16, 1521 they were able to land in the island of Zamal (Samar). Their arrival
coincided with the day of the Feast of St. Lazarus that is why Magellan named the islands that
he and his men saw as the Archipelago of St. Lazarus. They then went to Humunu
(Homonhon) where they met the rulers of Butuan and Caraga, Rajah Siagu and Rajah
Colambu. On March 27, 1521, they left Homonhon and reached Masao (Mazaua?) in Butuan
on the following day. Magellan and Rajah Colambu made a blood compact as a sign of their
friendship. On March 31, 1521, Fr. Pedro de Valderrama offered a mass. The crew later
installed a cross on the mountains, signifying the conquest of the land.
From Homonhon, the expedition through the assistance of Colambu sailed to Cebu
where they met Rajah Humabon on April 7, 1521. Although reluctant at first, Humabon
welcomed Magellan and their friendship was cemented through a blood compact. On April
14, 1521, a mass was officiated in Cebu and a cross was once again erected as a sign of
conquest of the land. Magellan invited the natives to be baptized, an invitation they gladly
accepted. Along with Humabon and his wife were the more than 800 natives who were
baptized. Humabon was christened Fernando while his wife was christened Juana. As a
gesture of friendship, an image of the child Jesus (Santo Nino) was given as a gift by Magellan
to Juana. This image is revered in Cebu by multitudes of devotees until the present time.
Not all of the chieftains in Cebu wanted to establish friendship with Magellan. Lapu-
lapu, the chief of Mactan refused to accept the Spaniards. Apart from Lapu-lapu, another chief
in Mactan named Zula wanted to defeat the former. Zula sought the assistance of Magellan,
who without hesitation agreed to fight Lapu-lapu. Magellan was too confident that they could
defeat Lapu-lapu to the point that he refused the offer of Humabon for help. A group of sixty
men arrived in Mactan on April 27, 1521. Out of this number, eleven were left behind to man
the ships while fourty-nine waded towards the shore. Magellan and his men were
overwhelmed by Lapu-lapu’s warriors. The Mactan warriors totaling to more than 1,050
formed three divisions to repel the Spaniards. The foreigners where shot with arrows, bamboo
37
lances and stones. A poisoned arrow hit Magellan on his leg. It was only then when he
ordered a retreat. A bamboo lance then hit his arms while a javelin struck his back, causing
him to fall facing downwards. Upon seeing the death of their leader, the Spaniards soon
retreated to their ships. The surviving crew of the voyage requested that the body of Magellan
be handed to them which, unfortunately, the natives denied. For them, the body was an
accolade and a symbol of their valor and victory.
The horrors experienced by the Spaniards did not end there. Humabon was quite
disenchanted with the defeat of the Spaniards that he connived with Enrique, the slave of
Magellan who was abused by Duarte Barbossa, the successor of Magellan as the leader of
the expedition, to kill the remaining Spaniards. He invited the remaining Spaniards to have a
dinner with him in his palace. Twenty-six Spaniards went to feast, and while they were eating,
they were treacherously killed by the natives. Out of this number, twenty-four were killed,
including Duarte Barbossa, Juan Serrano, and Pedro de Valderrama, the priest who baptized
them.
The remaining crew members quickly left Cebu and started their voyage to return
home. On their way southwards, they were able to reach Palawan, Brunei, Mindanao, and
Moluccas. They then decided that the two remaining ships–Trinidad and Victoria would take
two different routes. The Trinidad which was commanded by Gomez de Espirera would cross
again the Pacific in the hope of reaching Mexico while the Victoria which was commanded by
Sebastian de Elcano would sail to Spain by crossing the Indian Ocean and the African coast.
The Trinidad was not able to complete its goal for it was captured by the Portuguese in
Moluccas. The Victoria, on the other hand, was able to return to Spain on September 6 1522,
after 2 years, 11 months and 16 days. Out of the 270 original crew members of the expedition,
only eighteen, along with four Indians survived the journey.
CUSTOMS OF THE TAGALOGS
Juan de Plasencia and His Background
The author of the Customs of the Tagalogs is Juan de Plasencia, a Franciscan friar
who came from Extremadura, Spain. As a religious missionary, he adopted the life of poverty
and the life offered for the purpose of preaching and helping the poor. He is among the first
batch of missionaries who came to the Philippines in 1578. He was assigned to different
mission areas in Luzon, particularly in Laguna and the present-day provinces of Quezon,
Bulacan and Rizal. He became the custos or superior of the Franciscans in the Philippines
from May 23, 1584 until 1588. He later died in Laguna in 1590.
Background of the Document
Written in Nagcarlan, Laguna and finished on October 21, 1589, the Costumbres de
los Tagalos (Customs of the Tagalogs) was among the series of accounts written by various
friar-missionaries and colonial officials during the early years of Spanish occupation in the
Philippines. These accounts were attempts to know and describe their new subjects more.
Plasencia was ordered by the king of Spain to write an account that described the
natives in the areas assigned to his Order. As Plasencia was not able to primarily witness all
38
of the events he would describe, he collected information from old men and individuals whom
he thought as most able—all of whom were known to him. Thereafter, he weeded out much
foolishness in order to obtain the simple truth regarding native practices on government,
administration of justice, inheritances, slaves and dowries. It became clear that Plasencia
was tasked to account his observations of the natives so that the colonizers would have a
basis in effectively dealing with the former.
Excerpts Taken from the Document
On Government and Social Organization. The Tagalogs were ruled by their chiefs called
by them as datos (spelling in the account). They governed and served them as their captains
in times of war. They were obeyed and revered to a point that any offense committed against
their person or word spoken against their wives and children were severely punished.
Plasencia likened the datos to the knights of the Spaniards. Their communities were referred
to as barangay, a term which was drawn from the boat they used to reach these islands.
Barangays were small communities composed of thirty up to one hundred families.
Next to the datos were the Maharlicas (nobles) who were required to accompany the
dato especially in times of war. This was their main duty, especially because they were not
required to pay taxes or tributes. Apart from accompanying the dato in his exploits, the
maharlicas had to pay their own expenses such as food, clothing, armor and their boat to be
used in war. Next were the commoners which Plasencia referred to as the Aliping
Namamahay. Although they lived in their own houses while serving their masters, one
privilege they could enjoy was their immunity from being sold to anyone. Moreover, they
could also be inherited by their master’s son although they could not be brought with him
should the son wish to transfer to another barangay.
The last level belonged to the slaves. Plasencia identified them as Aliping Sa
Guiguilir/Guiguilid who were usually the captives in war and enslaved together with their
children. They lived with their master and served as farmers in their master’s field. Since
they were slaves, they could be sold, including their children. If any of the Sa Guiguilir
happened to possess gold beyond the sum of his value as slave and could pay it to his master,
then he could ransom himself and become a Namamahay or a commoner. The price for
ransom could not go below five taels. If the agreement with his master went beyond the
minimum ransom price or ten taels for that matter, then he could be totally free.
The difference between the Aliping Namamahay and the Aliping Sa Guiguilir should
be noted because in page 168 of the book, a confusion between the two terms was
encountered. Many were classed as slaves even when they were really not. The Indians,
seeing that the alcalde mayor did not understand this, adopted the custom of taking away the
children of the Aliping Namamahay, making use of them as Aliping Sa Guiguilir, as servants
in their households which was considered illegal. If the Aliping Namamahay would appeal to
justice, it would be proven that he was an alipin like his father and mother before him. And
whether or not he was indeed an Aliping Namamahay, his status would be taken in the context
of Aliping Sa Guiguilir. Without further declaration, he would be considered as an alipin at
once, thus becoming a Sa Guiguilir who could also be sold elsewhere. The Aliping Sa
Guiguilir, together with their master, could be transferred to another barangay by virtue of
inheritance, provided that he and his master would remain in the same village.
On Marriage. These are the different situations concerning marriage among the Maharlicas,
Aliping Namamahay and Aliping Sa Guiguilir.
39
Situation 1: Those who were considered Maharlicas both on their paternal and maternal sides
could continue to enjoy their status forever. If, for instance they became slaves,
it happened because of marriage.
Situation 2: If the Maharlicas had children among their slaves, the children and their mothers
would be considered freemen.
Situation 3: If the Maharlicas had children with the female slaves of another Maharlica, the
female slave would be compelled, when pregnant, to give her master half of a
gold tael because of her risk of death, and for her inability to work during
pregnancy. In this case, the child would be considered half-free due to his father.
If his father would not supply him with food and hence would not recognize him,
the child would be considered totally as slave.
Situation 4: If a free woman had children by a slave, the children would be regarded as
freemen, provided that he was not the free woman’s husband.
Situation 5: If a Maharlica and a slave—whether Namamahay or Sa Guiguilir—married, their

children would be classified according to birth order: odd birth order (first, third,
fifth, etc.) would inherit the status of the father while the even birth order (second,
fourth, sixth, etc.) would inherit the status of the slave mother. If the child was
the only offspring, he would be regarded as half-free, half-slave.
The classification of the children was irrespective of their sex. What was evident was
those who inherited the status of the mother would work as slaves. If, in case, the last child
were an odd birth, the child would consider as half free and half slave.
After marriage, the Maharlicas could not move from one barangay to another without
paying a certain amount of fine in gold. The fine ranged from one to three taels and also a
banquet sponsored for the entire barangay. This fine was larger or smaller according to the
inclination of the different villages. Failure to pay the fine might result to a war between the
barangays, the one where he left and the other where he would live anew. This tradition was
equally applied to men and women, except that when a man from a certain barangay would
marry a woman from another, their children would later on be divided equally between the two
barangays.
On Loans. The debtors were condemned to a life of toil because of the excessive interest
added to their debts. As a result, debtors were plunged into difficulty until they became slaves,
together with their children. In order to earn a living, sometimes their debt was sold to other
people, so the debtor had to pay more debt and had to experience an increasingly pitiful state.
On Inheritance. Though legitimate children could inherit equally, there were some situations
wherein the mother or father showed favoritism by bestowing more gold or gifts to a child. The
dowry they gave to a son in order to marry the dato’s daughter was not included in the partition
of the inheritance. In like manner, the property that was provided by the parents to their child
could not be considered inheritance, unless it was declared a necessity and not for
accumulating a wealth. If a man had a child by one of his slaves, their children would not
inherit anything. Instead, his legitimate child would be bound to free the slave and must give
her a tael or a slave. A man’s child from another woman would inherit everything when there
was no legitimate child with the wife. However, if it happened that the man died without an
heir—legitimate or natural, the inheritance could be acquired by his parents, grandparents or
the closest relative in their absence.
40
On Inheritance of Adopted Children. The adopted child could inherit twice of the amount
paid in his adoption. For example, if one tael of gold was paid upon a child’s adoption, he
should be given two taels of inheritance by the adopting parents thereafter. Children whose
fathers died before their adoption could not inherit anything from the adopting parents. The
rule was simple: the arrangement on inheritance stopped at the death of their biological
fathers.
On Investigations and Punishments. Investigations made and sentences passed by the

dato should take place in the presence of the people of the barangay. If any of the litigants
felt aggrieved, an arbiter would be unanimously chosen from another village or barangay, be
he a dato or not. The arbiter must be known of his integrity as fair and just by rendering
rational judgment according to their customs. If the controversy was between two chiefs, they
had to convoke judges who would serve as arbiters in order to avoid going into war. The
same procedure would be applied if the disputants came from two different barangays. This
convocation would always involve the serving of wine by the complainant to the individuals
present.
The account of Plasencia proved the adherence of the Filipinos to moral standards.
They had laws by which they could condemn a man of low birth to death if he insulted the
daughter or wife of a chief. They condemned no one to slavery, unless the person merited
the penalty of death. They also killed witches after they had made some recompense to the
injured persons. The children of the witches and their accomplices would become the slaves
of the chief. All other offenses were punished by fines in gold which, if not paid with
promptness, the offender would be compelled to serve the aggrieved until payment would be
made.
The payment of fine had to be done on the following day, so the offender had to
surrender half of his cultivated lands and that of his produce to his master in exchange for
money. The master, in turn, would provide him and his children with food and clothing, thus
remaining him and the children to servitude until such time that he could compensate the debt.
If he could pay his debt, his master would claim that he fed and clothed his children and should
also be paid thereof. In this way, he would keep possession of the children if the additional
payment could not be met promptly.
The last scenario became an unsettled problem usually on the part of the debtor, the
reason why he and his children would remain as slaves. If the debtor had some relatives or
friends who could pay for him, he would be obliged to render half of his services to them until
he could settle his payment. The services to be rendered would not be in the context of being
an Aliping Sa Guiguilir but within that of Aliping Namamahay. If the creditor could not or
refused to serve his creditor then he would have to pay twice the amount of what was
previously lent to him. In this way, slaves were made by debt by being a Sa Guiguilir if they
served the master who was favored by the judgment or by being an Aliping Namamahay when
they served the person who lent them money to pay the value of their offense.
On Marriage Dowries. Dowries were given by the men to the women's parents. If the parents
were still alive, they could enjoy the dowry given to them. If the dowry was not consumed by
the parents because of death of the parents, the wife and her siblings would equally inherit it
in addition to the rest of the estate. If the wife, at the time of her marriage, did not have a
living father, mother or grandparents, she would enjoy the dowry by herself. As regards to
unmarried women, their customs would not allow them to own a property—be it an estate or
a dowry. This is because their labors were usually considered as devotion to their parents.
41
When the sons were about to get married, their fathers would bestow instantly upon
them the half of the dowries that they should give to the parents of their brides. Failure to
provide dowries would require a certain sum which varied according to the practice of the
barangays or the individual’s affluence. The fine was at its heaviest when the groom or the
bride would withdraw from the marriage because the nuptial was a pre-arranged affair by their
parents who previously died. In this scenario, the dowry had to be returned by the family of
the bride. If the parents of the bride were alive, the fine was heavier because it was thought
that her parents wanted her to marry for the sake of financial gains alone.
On Divorce. The pre-colonial Filipinos practiced divorce, contrary to what the present
Filipinos have. Until the coming of the Spaniards, divorce was practiced due to certain
grounds. For instance, when the wife left the husband before giving birth to a child for the
purpose of marrying another, the entire dowry would go to the husband. But when the wife
left him and would not marry another man, the dowry would be returned. When the husband
left his wife, he would lose his half of the dowry.
When the husband and wife had a child, the entire dowry and fine would go to the
child. The dowry for the children would be taken cared by the grandparents or close relatives.
If they were childless and the wife died, the parents would return half of the dowry to the
husband. If the husband was the one who died, half of the dowry would be returned to his
relatives.
The Worship of the Tagalogs, their Gods, their Burials and Superstitions
On the Worship Practices of the Tagalogs. Plasencia noted the absence of temples
consecrated for the performance of sacrifices, the adoration of native idols and the general
practice of idolatry in all the villages or in other parts of the archipelago. Although the Tagalogs
used the term Simbahan which meant a temple or place of adoration, in reality festivals
referred to as pandot or worship were celebrated not in the Simbahan but in the large house
of the chief. There, they constructed a temporary shed on each side of the house, with a roof
called sibi for the purpose of sheltering the assembled people, and to protect them from the
rain.
They also constructed the house in a manner that could accommodate many people,
dividing it into three compartments following the fashion of ships. On the posts of the house,
they set small lamps called sorihile. At the center of the house was placed a large lamp which
was adorned with leaves of the white palm wrought into many designs. They also brought
together many drums, large and small, which they beat successively while the feast lasted for
four days. During this time, the whole barangay or family would unite and join in the worship
which they called nagaanitos. The house, for the above-mentioned period of time, was called
a temple.
On the Tagalog Deities. Among their many idols, there was one called Badhala (Bathala)
whom they especially worshiped. The title seems to signify “all powerful” or “maker of all
things”. They also worshiped the sun which, on account of its beauty, was almost universally
respected and honored by infidels. They worshiped also the moon, especially when it was a
new moon. At which time they held great rejoicings, adoring it and bidding it welcome. Some
of them also adored the stars, although they did not know them by their names with the
exception of the morning star which they called Tala. They knew, too, the seven little goats
(the Pleiades) and, consequently, the change of seasons, which they called Mapolon and
42
Balatic. They possessed many idols called lic-ha which were images with different shapes.
At times they worshiped some particular dead men who were brave in war and endowed with
special faculties, to whom they commended themselves for protection in their tribulations.
They had another idol called Dian Masalanta, who was the patron of lovers and of generation.
The idols called Lacapati and Idianale were the patrons of the cultivated lands and of
husbandry. They paid reverence to water lizards called by them as buaya or crocodiles due
to fear of being harmed by them. They were even in the habit of offering these animals a
portion of what they carried in their boats, by throwing it into the water or placing it upon the
bank.
On their superstitious beliefs. If they left their house and met on the way a serpent or rat,
or a bird called Tigmamanuguin which was singing on a tree, or if they chanced upon anyone
who sneezed, they returned at once to their houses. This is because they considered the
incident as an augury that some evil might befall them if they should continue their journey,
especially when the above-mentioned bird sang. This song had two different forms: one was
considered as an evil omen while the other one was a good omen. They also practiced
divination to see whether weapons such as a dagger or knife would be useful and lucky for
their possessor whenever occasions would offer.
Young girls who first had their monthly courses, their eyes were blindfolded for four
days and four nights. In the meantime, their friends and relatives were all invited to share
food and drink. At the end of this period, the catolonan took the young girl to the water, bathed
her and washed her head and removed the bandage from her eyes. The old men claimed that
they did this in order that the girls would bear children and have fortune in finding husbands
whom they liked and who would not leave them widows in their youth.
There were also ghosts, which they called vibit and phantoms which they called
tigbalaang. They had another superstition. If there were any woman died in childbirth, it was
believed that she and the child suffered punishment. At night, she could be heard lamenting.
This was called patianac.
On their Knowledge of Time. The natives had no established division of years, months, and
days. These were determined by the cultivation of the soil, their counting by the moons, and
the different effect produced upon the trees when yielding flowers, fruits, and leaves. All this
helped them in making up the year. The dry and wet seasons were distinguished as sun-time
and water-time.
Plasencia noted that since the Tagalogs became Christians, the seasons were not
really the same all throughout the year for he observed that at “Christmas” would be colder.
The Spaniards, since their advent in the country, had determined the seasons, introduced the
months which were divided into weeks.
On their Sacrifices and Other Forms of Idolatries. Their manner of offering a sacrifice was
to proclaim a feast and offer to the devil what they had to eat. This was done in front of the
idol which they anointed with fragrant perfumes such as musk and civet or gum of the storax-
tree and other odoriferous woods. They praise their idol with poetic songs sung by the
officiating priest, male or female, who is called catolonan. The participants made responses
to the song, beseeching the idol to favor them with those things of which they were in need,
and generally, by offering repeated health, they all became intoxicated. In some of their
idolatries they were accustomed to place a good piece of cloth, doubled, over the idol, and
over the cloth a chain or large, gold ring, thus worshiping the devil without having a sight of
him.
43
The devil was sometimes liable to enter into the body of the catolonan, and, assuming
her shape and appearance, filled her with so great arrogance. The devil, being the cause of
it, would seem to influence the catalonan that she seemed to shoot flames from her eyes. Her
hair stood on end, a fearful sight to those beholding and she uttered words of arrogance and
superiority. In some districts, especially in the mountains, when in those idolatries that the
devil incarnated himself and took on the form of his minister, the latter had to be tied to a tree
by his companions, to prevent the devil in his infernal fury from destroying him.
The objects of sacrifice were goats, fowls, and swine, which were flayed, decapitated,
and laid before the idol. They performed another ceremony by cooking a jar of rice until the
water was evaporated, after which they broke the jar, and the rice was left as an intact mass
which was set before the idol; and all about it, at intervals, were placed a few buyos—which
was a small fruit wrapped in a leaf with some lime, a food generally eaten in these regions—
as well as fried food and fruits. All of the above-mentioned articles were eaten by the guests
at the feast; the heads [of the animals], after being offered, as they expressed it, were cooked
and eaten also.
The reasons for offering this sacrifice and adoration were, in addition to whatever
personal matters there might be, the recovery of a sick person, the prosperous voyage of
those embarking on the sea, a good harvest in the sowed lands, a propitious result in wars, a
successful delivery in childbirth, and a happy outcome in married life. If this took place among
people of rank, the festivities lasted thirty days.
On the Priests of the Devil. The first was called catolonan who was either a man or a
woman. This office was an honorable one among the natives and was held ordinarily by
people of rank. This rule was general in all the islands.
The second was called mangagauay or witches who deceived by pretending to heal
the sick. These priests even induced maladies by their charms, which in proportion to the
strength and efficacy of the witchcraft, were capable of causing death. In this way, if they
wished to kill at once they did so; or they could prolong life for a year by binding to the waist
a live serpent, which was believed to be the devil, or at least his substance. This office was
general throughout the land.
The third was called manyisalat, which was the same as the magagauay. These
priests had the power of applying such remedies to lovers that they would abandon and
despise their own wives, and in fact could prevent them from having intercourse with the latter.
If the woman, constrained by these means, were abandoned, it would bring sickness upon
her; and on account of the desertion she would discharge blood and matter. This office was
also general throughout the land.
The fourth was called mancocolam, whose duty was to emit fire from himself at night,
once or often each month. This fire could not be extinguished except as the priest wallowed
in the ordure and filth which fell from the houses. And he who lived in the house where the
priest was wallowing in order to emit this fire from himself fell ill and died. This office was
general in the islands.
The fifth was called hocloban which was another kind of witch, of greater efficacy than
the mangagauay. Without the use of medicine, and by simply saluting or raising the hand,
they killed whom they chose. But if they desired to heal those whom they had made ill by
their charms, they did so by using other charms. Moreover, if they wished to destroy the
44
house of some Indian hostile to them, they were able to do so without instruments. This was
in Catanduanes, an island off the upper part of Luzon.
The sixth was called silagan who was clothed in white, to tear out his liver and eat it,
thus causing the victim’s death. This, like the preceding, was in the island of Catanduanes.
Let no one consider this a fable because, in Calavan, they tore out in this way through the
anus all the intestines of a Spanish notary, who was buried in Calilaya by father Fray Juan de
Mérida.
The seventh was called magtatangal whose purpose was to show himself at night to
many persons without his head or entrails. In such wise, the devil walked about and carried,
or pretended to carry his head to different places. In the morning, he would return to his body
and remained alive as before. This seemed to me to be a fable, although the natives affirmed
that they saw it because the devil probably caused them so to believe. This occurred also in
Catanduanes.
The eighth they called osuang which was the equivalent of a sorcerer. They said that
they saw him flew and that he murdered men and ate their flesh. This was among the Visayas
Islands and not from the Tagalogs.
The ninth was another class of witch called mangagayoma. This witch could make
charms for lovers out of herbs, stones, and wood which would infuse the heart with love.
The tenth was known as sonat which was the equivalent of a preacher. It was his task
to help a person to die. Likewise, he could predict the salvation or condemnation of the soul.
It was not lawful for the functions of this priest to be fulfilled by others than people of high
standing, on account of the esteem in which he was held. This priest was general throughout
the islands.
The eleventh was the pangatahojan who was a soothsayer and a predictor of the
future. This type of priest was also general in all the islands.
The twelfth was the bayoguin who was signified a cotquean. A cotquean was a man
whose nature inclined toward that of a woman.
All the various kinds of infernal ministers were, therefore, as was stated: catolonan,
sonat (who was a sort of bishop who ordained priestesses and received their reverence, for
they knelt before him as before one who could pardon sins, and expected salvation through
him) mangagauay, manyisalat, mancocolam, hocloban, silagan, magtatangal, osuang,
mangagayoma and pangatahojan.
On the Belief on Death and Other Associated Rituals. Their manner of burying the dead
was as follows: the deceased was buried beside his house. If he were a chief, he was placed
beneath a little house or porch which they constructed for this purpose. Before interring him,
they mourned him for four days and afterwards laid him on a boat which served as a coffin or
bier. He would be placed beneath the porch where a guard was kept over him by a slave. In
place of rowers, various animals were placed within the boat, each one being assigned a
place at the oar by twos. These animals, for example two goats, two deer or two fouls, were
male and female of each species. It was the slave's care to see that they were fed. If the
deceased had been a warrior, a living slave was tied beneath his body until in this wretched
way he died. In the course of time, all would suffer decay and for many days the relatives of
the dead man bewailed him, singing dirges and praises of his good qualities until finally they
45
wearied of it. This grief was also accompanied by eating and drinking. This was a custom of
the Tagalogs.
The Aetas, or Negrillos (Negritos) who were inhabitants of the island had also a form
of burial but different. They dug a deep, perpendicular hole and placed the deceased within
it, leaving him upright with head or crown unburied. On top of the deceased, they would put
half a cocoa-nut which was to serve him as a shield. Then they went in pursuit of some Indian
whom they killed in retribution for the Negrillo who had died. To this end they conspired
together, hanging a certain token on their necks until one of them procured the death of the
innocent one.
These infidels said that they knew that there was another life of rest which they called
maca, just as if we should say “paradise,” or, in other words, “village of rest.” They say that
those who go to this place are the just, and the valiant, and those who lived without doing
harm, or who possessed other moral virtues. They said also that in the other life and mortality,
there was a place of punishment, grief, and affliction, called casamaan, which was “a place of
anguish;” they also maintained that no one would go to heaven, where there dwelt only
Bathala, “the maker of all things,” who governed from above. There were also other pagans
who confessed more clearly to a hell, which they called, as I have said, casanaan; they said
that all the wicked went to that place, and there dwelt the demons, whom they called sitan.
Plasencia ended his account with this statement: “May the honor and glory be God
our Lord's, that among all the Tagalos [sic] not a trace of this is left; and that those who are
now marrying do not even know what it is, thanks to the preaching of the holy gospel, which
has banished it.”
Activity
1. Using a world and Philippine map, trace the route of the Magellan expedition.
2. Discuss what makes Pigafetta’s account on Magellan’s expedition essential in
understanding pre-16th century Filipinos.
3. Analyze the content of Fray de Plasencia’s account. Focusing on the relation on
the worship and beliefs of the Tagalogs, does the language or description used in
❖
the account suggest bias of any sort? In terms of biases, what makes Morga’s
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas different from that of Fray Plasencia?
❖
References:
de Navarrete, M. F.. (1837). Coleccion de los viajes y descubrimientos que hicieron por
mar los espanoles desde fines del siglo XV. Madrid: Imprenta Nacional.
de Plasencia, J. (1903). Customs of the Tagalogs. In The Philippine islands (Vol. 7, pp.
173–98). Cleveland: A.H. Clark Company.
46
Howell, M., & Prevenier, W. (2001). From reliable sources: An introduction to historical
Rosales, A., & Sebastian. R. R. (2008). Historia: Pag-usbong, pakikipagtagpo at pagbubuo.

Manila: Mary Jo Publishing House.
Stearns, P. (1998). Why study history? In American historical association. Retrieved from
https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-
archives/historical-archives/why-study-history-(1998).
47
KARTILYA NG KATIPUNAN
Introduction
The Colonial Period was a harsh phenomenon that compelled an opportunity for the
Filipinos to act in solidarity towards sovereignty. It was the regime which caused Andres
Bonifacio to organize the Katipunan on July 7, 1892. Obliged by the defunct of Rizal’s La Liga
Filipina and the absence of hope on the Reform Movement, Bonifacio had to make options in
order to achieve the freedom dreamed by the whole nation.
With the hope of instilling order and respect among its members, the Katipunan
introduced a set of guiding principles and teachings. To its author, Emilio Jacinto, what was
important for its members was the cognizance of katwiran and kaliwanagan. The existence
of the Kartilya proved the correctitude and adherence of the Filipinos to established principles
and their merit for the regard of humanity.
Learning Outcomes
1. Explain the need of the Kartilya for the members of the Katipunan.
2. Recognize the relevance of the Kartilya as an ethical-moral guide to the Filipinos
then and now.
The Author and His Background
Ever since, the authorship of the Kartilya has been ascribed to Emilio Jacinto, the
young adviser of Andres Bonifacio and the so-called Brain of the Katipunan. Due to his
brilliance, he rose from the position of fiscal to the rank of a general in the underground
movement. Under the leadership of the Supremo, he served as intelligence director in the
assault made in San Juan del Monte on August 30, 1896 in order to seize a Spanish garrison
in the area. His friendship with Bonifacio allowed him to naturally provide the latter with
weapons and ammunitions, money, printing materials and artistic creations (Filipinos in
History, 1995).
In spite of his failure to finish a university degree, Emilio Jacinto was a man of intellect,
refinement and literary indulgence. He wrote Liwanag at Dilim which contained some essays
about his political and social philosophies. Included in this collection were the essays Sa
Anak ng Bayan, Ang Ningning at ang Liwanag, Kalayaan, Ang Tao’y Magkakapantay, Ang
Bayan at ang mga Pinuno and Ang Maling Pagsampalataya (“Liwanag at Dilim”, n.d.). In the
hills of Majayjay, Laguna where he set up his secret headquarters, he contracted malaria
48
which became the cause of his death on April 6, 1899 at the age of 24 (Filipinos in History,
1995).
Figure 5. Photo of Emilio

Jacinto courtesy of
Ambeth Ocampo.
(Retrieved from https://
filipiknow.net/philippine-
history-creepiest-photos/).
The Kartilya ng Katipunan and its Background
The Kartilya is a primary source which contains the oaths and orders that the
katipuneros had to follow. According to the British scholar Jim Richardson (2013), the Kartilya
was sold at four kualta per copy although it was not clear whether the members were
responsible for the payment or their respective chapters. Richardson suspects that the
Kartilya was still used at the time of the revolution against the United States as evidenced by
its version in the Philippine Insurgent Records, bearing the seal used by General Artemio
Ricarte in 1899. Richardson also relates the story that Emilio Jacinto’s Kartilya was seen as
superior by Andres Bonifacio who had intended of his Decalogue to be published and
distributed to the new members. The two documents, he posits however, are different from
one another because Jacinto’s Kartilya expounded aspirations and moral values while that of
Bonifacio enumerated the duties of the katipuneros.
Richardson also claims that the Kartilya took influence from the declaration used by
the masonic lodges in Manila. Following a declaration which is believed to have been written
in Spain, it resembled certain parts or aspects. The statement of purpose of the Kartilya, for
instance, can be identified as an imitation from the other, including the ideal on the equality of
men and women.
The Kartilya resonated the teaching of discipline, virtue and morals to individuals who
wished to join the secret society. It established a foundation that would govern the affairs of
the Katipunan and its members. Anyone who violated the teachings would be punished in
accordance with the gradation of the offense.
Below is the copy of the Kartilya (pp. 131-134) taken from Jim Richardson’s The Light
of Liberty: Documents and Studies on the Katipunan, 1892-1897 published by the Ateneo de
Manila University Press in 2013.
49
50
51
52
Activity
1. Write a reflection paper on the relevance of the Kartilya ng Katipunan towards the
realization of the nation’s independence. Your answer should be stated in three
paragraphs of not less than three but not more than five sentences per
paragraph.
2. Choose two of the teachings of the .Katipunan and expound each in one
paragraph by relating personal experiences in life.
❖
References
Andres Bonifacio’s decalogue and the kartilya ng Katipunan. (n.d.). Malacañan Palace
Presidential Museum and Library. Retrieved from http://malacanang.gov.ph/
7013-andres-bonifacios-decalogue-and-the-kartilya-ng-katipunan.
Filipinos in history (Vol. 1). (1995). Manila: National Historical Institute.
Liwanang at dilim. (n.d.). National Commission for Culture and the Arts. Retrieved from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/nccaofficial/18260917309.
Only the creepiest photos from Philippine history. (2019). FilipiKnow. Retrieved from
https://filipiknow.net/ philippine-history-creepiest-photos/
Richardson, J. (2013). The light of liberty: Documents and studies on the Katipunan, 1892-
1897. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
53
THE DECLARATION OF PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE
Introduction
After the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, the American naval squadron in
Hongkong was instructed by the secretary of the navy to come to the Philippines in order to
challenge and destroy the Spanish fleet. Commodore George Dewey, later to become a Rear
Admiral, was faced by the Spanish fleet coming from the direction of Sangley Point in Cavite.
Though outnumbered by the Spanish fleet, the American squadron was able to defeat the
poorly armed Spanish ships and by mid-day, the Spanish fleet would be brought to a complete
destruction. Eventually, the Spaniards in Cavite hoisted a white flag as a sign of surrender in
the face of humiliating defeat.
Subsequently, Emilio Aguinaldo and his party returned to the Philippines with the belief
that the Americans would help him secure independence from the Spaniards. With this belief,
Aguinaldo and his men were highly spirited. His forces were able to capture not only places
like Imus, Parañaque, Bacood, Las Piñas, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas up to as far as
Camarines in the South and San Fernando, Macabebe, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija and Bataan in
the North but also seized thousands of prisoners (Agoncillo, 1990). With these triumphs
against their former colonizers, Aguinaldo established a dictatorial form of government. The
government would direct the course of the revolution and that governance should be based
on decrees he would issue. With a government that could enforce obedience from the people,
Aguinaldo thought of declaring the country’s independence.
Objectives
1. Analyze and interpret sources by means of critically reading the Act of the
Proclamation of Philippine Independence.
2. Understand the key issues concerning the Declaration of Philippine Independence.
The Declaration of Philippine Independence
Emilio Aguinaldo, who had become the president of the newly established dictatorial
government, planned to proclaim independence in order to inspire his forces to fight the
Spaniards and to lay down the basis through which other countries would recognize the
independence of the country (Agoncillo, 1990). The proclamation was made on June 12,
1898 in Cavite el Viejo now known as Kawit. On that day, the prominent leaders of the
revolution who gathered in the house of Aguinaldo, proclaimed independence and conferred
upon him numerous powers in order the direct thoroughly the affairs of the government. The
powers granted on him included the right to issue pardon and amnesty proclamations and the
adoption of an official flag (Cortes, Boncan and Jose, 2005).
54
The Acta de la Proclamacion de la Independencia del Pueblo Filipino, as the document

is aptly called, was penned and read by Ambrocio Rianzares Bautista before the presence of
thousands of people from the various provinces. The flag which was made in HongKong was
hoisted and waved for the first time and the music of what would become as the Philippine
national anthem was played likewise for the first time. Julian Felipe, the composer, was
instructed that the anthem should sound like a march and exuberant of triumph, that it should
be expressive of a gratitude for the contributions of Spain in the Philippines, and that it should
symbolize the determination of the country and its love for freedom (Molina, 1960).
Commodore George Dewey, the commander of the American naval squadron that
crippled the Spanish fleet commanded by Admiral Montojo, was invited but due to a certain
alibi, he failed to grace the inauguration. Of the ninety-eight people who signed the declaration
document was an American military officer named Colonel L. M. Johnson. (Molina, 1960)
Surprisingly, President Aguinaldo’s signature was nowhere to be found in the document
(Ocampo, 2020). Apolinario Mabini, who arrived right before the start of the inauguration rites
and met Aguinaldo for the first time, was not in favor of the proclamation which he considered
“reckless and premature” (para. 6). To Mabini, it would have been better if the Filipinos
gathered more weapons and ammunitions rather than flaunting their aspiration for
independence.
Who is Ambrocio Rianzares Bautista?
According to the book Filipinos in History (1995) by the then National Historical
Institute, Ambrocio Rianzares Bautista, or Don Bosyong as he was popularly known to many,
was born on December 7, 1830 in Biñan, Laguna. He finished a Bachelor of Laws degree
from the University of Santo Tomas. Among the legal luminaries who became his
contemporaries were Chief Justice Cayetano Arellano, Chief Justice Florentino Torres and
well-known lawyer Rafael del Pan.
A distant relative of the Rizal family, he served as their first lawyer concerning the
Calamba Hacienda Case. However, he backed out from the case for fear of being denounced
by the Dominican friars, the administrators of the Hacienda. Later on, the case was taken
over by Felipe Buencamino who also eventually gave it up because Jose Rizal had come up
with a different agenda against the Spaniards (Quibuyen, 2008).
Bautista became an officer of the Rizal-established La Liga Filipina. During the

Philippine Revolution, he was a contributor to the patriotic newspaper La Independencia. In
fact, he was one of the “most wanted” by the Spanish authorities because of his participation
in underground movements. He was arrested, imprisoned in Fort Santiago, released and,
subsequently, given a general amnesty by Governor General Primo de Rivera in accordance
with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato (Filipinos in History, 1995).
When Aguinaldo had returned from his exile in HongKong in May 1898, Bautista
became one of the first individuals who offered his service. He became Aguinaldo’s political
adviser. As principal adviser, he convinced Aguinaldo to constitute a dictatorial regime instead
of a constitutional government, arguing among others that the latter best suited the exigencies
of the times. However, after the proclamation of independence, Apolinario Mabini became
the principal adviser of Aguinaldo (Filipinos in History, 1995).
55
The Acta de la Proclamacion de la Independencia del Pueblo Filipino
The declaration of Independence became somewhat contentious because of the

absence of Aguinaldo’s signature and the failure to promulgate or ratify it instantly thereafter.
It is likewise controversial because of certain provisions which were opposed by Mabini.
Read-through the whole text of the English version made by Sulpicio Guevara, the author of
The Laws of the Philippine Republic (The Laws of Malolos) 1898-1899, for your
comprehension and analysis.
56
57
58
59
Activity
After reading the Acta de la Proclamacion de la Independencia del Pueblo

Filipino, do this activity by answering the following questions.
A. SOURCING THE DOCUMENT
Questions Responses
1. Is the document/ source

a primary source? Why?
2. Do you think the author
is credible as far as the
document is concerned?
Why?
3. For whom do you think
the document was
intended? Why do you
think it was written
B. COMPREHENSION
4. What are the author’s

main arguments?
5. Give an example of
historical fact (absolutely
indisputable) that we
learn from this
document.
6. What do you think are
some pieces of
information that should
have not been included
in the document? Why
do you think so?
C. INTERPRETATION
7. Does the evidence in

this document offer any
information that you did
not know before? What
is this information?
60
8. Does the evidence

support or contradict
anything you have
learned from a book,
textbook or some other
sources? What might
this be?
9. What information
should you counter-
check with other
sources?
10. Does this source
broaden or deepen your
understanding of its
period? How?
❖
References
Agoncillo, T. A. (1990). The history of the Filipino people (8th ed.). Garotech Publishing.
Cortes, R. M., Boncan, C. P., & Jose, R. T. (2000). The Filipino saga: History as social
change. Quezon City: New Day Publishers.
Guevara, S. (1972). The laws of the Philippine republic (The laws of Malolos) 1898-1899.
Manila: National Historical Institute.
Molina, A. M. (1960). The Philippines through the centuries (Vols. 1 & 2). UST Cooperative.
Filipinos in history (Vol. 1). (1995). Manila: National Historical Institute. .
Ocampo, A. R. (2020, June 19). Where’s Aguinaldo’s signature. Retrieved from https://
opinion.inquirer.net/130929.

nationalism. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
61
THE MALOLOS CONSTITUTION AND THE FIRST PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
Introduction
The proclamation of Philippine independence was led by Emilio F. Aguinaldo on June

12, 1898. Thereafter, Aguinaldo became the president of the revolutionary government. He
then issued several decrees reorganizing the government in the liberated provinces including
the election of delegates to the Revolutionary Congress to draft a constitution.
The Revolutionary Congress was formally opened at the church of Barasoain in

Malolos, Bulacan. The draft of the constitution was promulgated by President Aguinaldo on
January 21, 1899 and was known as the Malolos Constitution.
The constitution provided for three branches of the government: Executive,

Legislative, and Judiciary. As representatives of the different provinces, the Congress elected
Aguinaldo as President of the Philippines. He was inaugurated on January 23, 1899 and on
the same day the First Republic of the Philippines was formally established.
Learning Outcomes
1. Analyze the context, content and perspective of the Malolos Constitution.

2. Determine the contributions of the Malolos Constitution and the First Philippine
Republic to the present-day government.
3. Appreciate the importance of constitution in developing love of country and
patriotism.
The Malolos Constitution and Congress
The Malolos Constitution and the First Philippine Republic can be traced back from
the 1896 Philippine Revolution. It started after the establishment of Katipunan, a secret
society, which aimed to attain independence for the Philippines. It was led by the president
of the Supreme Council; the most well-known of whom was Andres Bonifacio.
Since political and other differences arose between the two factions of the
organization, the Magdalo, and the Magdiwang, the Tejeros Convention was held on March
22, 1897. The purpose of the convention was to reconcile their differences. Among the
decision was to dissolve the Katipunan while establishing a revolutionary government.
Elections were held for its officers: Emilio Aguinaldo was elected President and Bonifacio
62
was elected Director of the Interior. Initially, Bonifacio accepted his position, but was insulted
when Daniel Tirona objected. As a result, Bonifacio declared the proceedings of the Tejeros
Convention null and void and established a new government. This was seen as an act of
treason and Bonifacio was charged with refusing to recognize the newly established
revolutionary government. He was arrested and sentenced to death in Maragondon, Cavite.
As the new leader, Aguinaldo continued the revolution against the Spaniards. By the
latter part of 1897, Aguinaldo was forced by the advancing Spanish forces to retreat to the
mountains of Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan.
With the intention of ending the Philippine Revolution, Aguinaldo and the Spanish
government entered into an agreement known as the Pact of Biak-na-Bato on December 15,
1897. The agreement provided that the Filipino revolutionaries would go into exile in Hong
Kong and surrender their weapons in exchange for financial indemnities and pardons. In
Hong Kong, Aguinaldo and his companions established a junta which worked towards the
continuation of the revolution and the gaining of freedom from the Spaniards.
After the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Aguinaldo returned to the

Philippines and continued the revolution. Philippine Independence was formally proclaimed
on June 12, 1898. Thereafter, Aguinaldo established a revolutionary government and was
named its president. He then issued a proclamation creating a revolutionary congress to draft
the constitution for the government.
On September 15, 1898, the revolutionary congress was convened in Malolos,

Bulacan to draft the constitution. The convention was later on called as the Malolos Congress.
The Congress was composed of both appointed and elected delegates who represented all
of the provinces of the Philippines. After several amendments, Aguinaldo approved and
promulgated the Malolos Constitution on January 21, 1899. The Malolos Constitution became
the first Philippine constitution and the first republican constitution in Asia. It was composed
of ninety-three articles divided
into fourteen titles, with transitory
provisions in eight further articles,
and with one un-numbered
additional article.
On January 23, 1899, the

First Republic of the Philippines
was inaugurated in Malolos. It
also marked the start of the
Presidency of Emilio Aguinaldo as
the first president of the Republic
of the Philippines. The full text
(pp. 65-77) of the Malolos
Constitution published in the book
The Malolos Congress
(“Constitution”, 2003) is indicated Figure 6. The Malolos Congress which convened at the
below. Barasoain Church in September 1898. (Retrieved from
https://www.barasoainchurch.org/malolos-congress).
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Activity
1. Research and prepare a matrix of the members of Malolos Congress who

drafted the constitution. Identify their personal backgrounds by showing
whether they became the predecessors of the present-day politicians and
elites.
2. Make a three-paragraph reflection paper on the significance of First

Philippine Republic and Malolos Constitution in the present-day
government.
❖
References
1899 constitution of the Republic of the Philippines. (n.d.). The LawPhil Project. Retrieved
from https://lawphil.net/consti/consmalo.html
Araw ng republikang Pilipino, 1899. (n.d.). Official Gazette. Retrieved from https://www.
officialgazette.gov.ph/araw-ng-republikang-filipino-1899/
Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines. (2003). Manila: National Historical Institute.
Documents of the 1898 declaration of Philippine independence. (1997). National Historical

Institute. Retrieved from http://nhcp.gov.ph/the-first-philippine-republic/
The first Philippine republic. (n.d.). National Historical Commission of the Philippines.
Retrieved from https://nhcp.gov.ph/the-first-philippine-republic/
71
VISUAL SOURCES IN THE STUDY OF HISTORY
Introduction
In this lesson, visual sources to be tackled are photographs, paintings, cartoons and
video documentaries. These materials are dependable sources of historical information. In
the past, visual sources were usually credible. Even if editing applications are rampant
nowadays, visual sources with established credibility are still very blatant in revealing
episodes of history.
Visual sources, including sketches, posters, advertisements and three-dimensional

arts, are considered primary sources. These sources elicit information and ideas about the
period they were created. Ways of life and world view among others are highly embedded in
these sources; that is why historians value them at par with written sources. Visual materials
like archaeological finds prove the existence of human habitations and cultures at a time when
written records were inexistent. Whether these sources are old or new, what is important for
the scholar or historian is to evaluate these sources, primarily that excellent scholarship
requires thorough understanding and critical analysis of what they evoke as something to be
true at a given time. Besides, as Umberto Eco once said, “Civilization is now accustomed to
think in images” (quoted from Holt, 2002; p. 22).
Objectives
1. Know that visual sources are valuable sources of historical information.

2. Examine visual sources critically in order to have a reliable account.
3. Appreciate the paintings of Luna and Amorsolo as representations of history.
Reading and Understanding Visual Sources for Historical Writing
Visual sources can tell a lot of ideas regarding the people and the environment that
surround them. This occurs even if the persons who view them really know the meaning they
exude or not. However, the historian is not just a person who simply looks at visual materials
as mementos of past experiences or decorations in walls. Rather, he is a scholar who sees
them as valuable sources of historical information. To him, a picture or a painting dwells upon
a historical context from which it was created. And whether or not the creator was conscious
of his material as a source of historical information in the future is essentially immaterial. What
is more important is that the material becomes a potent tool through which events and ideas
in the past could be conveyed to the next generation and beyond.
72
Reading and understanding visual sources in history, though, is not only purveyed
upon what a historian wants to understand and interpret based on mere speculations and
unwarranted ideas. For instance, it is precarious to imagine that a picture entails power
relationship or colonial differences between culture groups which are perceived to be of
unequal bearing, unless there is a hard evidence that guarantees the claim. By hard evidence,
it is meant that there is a tangible proof that provides facts. These facts should elicit
connection between the visual sources and the interpretation as they guide the course
towards such an interpretation. Hence, the historian should be properly equipped with the
know-how on the examination of visual sources—i.e., photographs, paintings, cartoons and
video documentaries.
Basic Guide on How to Examine Photographs, Paintings, Cartoons

and Video Documentaries
Nowadays, the “No document, no history” is no longer convincing as there are tangible
and intangible sources of data. This is also the reason why History as a discipline depends
on Archaeology, Anthropology and the allied social sciences. Of the two, the tangible kind of
source is usually easier to consider and examine because of its vivid representation or
enunciation of past ideas and realities. This representation is called historiophoty (White,
1988).
How should a historian examine a photograph, painting, cartoon or a video

documentary then? Examining each form of source is not exactly done as how the others are
scrutinized. And since, the visual sources that are used in history cannot interpret themselves
the way their creators clearly can, it is important to accurately find out the ideas and realities
they represent in order not to misinform the reading public. The following points are the
common grounding through which the aforementioned visual sources can be examined.
On the Question of Subject. It is important to know the subject of the visual source. The
subject pertains to what the visual source is all about. What is equally important is if the
source shows its subject literally or through a subtext or a concealed meaning. To situate it
in its proper historical standpoint, the period or date when the source was created must be
determined. It must be remembered that the period or date serves as the initial determinant
of the material as a primary source or not. After identifying the subject, the historian has to
ponder if, indeed, the source contributes to a better understanding of its period.
On the Question of Facts. When a historian invokes the word fact, what he means is a piece
of information which cannot be disputed by available sources. A factual piece of information
therefore leaves no room for doubt; it leaves no room for uncertainty. When a black-and-
white photograph which was taken in the late 19th century or in the early years of the American
regime shows young men in the arrabales of Manila who usually wore straw hats, white shirts
that buttoned below the lower neckline and white loose pants—and usually barefooted, the
historian cannot just set aside that the information seen are factual, especially when they are
corroborated by other photos taken likewise in that period which depict the same kind of
clothing or by written testimonies that describe such a clothing.
After establishing the factuality of the details and, hence, credibility of the source, the
historian has to ascertain if the facts can strengthen perception or knowledge of that time.
73
On the Question of Intended Observers or Audience. Asking the question, “Who are the
supposed observers of the photograph?” can give an impression of the kind of perspective it
illustrates. Perspective pertains to the position from which the subject of the material is
expressed. By means of distinguishing its perspective, certain biases can be observed
thereafter.
If the source is intended solely for an observer or a group of observers, the historian
can have a better impression of its perspective and certain biases. In looking at a visual
material, however, what is most important usually to the historian is not the perception of the
observer or audience, rather it is the reason why the creator made the material,
notwithstanding if he intended it as a reference for posterity. The reason of the creator is of
most value to the historian because it can lead the latter to the discovery of ideas and past
realities that the material intends to convey.
On the Question of Purpose. Who is the photographer? Where did he come from? What
was his career or educational background? These questions would properly settle the
perspective from which a visual source should be seen, especially after distinguishing its
emphasis. In distinguishing the intent of the source, the historian has to inquire succinctly on
its provenance or what the lawyers aptly call custody. In written sources, for example, the
provenance of Rizal’s retraction document can be questioned relative to why it was not
revealed publicly right after his death. Even if the intent of the creator of the visual material is
difficult to determine, the historian should try his best to discover a surmise of it. By
determining the purpose through which the material was made, the historian would be able to
spot the biases in it.
On the Question of Context. Just like any other written source, every visual material belongs
to a particular context. As discussed in Unit 1, Lesson 2, context involves the time, space and
the prevailing practices of the people who made the object. If a certain visual material is
analyzed and interpreted separately from its milieu, period and existing traditions, the material
is detached from its value or meaning. This is because the object is made in relation to the
kind of environment it had, the period which is characterized by the kind of existing creativity
and technology, and the prevailing practices that largely influenced the people. The value
and meaning of a material are good wellsprings of analysis and interpretation.
Other Factors Involved. The historian should be smart enough to see and consider the
relevance of other elements which might lead to the thorough understanding of the visual
source. Elements as images, colors, lines, etc., might be of some help in understanding the
whole piece. How do these elements help the historian in understanding the object and
whether they conform to a certain milieu is yet another task which he needs to undertake.
Distinction of the Visual Sources
A photograph is an image that is produced through the use of a camera. It is created

by a light falling on a light-sensitive surface. The image it captures is a minute yet exact
representation of reality. Painting, on the other hand, is a portrayal of reality based on the
distinct perception or interpretation of its brush master. A cartoon or what is interchangeably
called caricature is a representation of reality, often in a grotesque or exaggerated form, in
order to transcend satirical, sarcastic or burlesque connotations of social events. Although a
cartoon is grotesque or exaggerated, it cannot just simply be dismissed as unworthy of
74
historical consideration. It must be noted that a cartoon represents the opinion of a greater
public—and that itself is a good starting point for a historical study of a certain period.
A video documentary is the most interesting among the forms of visual sources being
discussed here. This is because a video documentary is a moving picture that actually shows
or at least immortalizes what happened at a certain past. Unless it has been altered, it is the
most reliable source because a material of this type combines moving images, audio and
effects which make its depiction of reality more effective.
Photograph Painting Caricature Video

Documentary
It captures a minute It imitates a part of It represents an It depicts moving
part of reality in an reality in a not so opinion about a reality. episodes of reality
exact yet still form. exact form. effectively in a vivid
audio-visual form.
It is the objective still It is the creative It represents a part of It is the exact
reproduction of reality. imitation or reality in a seemingly reproduction or at
representation of exaggerated form least close
reality based on the (e.g., parody and representation of
perception of its artist. sarcasm) moving episodes of
reality.
Philippine Cartoons: Political Caricature of the American Era, 1901-1941 by

Alfred McCoy and Alfredo Roces
A political cartoon is an illustration that translates editorial themes into satirical,

sarcastic or burlesque connotations with the typical view of arousing the attention of
authorities and institutions. Political cartoons play a vital in role in the political discourse of
societies (Britannica, n.d.). These cartoons reveal the popular perception of societies
concerning events that confronted societies. The richness of these cartoons reflects in turn
the vibrance of freedom of the press and of expression that societies enjoy.
In the Spanish Period, there was a censorship of the press in spite of the sneaking
desire of the propagandists to widen the public scope of their mouthpiece, La Solidaridad.
The friars primarily prohibited the import of reading materials from Europe in order to protect
their welfare in the country. In the American Period, however, newspapers and magazines
gained prominence, especially when almost all of the country was totally placed under
American control. Although the Filipinos were initially restricted by certain measures as the
Sedition Law of 1901 and the Brigandage Act of 1902, political views were gradually
expressed through the local dailies. Bit by bit, the dailies became unashamed in conversing
events about Philippine societies, more particularly the authorities and institutions. Evidence
to this was the many political cartoons that obvious criticized and condemned the practices in
Greater Manila and the provinces.
Authored by Alfred McCoy and Alfredo Roces, the book Political Cartoons: Political
Caricature of the American Era, 1901-1941 (1985) tackles the political cartoons published in
local newspapers and magazines at the time of the occupation of the United States in the
Philippines. “The political cartoons in this book cover the era when the American colonizers
first introduced a ‘free press’, when a new-found style of press freedom developed. The
75
American era was also the time when artists went through financially lean years, and
fortunately, graphic artwork in the press put a bit more rice on their plates. The cartoons were
the artist’s response to the times” (p. 7).
The Authors of the Book
Alfred W. McCoy is an American historian who currently teaches at the University of

Wisconsin—Madison. He finished his BA in European History from Columbia University, MA
in Asian Studies at the University of California—Berkeley and Ph.D. in Southeast Asian
History at Yale University. Among his notable scholarships are: In the Shadows of the
American Century: The Rise and Decline of US Global Power (2017), Beer of Broadway
Fame: The Piel Family and Their Brooklyn Brewery (2016), Torture and Impunity: The U.S.
Doctrine of Coercive Interrogation (2012), Endless Empire: Spain’s Retreat, Europe’s Eclipse,
America’s Decline (2012), Policing America’s Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and
the Rise of the Surveillance State (2009) and An Anarchy of Families: State and Family in the
Philippines (2009).
Dr. McCoy has written extensively on the Philippines and Southeast Asia. He got
interested on the theme of the book when he was doing his dissertation. In a span of ten
years, he collected copies of these cartoons from original copies stored in the Library of
Congress of the United States, the Australian National Library, the National Library of the
Philippines and other institutions (McCoy and Roces, 1985).
Alfredo Roces was the editor-in-chief of the ten-volume Filipino Heritage. He also
authored some books which include Amorsolo, 1892-1972 (1975), Looking for Liling: A Family
History of World War II Martyr (2000), Medals and Shoes (co-authored with Irene Roces,
1992), Culture Shock! (co-authored with Grace Roces, 1992) and Drawings (1975). His
interest on Philippine graphic started in his childhood. He introduced co-author Alfred McCoy
to his personal collections of Lipag Kalabaw. He earned his Bachelor in Fine Arts degree from
Notre Dame University in Indiana, USA. He also wrote numerous articles on Philippine arts
and letters and designed the logo of the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP).
Alfredo Roces was the recipient of the prestigious Ten Outstanding Young Men
(TOYM) Award in 1961, Journalist of the Year Award in 1971 from the Citizens Council for
Mass Media and Artist of the Year Award from the Art Association of the Philippines in 1975
(McCoy and Roces, 1985).
The Content of the Book
The book contains cartoons from various dailies that toughly ridiculed the
transformation of the country, especially its capital city, on certain respects. It conveys how
the Filipino politicians had become arrogant and abusive to the powers vested in them. The
City of Manila, for example, was depicted by political cartoons as a classic example of haven
for political dynasty, abuse and corruption. While the social practices in Manila were changing
as the results of retrofitting to conform it to the ways of the new colonizers, the provinces were
the object of satirical representations. Newspaper cartoons depicted the appalling situation
of the peasants, their battle cries from their landlords, the prevalence of illegal activities and
the snobbish and condescending attitude of returning students from Manila.
76
Although the country was being accustomed to a new system of governance, Spanish
colonial influence was still resilient. While Governor-General William Taft was so desirous
about the separation between the Church and the State, he thought that Catholicism served
as the catalyst for the civilization of the country. The newspapers and magazines, on the
other hand, were very sensitive to the sickening attitude of many friars so that the cartoons of
their editorial commentaries mocked the alleged hypocrisy of these Church ministers.
Since the United States introduced its cultural colonialism at the same time, the
Filipinos were educated on American system of governance and on the rudiments of the
English Language. Even if the English Language was considered socially democratizing
among Filipinos, there was a wide array of distinctions with respect to their American
counterparts while they were heavily burdened with responsibilities. For instance, The
Independent and Bag-ong Kusog depicted the distinctions in their respective October 23,
1915 and November 9, 1928 issues. The cartoons opined that while the American employees
in the Philippines were paid adequately, their Filipino counterparts were struggling with low
incomes, to think that they did most of the blue-collar routines.
Figure 7. Equal Work, Unequal Salary, Why? (left) from The Independent which was published in its November
29, 1915 issue and American Worker/Filipino Worker (right) from Bag-ong Kusog published in its
November 9, 1928 issue. (McCoy and Roces, 1985).
The public’s perception of colonial relationship was exemplified in certain editorial

cartoons in the book. At the onset of the American regime, the colonial government could
hardly resolve the differences between the American officials and the emerging Filipino
bureaucrats. Eventually, however, the skeptical Filipino bureaucrats gradually learned how
to collaborate with the aggressive and pretentious Americans especially that they aspired to
gain independence from the United States. The cunning and opportunistic American officials
were revealed by the cartoonists in grotesque and exaggerated images represented by Uncle
Sam.
A classic rendering on this was the cartoon published by Lipag Kalabaw, a satirical
Tagalog Magazine published weekly, on November 14, 1908. The cartoon interpreted the
rumor pertaining to the suppression of freedom of speech by illustrating an unequal
relationship between the Filipino who interrogates Uncle Sam. The Filipino who is
represented by Juan dela Cruz appears to be serious in a standing and enduring manner
77
while Uncle Sam is comfortably seated in a gesture that does not seem to value the former’s
concern. Power relationship in the cartoon is seen in the sizes of the images and their
respective appearances. The cartoonist expressed subtly his contempt and yearning for
retribution by elongating the nose of Uncle Sam.
Figure 8. Tanong na Makahulugan from Lipag Kalabaw which was published in its November 14, 1908 issue.
(McCoy and Roces, 1985).
At the onset of the American Period, the friars who were put into hot seats by the
furious pen of the cartoonists because of the political authority they still held. In the later
years, public opinion shifted to the Chinese. They became the subject of public wit and anger
due to their beguiling scheme of increasing profit out of the agony of the consumers. In just
five years, the price per cavan of rice increased more than three times—i.e, from P4.70 to to
P5.90 (McCoy and Roces, 1985). The anti-Chinese sentiments were sustained for several
years primarily due to the rice crisis in 1919 and its impact thereafter. Public opinion against
78
the Chinese waned when anti-Japanese sentiments grew because of the alarming threat
posed by the Japanese in Northeast Asia and their subsequent annexation of Manchuria.
The dynamics of Philippine politics was tackled in the book. The Jones Law of 1916
added turbulence in the political scene by establishing the Philippine Senate that would entail
more competition and bickering to the already controversy-infested Philippine Assembly.
Apart from the hullabaloos of local politics, the principal figures of national politics were highly
involved in key issues. Manuel Luis M. Quezon and Sergio S. Osmeña, Sr. became the
subject of lampoons because of their insatiable involvement in independence missions. The
Partido Nacionalista was split into two factions and, later on, Osmeña was cunningly defeated
by Quezon through the latter’s Tydings-McDuffie Act.
While the Philippines was to become a semi-independent nation, the exploitations and
worthlessness of certain public officials were more and more evident. The Free Press, as
such, became intense of its portrayals of the idiosyncrasies and contemptible parasitic
practices of the bureaucrats and legislators. It described them through cartoons as traitors of
public interests and as exploiters of the people. The political controversies did not elude the
merciless pen of the cartoonists until the menace of Japanese advancement in Northern
China.
During the turbulent and the apparent stable times of the American Period, cartoons
became effective avenues in expressing public opinions. The cartoonists’ sardonic
representations of key issues were critical commentaries on the phenomena wrought by
American occupation, exploitative or worthless gestures of Filipino officials and the challenges
brought about by other foreigners as the Chinese and the Japanese. The harsh judgments
of the cartoonists evoked a fully developed sense of nationalism which aimed at a better
country for the Filipinos.
The Paintings of Juan Luna and Fernando Amorsolo
Juan Luna is remembered because of his Parisian Life and his monumental
masterpiece Spoliarium. He was born in Badoc, Ilocos Norte in 1857. He took up Bachelor
of Arts in Ateneo Municipal. His initial training in arts took place under the supervision of the
Spanish painter Agustin Saez. Later on, he became a seafarer after studying navigation of
the high seas at the Academia Nautica de Manila which he eventually gave up in order to
pursue a career in arts. (Filipinos in History, 1990) He became an apprentice to the Filipino
painter Lorenzo Guerrero at the Academia de Dibujo y Pintura. In 1877, he traveled to Spain
and continued his studies at the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (“Museo”,
n.d.). To continue his studies in fine arts, the City Government of Manila agreed to fund his
studies abroad with the condition that he will send one historical painting every year so that
the Ayuntamiento would be able to increase its collection of masterpieces (Filipinos in History,
1990).
Back in Spain, he traveled in many European cities in order to gain insights from the
paintings displayed in their museums. Indeed, he would become ultimately a master of the
brush that he would produce such masterpieces as La Muerte de Cleopatra (The Death of
Cleopatra), España y Filipinas (Spain and the Philippines), La Batalla de Lepanto (The Battle
of Lepanto), Peuple et Roi (People and King) and El Pacto de Sangre (The Blood Compact)
among others. His La Batalla de Lepanto which won the gold medal in the Barcelona
Exposition of 1888 is considered as his greatest masterpiece as it captures the admiration
79
and recognition of art experts. This is because of Luna’s exact depiction of the impact of the
collision of ships in the naval battle that took place in Lepanto. Peuple et Roi which was
supposed to be an entry for the Universal Exposition in Chicago in 1892 is said to be the next
best of his works, followed by his Spoliarium which won the gold medal in the Universal
Exposition of Fine Arts in Madrid in 1884.
The Spoliarium
The term spoliarium means an obscured chamber in the Roman Coliseum where the
fallen bodies of gladiators were taken and stripped of their armors and weapons before
disposal. At a size of 4.22 x 7.675 meters, it is the largest painting in the Philippines (“National
Museum Collection”, n.d.). It tells of the horrible doom of the gladiators after their attempt to
save their lives from being mercilessly killed by wild animals or warriors in the arena of the
Coliseum.
With a beaming amount of light towards the center of the painting, Luna was able to
give emphasis to a shocking scenario in the spoliarium. The light highlighted the mangled
cadavers in the middle ground which epitomized the absence of equality and value of human
life in Rome, contrary to the ideas offered by the greatest social thinkers and philosophers of
the ancient world. Sensing the allegorical meaning evoked by the painting, Rizal described
Luna’s painting, including Felix R. Hidalgo’s Las Virgenes Cristianas Expuestas al Populacho,
as “the essence of our social , moral and political life: humanity in severe ordeal, humanity
unredeemed, reason and idealism in open struggle with prejudice, fanaticism and injustice….”
(Guerrero, 2007, p. 121) To honor to Luna and Hidalgo, he said in his speech that “Genius
knows no country, genius sprouts everywhere...” (Zaide, 2018, p. 102).
The exquisite combination of light and darkness called chiaroscuro aroused a more
dramatic effect in the painting. The painting is characterized by a dark atmosphere in the
background which exudes a gloomy sensation amidst the horrendous scene. Taking it from
Rizal, the Spoliarium, indeed, represented the atrocious condition of the Philippines.
Fernando Amorosolo is one of the Filipino painters known for landscape and
historical masterpieces, including paintings about women in the rural areas and portraits of
influential individuals. He was named National Artist in Painting in 1972 for the countless
masterpieces he created.
He was born in Manila in 1892 and studied at an art school named Liceo de Manila in
1909. He also enrolled at the School of Fine Arts of the University of the Philippines which he
finished with honors in 1914. While a student at the university, Amorsolo did sketches for
publications just to earn money. After his graduation, he joined the Bureau of Public Works
as draftsman and, later, at the Pacific Commercial Company where he served as its chief
artist. Because of his unusual brilliance, he became a part-time instructor in his alma-mater
in the succeeding three years before he would go to Spain and study at the Academia de San
Fernando in Madrid. Through the study grant, he was able to go to New York. There he
learned cubism and impressionism which would become the movements that would influence
his paintings later on.
The Bombing of the Intendencia and the Burning of Manila
80
During the Second World War, Fernando Amorsolo shifted from painting landscapes
to the horrific outcomes of the war. The Bombing of the Intendencia, the customs building
during the Spanish Period, was done at his house while observing the annihilation which
caused the deaths of thousands of people. And just like the Bombing of the Intendencia, the
painting, The Burning of Manila, was made at the height of the Japanese conquest. The
masterpiece shows the destruction of Manila as evidenced by the incessant burning of the
capital city.
Planting Rice (1951)
Another notable painting of Amorso is Planting Rice. This painting would become the
icon that would serve as a model to a generation of painters later on. The book A Portfolio of
60 Philippine Masterpieces claims that the site chosen for the painting were the ricefields
situated east of the San Juan River (DECS, 1989). Though somewhat intriguing, the presence
of a man plucking a guitar in the middle ground explains that the hardworking farmers become
unmindful of fatigue. It must be remembered that the certain folksongs were collectively
composed by farmers while working in the field for such a reason likewise.
What is remarkable in the painting is the dominance of women over the men. This
simply means that women in the rural areas can get along with men at work without prejudice.
Moreover, their very presence affirms the essence of rice as provider of life to people.
Women, by giving birth to children, serve also as the source of human life. Altogether, the
painting shows the serene and pastoral atmosphere of the landscape and the simple yet
hardworking character of the farmers.
Figure 9. The
painting Planting
Rice (1951) by
Fernando
Amorsolo.
(Retrieved from
https://pensievemi
ndniche.wordpress
.com/2014/11/01/p
lanting-rice-1951-
by-fernando-
amorsolo/).
81
Activity
Read articles published by reputable online sources regarding the Japanese

Occupation of the Philippines and make an editorial cartoon that conveys the popular
opinion of the people at that time.
❖
References
Alfred McCoy. (n.d.). University of Washington Department of History. Retrieved from

https://history.wisc.edu/people/mccoy-alfred-w/
DECS. (1989). A portfolio of 60 Philippine art masterpieces. Instructional Materials

Corporation.
Holt, E. M. (2002). Colonizing Filipinas: Nineteenth-century representations of the Philippines

in western historiography. Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Knieper, T. (n.d.). Political cartoon. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/

topic/political-cartoon
McCoy, A., & Roces, A. (1985). Philippine cartoons: Political caricature of the American era,
1901-1941. Vera-Reyes, Inc.
Planting rice (1951) by Fernando Amorsolo. (2014). Ms. Pensive. Retrieved from
https://pensievemindniche.wordpress.com/2014/11/01/planting-rice-1951-by-
fernando-amorsolo/
National museum collection. (2014). National Museum. Retrieved from https://

www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/nationalmuseumbeta/Collections/Spoliarium.html
Museo nina Juan at Antonio Luna. (n.d.). National Historical Commission of the Philippines.
Retrieved from https://nhcp.gov. ph/ museums/juan-luna-shrine/
Filipinos in history (Vol. 2). (1990). Manila: National Historical Institute.
Pascual, Mc Donald M. (2020). Reading and understanding visual sources [PowerPoint

slides].
White, H. (1988). Historiography and Historiophoty. In American historical review (Vol. 93,
No. 5, pp. 1193-1199). Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1873534?seq=1
Zaide, G. F., & Zaide, S. M. (2018). Jose Rizal: Life, works and writings (3rd Ed.). New Day
Publishers.
82
RAIDERS OF THE SULU SEA: A DOCUMENTARY PRESENTATION
Introduction:
As described by the Spaniards, piracy in the area surrounding the Sulu Sea was
rampant until the 19th century as a result the colonial government’s attempt to subdue
Mindanao. It was in the middle of that century when the Spaniards continually engaged the
Muslims whom they called Moros in order to stop the latter’s illegal acts. One striking battle
took place in 1848 when the Spaniards sent an expedition to Balanguingui through a fleet of
small warships commanded by General Jose Ruiz. The Spaniards, though, failed to repeal
the Moro piracy which existed until the beginning of the 20th century.
Learning Outcomes:
1. Analyze the context, content, and perspective of different kinds of primary sources
and determine how they affected the history of the Filipino people;
2. Determine the contribution of the different types of primary sources in
understanding Philippine History; and
3. Develop critical and analytical skills as they are exposed to primary sources.
Background of the Film
The Raiders of the Sulu Sea is a documentary film produced by Lim Suat Yen,
Zuzanita Zakaria and Yeon-Hwa Kim. Other producers include the Oakfilms3 based in
Singapore for Q Channel, as well as the Discovery Channel and National Geographic Channel
for international releases. It was directed by Idzwan Othman and was originally released in
2008. It was subsequently produced by Looking Glass International based in Victoria,
Australia in 2013.
In coming up with the film, the production team sought the assistance of the following
contributors:
• Icelle Gloria D. Borja-Estrada who is considered as Zamboanga City’s premiere

artist, working as a painter and sculptor. She also worked as an executive assistant in
the Office of the City Mayor with the task of overlooking the City Hall restoration.
83
• Dr. Samuel K. Tan who is regarded as foremost authority on Filipino Muslim history.
He served as chairperson of the National Historical Institute and focused most of his
studies in understanding the history and culture of the Muslims in the Philippines
• Dr. Barbara Watson Andaya who is a professor of Asian Studies at the University of
Hawai’i and director of the Center for Southeast Asian Studies. Her career has
involved teaching and researching in Malaysia, Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, the
Netherlands and, since 1994, Hawai’i. She maintains an active teaching and research
interest across all Southeast Asia. But her specific area of expertise is the western
Malay-Indonesia archipelago.
• Dr. Julius Bautista Bautista who is an associate professor at Kyoto University. His
research interests include the anthropology of religion, pedagogy, and Southeast
Asian culture and history, especially the Philippines and Timor Leste.
• Dr. Margarita Cojuangco who is known for her work in helping Muslim communities.
She did a research on the history of Sama in the Sulu archipelago.
• Mr. Halman Abubakar who served as a municipal councilor in Jolo at the time of the
filming of the documentary. A Tausug descendant from Sulu, he is an expert on the
martial arts of Silat which uses significant and historic Tausug bladed weapons.
Synopsis of the Film
The documentary film can be divided into four main points: (1) the presence of a
flourishing commercial activities in Southeast Asia which prospered in the Sulu Sea; (2) the
so-called Moro Piracy and the warships used by the native ‘pirates; (3) the slave-raiding
activities; and, (4) the defense of Zamboanga.
The main setting of the documentary is the Spanish fort of Zamboanga. Strategically
located in the southernmost tip of the Zamboanga Peninsula, the Spaniards hoped that
Zamboanga would serve as an outpost to check the Muslim attacks in the Visayas and Luzon.
History would prove that in most part, Zamboanga was inefficient in defending the other parts
of the Philippines simply because the Muslims easily bypassed it and went directly to their
target areas. However this did not mean that the lone outpost was exempted from Muslim
raids. It is worth noting that there was no single Muslim in Mindanao, contrary to the popular
belief of other Filipinos, who knew only a little about the ethnic composition of the area.
There were three primary ethnic groups which led the raids: the Samal Balangingi, the
Ilanuns and the Tausugs. Most of the colonial historical accounts consider these groups as
brutal pirates and bandits. However from their ethnic point-of-view, they were freedom fighters
who wanted to halt the Spaniards from expanding towards their domains. Since their
communities were situated along the coasts of the Sulu Archipelago, it was no wonder that
these groups were excellent mariners and sailors. They were feared by almost all of the
coastal inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago because of their strength and fierceness in
combat and the weapons, as well as the fast and efficient ships, they used. However, apart
from the goal of defending their lands against Spanish colonial rule, these groups were also
notorious for their slave-raiding activities.
84
The documentary narrates the brutality of these Moro pirates. One recorded brutality
was their act of making a hole through the palms of their captives and putting a string into it
to prevent them from escaping. These captives would then be ransomed or sold as slaves in
other trading outposts in Southeast Asia. They could also be made as boat rowers in raiding
the Sulu Sea. Slave raids were considered as economic activities and were sanctioned by
the Sultan of Sulu under the premise of defending the territorial reach of Islam and the
elimination of the presence of the Catholic Spaniards in the archipelago.
Spanish accounts of the era narrated the ships utilized by the Muslims in their raiding
activities, to wit:
▪ Juanga/Joanga/Lanong. These were large ships that measured around 24 to 27

meters long with wide hull and wide keel for stability. It used three large cloth sails
that was collapsible. It had cannons mounted at the bow and could carry around 100
to 150 men including a master or captain, a steersman, warrior-sailors, as well as
slaves to serve as oarsmen.
▪ Garay. As compared to the Juangas, these vessels were smaller but known for their
fastness and maneuverability. These were principally used by the Samals and were
built from bamboo, wood, and nipa palm.
▪ Salipsipan. These were considered as support vessels and were designed primarily
to access littoral or shallow water conditions. The raiders would usually hide their
bigger vessels by using these ships. They pretended as fishermen so that they could
not draw the attention of their target captives and could convince them that they are
harmless.
On the other hand, the weapons that the Muslims used in their raiding activities
included the following:
▪ Barong. These were single-bladed weapons made of thick-tempered steel and
measures at approximately one meter long. The Muslims would prefer this during a
close hand-to-hand battle.
▪ Kris or Calais. These weapons were used either for warfare or as a ceremonial
symbol. It was unique because it was a double-edged sword that was either smooth
or wavy. It was a dreadful and savage weapon since it did not only stab the opponent,
rather it slashed the flesh and penetrated it, leaving most of the time a fatal result. The
nobles and other high ranking Muslim officials would usually use this weapon.
▪ Kampilan. These weapons were primarily used by the Ilanuns and were much longer
and heavier than the previous two swords.
▪ Body Armor. Wealthy Muslims used bodily armors that were made from carabao
horn and/or steel plates which, in turn, were molded to fit the body of its user. A chain
link was used to hold it to the warrior’s body.
85
Activity
Watch the documentary film Raiders of the Sulu Sea in Youtube through the
link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CEtJ1mZdX10. Read likewise Dr. Cesar
Adib Majul’s book titled Muslims in the Philippines: Past, Present and Future
Prospects make a timeline of the Moro Wars.
❖
References:
Majul, C. A. (1971). Muslims in the Philippines: Past, present and future prospects. Manila:
Converts of Islam Society of the Philippines.
Yen, L. S., Zakaria, Z., & Kim, Y. (Producers). (2013). Raiders of the Sulu sea. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CEtJ1mZdX10.
86
UNIT 3
HISTORIC CONTROVERSIES
Figure 10. Ambeth Ocampo’s picture of Jose Rizal’s alleged retraction document. (Chua, 2016).
87
THE SITE OF THE FIRST MASS
Overview:
Philippine History is full of controversial issues. In fact some of them are still
unresolved up to the present time. Dealing with controversies takes extra care because
historians who have raised their arguments on them have their respective points. Moreover,
dealing with them would take great effort in reviewing historiographic approaches employed
in the gathering, analyzing and interpreting sources. The existence of discourses concerning
these controversies makes history alive and very much interesting to study.
The site of the First Mass had been the subject of heated debates for the past few
decades. There were two leading contenders on this controversy–Limasawa and Butuan.
Although the then National Historical Institute through the Gancayco Commission officially
recognized Limasawa as the site of the First Mass and although its finding was affirmed by a
committee headed by Dr. Benito J. Legarda in 2008 and recently by the Mojares Panel in
2018, the controversy still continued up to the present time due to the pieces of evidence
presented by the pro-Butuan camp.
Leaning Outcomes:
1. Apply the ability of evaluating sources by using the methods of History discussed
in Unit 1 of this module.
2. Show competence in formulating arguments in favor of or against a particular
issue through the use of primary sources.
The First Mass and the Gancayco Commission
The National Historical Institute, (NHI; now a Commission) through the Gancayco
Commission, declared that the first Catholic mass in the country was celebrated by Fr. Pedro
de Valderrama in Limasawa, in the present-day province of Southern Leyte on March 31,
1521. The Commission which was headed by retired Supreme Court Justice Emilio
Gancayco, along with Atty. Bartolome Fernandez and Dr. Maria Luisa Camagay, was tasked
to resolve a very sensitive historical issue concerning the Philippines and its people. Through
a 24-page decision, the Commission concluded that the First Mass was celebrated in
Limasawa due to the following circumstances:
88
• James Robertson's English translation of the original Italian manuscript of Pigafetta's

account is considered most reliable for being ''faithful'' to the original text as duly
certified by the Department of European Language of the University of the Philippines.
• Pigafetta's Mazaua, the site of the First Catholic Mass held on Philippine soil, is an
island lying off the southwestern tip of Leyte while Masao in Butuan is not an island
but a barangay of Butuan City located in a delta of the Agusan River along the coast
of Northern Mindanao. The position of Mazaua, as plotted by Pigafetta, matched that
of Limasawa.
• The measurement of distances between Homonhon and Limasawa and between

Limasawa and Cebu, as computed by the pro-Limasawa group, matches or
approximates the description made by Pigafetta of the distances between Homonhon
and Mazaua and between Mazaua and Cebu.
• Magellan's fleet took a route from Homonhon to Mazaua and from Mazaua to Cebu
that did not at any time touch Butuan or any other part of Mindanao. The docking
facilities at Limasawa did not pose any problem for Magellan's fleet which anchored
near or at some safe distance from the island of the eastern shore.
Although the Commission submitted its findings to Dr. Samuel Tan of the National
Historical Institute on March 20, 1998, the finding was formally turned over to Limasawa
officials on March 31 of the same year on the occasion of the 478th anniversary of the First
Mass.
Reiteration through the 2009 Legarda Commission
On June 15, 2009, the National Historical Institute adopted the recommendation of this
Commission on the site of the First Mass on Philippine soil. The Commission reiterated the
conclusion of the previous Gancayco Commission which declared Limasawa as the site of the
First Mass. The Commission which was headed by Dr. Benito J. Legarda with members Fr.
Jose Cruz and Mr. Pedro Picornell aimed at re-examining the matter by conducting a hearing
on August 29, 2008 at the National Museum (NM) in order to hear the respective positions of
the Butuan and Limasawa sides. Subsequent meetings were held on January 30 and March
21, 2009 with Dr. Celestina Boncan of UP Manila and Dr. Ricardo Jose of UP Diliman. “The
committee used as bases for re-examination the timeline, direction, and duration of the sailing
routes, the presence or absence of land forms (islands and river deltas), and geographical
location by latitude as contained in the primary sources, the Gancayco Report, and the study
of the late Fr. Miguel Bernad.”
The Mojares Panel
In line with the 500 years of the coming of Christianity to the Philippines, the National
Historical Commission of the Philippines and the National Quincentennial Committee created
a new panel with the view of reexamining the Butuan claim. The panel which was headed by
Dr. Resil Mojares, with Dr. Danilo Gerona from the Partido State University, Dr. Carlos Madrid
Alvarez-Piñer from the Instituto Cervantes de Manila, Fr. Antonio Francisco B. De Castro, SJ,
who represented the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP), Dr. Francis
Navarro from the Ateneo de Manila University and Dr. Jose Victor Torres from the De La Salle
89
University—Manila as members, conducted evaluation proceedings on December 12 and 13,

2018 in Cebu City. Through this panel, new perspectives emerged.
According to the article published at the Manila times by the historian Xiao Chua
(2019), two respondents gave their arguments: Gabriel Atega and Dr. Potenciano Malvar.
Atega argued that “the measurements as recorded in a French manuscript of the Magellan
Expedition chronicle by Antonio Pigafetta… provided accurate measurements and thus the 9
degrees 2/3 N latitude referred therein passes through Mindanao, the island of which
Magallanes, Agusan del Norte (Old Butuan) was part” (para. 10).
On the other hand, Dr. Malvar suggested that “based on the agreement of Magellan
with King Charles V, profits from trade from discovered lands will benefit Magellan’s
descendants, Pigafetta will not let other travelers accurately know the exact location of
‘Mazaua’ because the area was rich in resources” (para. 11).
In that same article, Chua mentioned that both Atega and Malvar agreed “that the site
of the Mass was a different place from Mazaua and that the clue is in an 1872 monument for
the aforementioned mass in Magallanes, Agusan del Norte. They also pointed out to [sic]
Francisco Albo’s testimony that when they planted the cross on the highest hill then, they saw
three islands west-southwest. Both of them claimed ‘that climbing the two nearest mountains
to the 1872 monument, one would see Camiguin Island west-southwest, but only its three
mountains were visible (which made them look like islands)” (para. 12).
▪
Activity▪
▪
▪
1. Create a Venn Diagram comparing the points of argument used by the Masao
side
▪ and Limasawa side in claiming that the First Easter Mass in the Philippine
occurred in their respective localities. ▪
2. Out of the arguments presented by the two sides, write a short essay stating
▪
your view on the issue.
3. Are you in favor with the conclusions made▪ by the various committees tasked
to discuss the controversy? Explain your answer.
❖
References:
Arnaiz, Jani. (1999). 1st mass controversy: It's Limasawa. Retrieved from https://www.
coursehero.com/file/35785173/1st-Mass-controversydocx/
Bernad, M. (2002). Butuan or Limasawa: The site of the First Mass in the Philippines - a
reexamination of the evidence. In Budhi: A journal of ideas and culture. Retrieved
from https://journals.ateneo.edu/ojs/index.php/budhi/article/view/582/579
90
Mascariñas, E. (2012, April 4). Butuan historians ask CBCP to resolve first mass
controversy in city’s favor. In MindaNews. Retrieved from https://www.mindanews.
com/top-stories/2012/04/butuan-historians-ask-cbcp-to-resolve-first-mass-
controversy-in-citys-favor/.
Chua, X. (2016). Retraction ni Jose Rizal: Mga bagong dokumento at pananaw. GMA News
Online. Retrieved from https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/artandculture/
594027/retraction-ni-jose-rizal-mga-bagong-dokumento-at-pananaw/story/
Chua, X. (2019). The Mojares panel. Manila Times. Retrieved from

https://www.manilatimes.net/2019/01/20/opinion/columnists/the-mojares-
panel/499056/.
Schreurs, P. (1981). The first mass site revisited. In Philippine quarterly of culture and
society (9, No. 3, pp. 192-216). University of San Carlos Publications.
91
THE CAVITE MUTINY
Overview
The Cavite Mutiny or what was more popularly known among the Spaniards as La
Algarada Caviteña was a brief uprising of some Filipino soldiers and laborers who served the
Spanish armed forces in Fort San Felipe in the Province of Cavite. The soldiers and laborers
had the nerve to instigate a mutiny due to their belief that it could be escalated into a
nationwide uprising. However, it was easily crushed by the Spanish military and thus
repressed the burgeoning of the initial nationalist movement in the country.
The uprising, though not that sprawling, was magnified into an issue of national interest
by Governor-General Rafael de Izquierdo and was made as an excuse in order to crack down
the Filipinos who enjoyed the atmosphere of liberalism during the time of Carlos Maria de la
Torre y Navacerrada. A number of secularists who campaigned for reforms were arrested
because of the alleged support they provided among the mutineers. Several priests and
intellectuals were arrested including Fr. Jose Burgos, Fr. Jacinto Zamora and Fr. Mariano
Gomez. While the others were banished in the deserted Marianas and the Carolines, the
three priests would be executed in Bagumbayan.
Leaning Outcomes:
1. Apply the ability of evaluating sources by using the methods of History discussed
in Unit 1 of this module.
2. Show competence in formulating arguments in favor of or against a particular
issue through the use of primary sources.
The Versions of the Report
There are three versions of the report: (1) the Spanish Version made by Jose Montero
y Vidal, (2) the Filipino Version written by T.H. Pardo de Tavera and (3) the Official Report of
Governor General Rafael de Izquirdo. The versions used in this module are the English
translations included in the Volume 7 of the Documentary Sources of Philippine History which
was compiled by the late historian Greogio Zaide and published by the National Bookstore,
Inc. in 1990. For the students reading convenience, the brief copies of the reports have been
included here.
92
Figure 11:
Photo of the
Spanish arsenal
in Cavite taken
during the
American
Period.
(Retrieved from
http://www.wata
wat.net/the-
cavite-
mutiny.html).
93
94
95
96
Biases of the Reports
According to the historian Gregorio Zaide (1990), Jose Montero y Vidal’s report on the
Cavite Mutiny was bias against the Filipinos and the Jesuits and it supports the official report
of Governor-General Rafael de Izquierdo. In spite of that, however, his account remains as
one of the surviving accounts about the uprising.
Zaide also related the observation of the American historian James LeRoy who noticed
the bias version of Montero y Vidal. Zaide quotes LeRoy with the following words: “The
usually sober and colorless Montero y Vidal becomes very rabid in his recital of the Cavite
episode in the Philippine History and is very positive not only in denouncing the priests who
were executed and the deportees as guilty, but in proclaiming their movement as actually
separatist in character. He ridicules at length the account of the Frenchman Plauchut. But
Plauchut, as well as Montery y Vidal, was a resident in or near Manila at the time of the
occurrences.” Indeed, no matter how objectively a person is when his personal interest and
that of his country is put at risk, that person might become unreasonable and defend his
concerns at whatever means.
Considered historian during his time, Montero y Vidal was a government official who
resided in Manila. Among his works are: El Archipelago Filipino y las islas Marianas,
Carolinas y Palaos: Su historia, geografica y estadistica; Historia general de Filipinas desde
el descubrimiento de dichas islas hasta nuestras dias (3 volumes); and, Historia de la pirateria
Malayo-mahometina de Mindanao, Jolo y Borneo (2 volumes). All of his works were published
in Madrid respectively in 1886, from 1887 to 1895 and in 1888 (Zaide, 1990).
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
Figure 12. Map of Cavite Arsenal. (Retrieved from http://www.watawat.net/

the-cavite-mutiny.html).
104
105
106
107
Figure 13. Sergeant Fernando La Madrid, a Figure 14. An Indian carpenter of the Cavite
mestizo who served as one of the leaders in the Arsenal. (Retrieved from http://www.watawat.
Cavite Mutiny. (Retrieved from http://www. net/the-cavite-mutiny.html).
watawat.net/the-cavite-mutiny.html).
108
109
Figure 15. Fathers

Gomez, Burgos and
Zamora, the martyrs
of Filipinism.
(Retrieved from
https://www.bayaniart
.com/gomburza/).
Activity
Given the full texts of the versions of their accounts on the Cavite Mutiny, make a
matrix on their differences [and similarities, if any] following the matrix below.
Differences of Versions of…

arguments in terms T.H. Pardo de
of the following: Montero y Vidal Rafael de Izquierdo
Tavera
Description of the
event
Reasons for instigating
the mutiny
Description of the
mutineers
Response of the colonial
government
Implication of the
GomBurZa
❖
110
References
Coates, A. (1992). Rizal: Filipino nationalist and patriot. Solidaridad Publishing House.
GOMBRUZA. (n.d.). Bayani Art. Retrieved from https://www.bayaniart.com/gomburza/.
Izquierdo, R. (1990). Official report of Governor Izquierdo on the Cavite mutiny. In Gregorio
Zaide (Ed.), Documentary sources of Philippine history (Vol. 7, pp. 281-286).
Navotas: National Bookstore, Inc.
Pardo de Tavera, T. H. (1990). Filipino version of the Cavity mutiny. In Gregorio Zaide (Ed.),
Documentary sources of Philippine history (Vol. 7, pp. 274-280). Navotas: National
Bookstore, Inc.
Montero y Vidal, J. (1990). Spanish version of the Cavity mutiny. In Gregorio Zaide (Ed.),
Documentary sources of Philippine history (Vol. 7, pp. 269-273). Navotas: National
Bookstore, Inc.

nationalism. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
The Cavite mutiny. (n.d.). Watawat. Retrieved from http://www.watawat.net/the-cavite-

mutiny.html.
111
UNIT 4-A
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC
and CULTURAL ISSUES
A General Discussion
Figure 16. The destruction of downtown Manila during the liberation

campaign. (Katz, 2004).
112
THE CONSTITUTIONS OF THE PHILIPPINES
Introduction
In essence, a constitution is a codified law that determines the powers and duties of a
government and it embodies certain rights of the people.
The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. When the legislative department
passed a law and found by the judicial department in conflict with the Constitution, such law
has no force and effect and has to be declared unconstitutional.
However, a constitution is not just about codified laws but a trace of the development
of national ideals. As historical record revealed, Filipino people revolted against Spain and
the United States practically to demonstrate their desire for self-governance. Evidence to
which are Kartilya ng Katipunan by Emilio Jacinto and various provisional constitutions.
Learning Outcomes
1. Analyze the historical origin and development of Philippine constitutions.

2. Propose recommendations whether the present constitution is attuned to the
changing needs and political realities of the time.
The Spanish Constitution in the Philippines
As confirmed by Spanish writers, the inhabitants of the Philippines possessed a culture

of their own prior to the coming of the Spaniards to the Islands. There existed a sense of
civilization among the inhabitants as reflected on their system of government and religion.
However, there is no recorded constitution in the strict sense of the word until it was introduced
by the Spaniards.
For three short periods, Spanish Constitution was effective in the Philippines, namely,
for the years 1810-1813, 1820-1823, and 1834-1837. During this period, the Philippines had
representation in the Cortes, the legislative body of the Spanish government. After the year
1837, repeated efforts were made to revive the campaign for rights, foremost of which was
the petition made by the Propaganda Movement. Filipino people at that time stated that they
should have the same political and civil rights as the Spanish people. Such failure to extend
the right was one of the protests of the Ilustrados which in turn created an impact in the
struggle for independence in the 1896 Revolution.
113
The Malolos Constitution
With the success of the Philippine Revolution, the Filipino people declared
independence against Spain led by Emilio F. Aguinaldo. He established a revolutionary
government and was named its president. He then issued a proclamation creating a
Revolutionary Congress to draft a constitution for the government.
On September 15, 1898, the revolutionary Congress was convened in Malolos,

Bulacan to draft the constitution which was later on known as the Malolos Congress. The
Congress was composed of both appointed and elected delegates representing all provinces
of the Philippines. After several amendments, Aguinaldo approved and promulgated the
Malolos Constitution on January 21, 1899. The Malolos Constitution became the first
Philippine Constitution and the first republican constitution in Asia. The Malolos Constitution
lasted from 1899 to 1901.
The American Constitution in the Philippines
Meantime, right after the signing of the 1898 Treaty of Paris which ceded the
Philippines to the United States, American influence on the constitutional history of the
Philippines began. American laws were bodily or partially transplanted; American methods of
governance and education were introduced; and American thoughts became predominant.
The President of the United States issued orders and the Congress of the United States
passed laws that had binding effect in the Philippine Islands. Three of these measures were
(1) the Instructions of the President to the Philippine Commission of April 7, 1900, (2) the
Philippine Bill of 1902 or the Philippine Organic Act which was sponsored by Henry Allen
Cooper and was enacted into law on July 1, 1902 and (3) the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916
or the Cooper Act. These laws served as the constitutions of the Philippines from 1902 to
1935.
The 1935 Constitution
The Hare-Hawes Cutting Law brought to the Philippines by Osmeña and Roxas set a
controversy in the Philippine Legislature. Quezon himself showed dissatisfaction by rejecting
the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law. One striking, objectionable provision in the law which Quezon
strongly precluded was on the establishment of permanent military and naval bases by the
United States in the Philippines for ninety-nine years. To him, that provision was a deliberate
intrusion to the sovereignty of the country. Accordingly, he went to the United States in order
to secure another independence mission which was known as the Tydings-McDuffie Act.
Looking at the two laws, the Tydings-McDuffie Law was a bit different from the Hare-Hawes-
Cutting Law because the former was the result of the amendment on the latter by the U.S.
Congress.
In 1934, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Independence Act, which
set the parameters for the creation of a constitution for the Philippines. The election of
delegates to a Constitutional Convention was held. The 1934 Constitutional Convention
finished its work on February 8, 1935. The 1935 Constitution was ratified by the Filipino
people through a national plebiscite held on May 14, 1935. The constitution was held into full
force and effect on November 15, 1935 with the inauguration of the Commonwealth of the
114
Philippines. One of its governing

principles was on the provision
stating that it would remain as the
constitution of the Republic of the
Philippines until independence
would be granted on July 4, 1946.
The 1935 Constitution is

remembered due to the following
provisions: (1) the presence of a
legislature which consisted of
upper and lower houses.; (2) the
election of the President and the
Vice President of the Philippines
to a term of four years; (3) the
right granted to every male
Filipino citizen aged 21 or older,
able to read and write, to vote; and, (4) the right to vote which was eventually extended to
women within the next two years,
following the adoption of the Figure 17. Manuel Roxas signing the constitution of the Philippines.
(Retrieved from https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/
constitution (Palafox, 2012).
constitutions/constitution-day).
The Commonwealth government was a transitory government towards an

independent state. The 1935 Constitution which provided legal basis for its affairs was
suspended by the occupation of the Japanese who sponsored a puppet republic with its own
constitution. Since the constitution of the puppet republic was not recognized by the liberating
forces of the Americans, the 1935 Constitution was placed in effect once more and it remained
in effect for many years until the declaration of martial law in 1972.
A Constitutional Convention was also created to amend or revise the 1935

Constitution. President Ferdinand E. Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 86, s. 1972,
creating citizens assemblies to ratify the newly drafted constitution by means of a viva voce
vote in lieu of secret balloting. Marcos announced that it had been ratified and in full force
and effect on January 17, 1973.
The results and ratification of the constitution were challenged at the Supreme Court
by a group of opposition, invoking among others that PD 86 “has no force and effect as law
because the calling... of such plebiscite, the setting of guidelines for the conduct of the same,
the prescription of the ballots to be used and the question to be answered by the voters, and
the appropriation of public funds for the purpose, are, by the Constitution, lodged exclusively
in Congress...” (La Viña, 2016, para. 2).
In spite of the ratification announced by President Marcos, the Supreme Court decided
that the procedure followed was not in accordance with Article XV, Section 1 of the 1935
Constitution. In spite, however, of the dissenting decision of the Court, Chief Justice Roberto
Concepcion stated that ''there is no judicial obstacle to it being in force and effect” (“Validity
of Marcos's”, 1981)
115
After the People Power Revolution, President Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation
No. 9, s. 1986, which created a Constitutional Commission tasked to draft a new charter that
would replace the 1973 Constitution. A national plebiscite was held on February 2, 1987 in
order to ratify the new constitution. On February 11, 1987, by virtue of Proclamation No. 58,
President Aquino announced the official canvassing of results and the ratification of the draft
of the constitution. The 1987 Constitution took effect immediately upon its ratification by the
majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite held on February 2, 1987.
Unlike in the 1935 and 1973 Constitutions, one of the unique features of the 1987
Constitution is the concept of social justice which treated as a separate subject. The President
of the Constitutional Commission, Justice Cecilia Muñoz-Palma, said that social justice is the
heart of the 1987 Constitution. According to Justice Jose P. Laurel, in the case of Calalang
vs. Williams, social justice is neither communism, nor despotism nor atomism nor anarchy,
but the humanization of laws and the equalization of social and economic forces by the state
so that justice in its rational and objectively secular conception may at least be approximated.
Social justice means the promotion of the welfare of all the people, the adoption by the
government of measures calculated to insure the economic stability of all the component
elements of society through the maintenance of proper economic and social equilibrium in the
interrelations of the members of the community, constitutionally, through the adoption of
measures legally justifiable, or extra-constitutionally, through the exercise of powers
underlying the existence of all governments, on the time-honored principle of salus populi est
suprema lex.
Aside from the mother provision in Article XIII, other articles of the 1987 Constitution
contain social justice provisions. It can be said that social justice provision is found all over
the Constitution and not just in Article XIII—it can also be found in Articles XII and XIV. The
deliberations of the Constitutional Commission were enlightening as to the historical and
social context of these social justice provisions. The history of social injustice during Spanish
and American occupations encouraged the members to do this action.
Activity
Navigate to https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions and examine the various

constitutions of the Philippines across the different periods and do the task provided in
the matrix below. Give at least one comparison (similarity) and one contrast
(difference) on each of the three points indicated.
Points of Comparison / Contrast

Constitutions
The National Territory Bill of Rights Citizenship
1935 Constitution
1943 Constitution
116
1973 Constitution
1987 Constitution
❖
References
Evolution of the Philippine constitution. (n.d.). Official Gazette. Retrieved from https://www.
officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/constitution-day
Katz, Phillip P. (2004). World War II in the Philippines: A pictorial review. Eugene J.
Adams.
La Viña, Tony. (2016). The travesty of the 1973 constitution. Retrieved from
https://manilastandard.net/mobile/article/216640.
Palafox, Q. A. J. (2012). The constitution of the Philippine commonwealth. Retrieved from

https://nhcp.gov.ph/the-constitution-of-the-philippine-commonwealth.
Philippine constitution. (n.d.). Official Gazette. Retrieved from https://www.officialgazette.

gov.ph/constitutions.
Record of the constitutional commission: Proceedings and debates (Vol. 1). (1986).
Constitutional Commission of 1986. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/
record-of-constitutional-commission-volume-1/mode/2up.
Validity of Marcos's '73 constitution is challenged. (1981). The New York Times. Retrieved
from https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/01/world/validity-of-marcos-s-73-
constitution-is-challenged.html.
117
THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: SOME NOTES
Introduction
Tracing back the history of the Philippines, the implication of colonization includes
cultural influences. Around three hundred thirty-three years under the Spaniards, almost forty-
eight years under the Americans and three more years under the Japanese, there have been
communities all over the Philippines that were able to manage and keep their cultural identity.
These groups were able to retain their distinct and unique cultural, economic and political
characteristics which, as had been clearly observed, diverse from the dominant societies at
the present time. These societies where known to be the Indigenous People of the Philippines.
Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the meaning and socio-political background of the Indigenous Peoples

in the Philippines.
2. Learn the basic information about the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997.
What is the meaning of Indigenous People?
The term Indigenous People (IP) has its common perception of uncolonized people.
The most cited definition of “Indigenous” comes from Cobo’s study ("State of the World's",
2009). In his definition, he explained that Indigenous people, communities or nations have
their historical continuity with regards to the pre-colonization of their countries (Cobo, 1983).
According to the United Nations (“State of the World's”, 2009), the following are the
concept of historical continuity:
1. Occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them

2. Common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands
3. Culture in general, or in specific manifestations (such as religion, living under a
tribal system, membership of an indigenous community, dress, means of
livelihood, lifestyle, etc.)
4. Language (whether used as the only language, as mother-tongue, as the habitual
means of communication at home or in the family, or as the main, preferred,
habitual, general or normal language)
5. Residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world
6. Other relevant factors.
118
Aside from historical continuity, Indigenous People is the contrary of the prevailing or
dominant societies in terms of cultural and social identity ("Indigenous Peoples", 2002). The
IP’s considerably was able to preserve and protect their culture amongst the presence of
threat from the “outside” community.
The Indigenous Peoples (IPs) of the Philippines
During the Spanish colonization, communities who resisted colonial rule and
conversion to Christianity were categorized as infieles (infidels), salvajes (savages) or tribus
salvajes (savage tribes). As the colonial rule transferred to the American regime these
communities were called non-Christian tribes ("The Indigenous Peoples Right Act", 2007).
On October 1901, the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was created and led by David
Barrows. He was an anthropologist and he supervised the 1903 Philippine Census for the
ethnic classification in the country. As a result, and in the context of religion, two major
categories were created to classify the Filipinos. The first one was called the Christian and
Civilized Tribe which composed of the major population while the second one was called the
Non-Christian and Wild Tribes or the minorities ("The Indigenous Peoples Right Act", 2007).
Figure 18. History of Government Agencies on Indigenous People (World Bank, 2007, Illustration by
Sherrenne De Amboy)
119
The Philippines became one of the first countries in Asia who used the term Indigenous
People (Asian Development Bank, 2002; World Bank, 2007). The country is composed of
110 ethno-linguistics groups, raptly 14-17 million of its population (Indigenous people of the
Philippines, 2009). Majority of the IPs are located in Mindanao which consists of 61 % of the
population while 33 % from the Northern Luzon which are mostly situated in the Cordillera
Administrative Region (CAR) and the remaining group are from Visayas (Carino, 2012).
In Mindanao there are two main IP groups, the Lumads and the Moro Peoples. The
term Lumad is used to refer the 18 non-Muslim IP groups in the region. According to the
Visayans, Lumad means “of the land”. The seven listed Islamized group are known to be the
Moro Peoples or the Muslims (Thompson, 2014).
The Igorot is the collective and most common term used for the IPs in the Cordillera
Administrative Region. Their inclination to highland habitat became one of the reasons why
the Spanish conquistadores were not able to convert them into Christianity. Some of them
live near the rivers and foothills. Other ethno-linguistic groups in the region are identified as
Ifugao, Ibaloy, Bontoc Isneg, Tinguia and Kankanaey. According to Carino (2012) and
Thompson (2014), the term Igorot means people from (i-) the mountain. And lastly, the
Mangyan, the collective name for eight sub-groups, are found in the Island of Mindoro.
Figure 19. Ethno-Linguistic Map of the Philippines (NCIP, 2019)
The IPs, regardless of their unique and distinct culture, belong to the most
disadvantaged group and subjected to racial discrimination (De Vera, 2007; Sanders, 1989).
The timeline (see Figure 18) shows the history of government agencies in the country which
120
created to protect the welfare of the IPs in the Philippines. The 1987 Constitution therefore
recognize the rights of the IPs the country, to wit:
“The State recognizes and promotes the rights of indigenous

Cultural communities within the framework of national unity and development”
Article II, Sec 22 (Declaration of State Policies and Principles)
Following the mandate of the 1987 Constitution, the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act
or IPRA was enacted in 1997 during the term of President Fidel Ramos. That Republic Act
became responsible in the ratification of the creation of the Four Bundle of Rights for the IPs
in the country (see figure 19).
Figure 20. Four Bundles of Rights from Republic Act No. 8371.
(Illustration by Sherrenne De Amboy).
The year after IPRA was enacted the National Commission on Indigenous People was
created. The agency’s mandate is to protect and promote the interest and welfare of the IPs
in connection to their beliefs, traditions, institutions and customs.
121
Activity
Write a reflection essay regarding the information that you will gather on the following
tasks:
Option A. Interview. Make an interview to at least three persons whom you know
and ask their perception of the Indigenous Peoples by asking the
following questions:
1. What comes into your mind when you read or hear the term indigenous? How
about the term indigenous people? What words or terms do you usually
associated with them?
2. Do you think that the indigenous peoples of the Philippines are fairly treated
in terms of equal opportunities like education, livelihood and health care?
Why?
Option B. Film Viewing. Watch the full episode of Kara David’s award-winning
Ambulansiyang de Paa at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JI-Qgl1A-
g0 and make your personal assessment on the conditions of many
indigenous peoples in the country at present.
❖
References:
Carino, J. K. (2012). Country technical notes on IP’s isues Republic of the Philippines (Vol.
12, No. 17, pp. 167–168). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1525/as.1943.12.
17.01p1254s.
Cobo, J. M. (1983). Study of the problem of discrimination against indigenous populations.

In United Nations economic and social council (Vol. 2, pp. 50–51). http://www.un.org/
esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/MCS_xxi_xxii_e.pdf
De Vera, D. (2007). Indigenous peoples’ rights in the Philippines: A country case study. In
OECD journal on development (Vol. 9, Issue 2, pp. 73–82). Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1787/journal_dev-v9-art13-en
GMA Public Affairs (Producer) & David, Kara (Host/Writer). (2009). Ambulansiyang de paa.
In I-witness. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JI-Qgl1A-g0.
Indigenous peoples / Ethnic minorities and poverty reduction . (2002). Sustainable

development (Issue June). Asian Development Bank. http://www.adb.org/sites/
default/files/publication/28025/indigenous-peoples-philippines.pdf
Indigenous people of the Philippines. (2009). United Nations. 2009–2010.

https://www.citationmachine.net/resources/how-to-cite-a-pdf/.
122
IPRA and NCIP. (2019). National Commission for Indigenous Peoples. https://www.sec.
gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/2018_
Sanders, D. (1989). The UN working group on indigenous populations. In Human rights

quarterly (Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 406-433). Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.2307/762100.
State of the world ’s indigenous (2009). United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs. https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/SOWIP/en/
SOWIP_web.pdf.
The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines. (n.d.). Official Gazette.

https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/#article-i
Thompson, P. (2014). Philippines indigenous peoples. In World directory of minorities and

indigenous peoples (Website). Retrieved from https://minorityrights.org/minorities/
indigenous-peoples-6/.
The indigenous peoples right act: Legal and institutional framework, implementation and
challenges. (2007).. World Bank. Retrieved from https://serp-p.pids.gov.ph/serp-
p//details.php?pid=4326&param=World+Bank.
123
HISTORY OF AGRARIAN REFORM IN THE PHILIPPINES
Introduction
In the Colonial Period, the Filipinos had been working with so many struggles in their
agricultural lands. Many challenges—both natural and man-made phenomena—prevented
them from enjoying the fruits of their toils. It is for this reason that they also remained poor
and miserable amidst the supposed richness of their country’s natural resources.
It is said that the farmers serve as the backbone of the local economy and that they
have been feeding the nation since time immemorial until the present. But why is it that many
of them remain to be poor and obscure despite the richness of their land that they cultivate?
Across the many years, it has been their ardent desire to at least break their bondage from
their landlords and cultivate the land which, in turn, shall give them the benefit to determine
economically for themselves and their social disposition.
Since the establishment of the First Philippine Republic, each Philippine president has
significant legislations on agrarian reform. Notably, every Philippine Constitution undertakes
the promotion of social justice and agrarian reform program. However, it was only Republic
Act No. 6657 or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1998 which attempted to fully
distribute lands to farmers. Despite the promise of the provisions of laws and policies of the
state, however, agrarian reform has remained elusive to the farmers and farmworkers. Many
are still struggling in the countryside, un-nourished with food and without their own land to
cultivate.
Learning Outcomes

1. Analyze the historical origin and development of agrarian reform
2. Propose some recommendations that can benefit the farmers after understanding
the root cause or problem of agrarian reform.
What is Agrarian Reform?
Agrarian reform is defined as the redistribution of lands regardless of crops or fruits

produced to farmers and regular farmworkers who are landless, irrespective of tenurial
arrangement, to include the totality of factors and support services designed to lift the
economic status of the beneficiaries and all other arrangements alternative to the physical
redistribution of lands, such as production or profit-sharing labor administration, and the
124
distribution of shares of stock, which will allow beneficiaries to receive a just share of the fruits
of the lands they work.
Land Issues in the Colonial Period
The Spanish government, through the Laws of the Indies, declared all lands in the
Philippines as exclusive territory of the Spanish Crown. The Spaniards destroyed the
traditional system of land ownership–that is, common ownership of land by village clusters
known as barangays which was similar to the existing systems among several indigenous
communities–and distributed the lands (haciendas) to Spanish military officials and the clergy
or to established encomiendas (administrative districts). This system granted that the
encomenderos must defend their encomiendas from external attack, maintain peace and
order within their jurisdiction, and support the activities of the missionaries. In turn, the
encomenderos acquired the right to collect tributes from the indios (natives).
The system, however, degenerated into the abuse of power by the encomenderos.
Soon, the tribute became land rents to a few powerful landlords. And the natives who once
cultivated the lands with ease and freedom were transformed into mere share tenants.
The coming of the United States as the news colonizer did not address this problem
even when it bragged of its banner of democracy, championing equal rights and opportunities
for all. By contrast, the new conquerors only established a new class, although certain
changes were introduced namely, (1) The Land Registration Act of 1902 which paved the way
to land titling; (2) the Public Land Act of 1903 or The Homestead Act; and, (3) The Tenancy
Act of 1933 which set certain limitations on the size of land ownership.
Meanwhile, the 1935 Constitution addressed the issue of foreign access to land, i.e.,
corporations must have at least 60 percent Filipino ownership and use-rights were limited in
time. Other reforms included limitations on interest rates on loans and an increase in the
sharecropping’s share from 50 percent to 70 percent. Very little of these laws were really
followed in practice and the Huk rebellion was born.
Post-war Measures
After the decolonization of the United States, Manuel A. Roxas enacted Republic Act
No. 55 which provided for a more effective safeguard against arbitrary ejectment of tenants.
During the administrations of Ramon Magsaysay (regarding the Mindanao resettlement
program) and Diosdado Macapagal, land reform was again tackled but no significant results
were achieved in terms of scope and magnitude of land transfer. When Ferdinand Marcos
became president and declared Martial Law, the whole of the Philippines was declared a land
reform area under Presidential Decree (P.D.) No. 27. Significant progress was made but the
continued practice of the share tenancy system, the exemptions allowed by the government
and the shortcomings in the support system did much to limit the efficacy of the reforms on
addressing poverty by 50 percent of the rural population).
125
The Post-Martial Law Implementation
Then, the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) years was enacted in 1988.
Land distribution increased substantially but lack of support system was still prevalent while
many big landed estates have not yet been included in the program. When President Fidel
V. Ramos formally took over in 1992, his administration came face to face with publics who
have lost confidence in the agrarian reform program. His administration committed to the
vision, “Fairer, faster and more meaningful implementation of the Agrarian Reform Program”.
In his administration, President Joseph Estrada launched the Magkabalikat Para sa

Kaunlarang Agraryo or MAGKASAKA. The Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) forged joint
ventures with private investors into agrarian sector to make FBs competitive. The agrarian
reform program under the Arroyo administration was anchored on the vision “To make the
countryside economically viable for the Filipino family by building partnership and promoting
social equity and new economic opportunities towards lasting peace and sustainable rural
development.”
President Benigno Aquino III vowed during his 2012 State of the Nation Address that
he would complete the implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
(CARP) by the end of his term. The model of his reform was the implementation of the
program during the time of his mother, the late President Corazon Aquino. President Rodrigo
Duterte, on the other hand, wants to pursue an “aggressive” land reform program that would
help alleviate the life of poor Filipino farmers by prioritizing the provision of support services
alongside land distribution”.
Activity
Read some notes on agrarian reform in the Philippines and prepare a comparative
matrix showing a) the evolution of agrarian policies over the years, b) the content of the
policies, and c) the implication of the law on agrarian issues.
❖
References
Republic Act No. 6657. (n.d.). Official Gazette. Retrieved from https://www.
officialgazette.gov.ph/1988/06/10/republic-act-no-6657/
Agrarian reform history. (n.d.,). Department of Agrarian Reform. Retrieved from

https://www.dar.gov.ph/about-us/agrarian-reform-history/
126
UNIT 4-B
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC
and CULTURAL ISSUES
With Adaptations to the Disciplines of the Students
Figure 21. The Absence of regulatory measures on the consumption of tobacco

made the children addicted to it. (de Jesus, 1980).
127
BRIDGES IN THE 19TH CENTURY PHILIPPINES

THROUGH SELECTED PHOTOGRAPHS
(For Engineering and Architecture Majors)
Introduction
You might be curious of the kind of transportation system that our forebears in the Pre-
colonial Period had when there were no concrete bridges and roads that crossed rivers and
adjoined the various communities of the archipelago. It must have been an overwhelming
character of patience and perseverance exuded by our ancestors before they could reach
their destinations which could be trekked by a carriage in an hour or more at the height of the
Spanish regime or by a jeepney in about 20 minutes during the American Period. Certainly,
the Filipino of today cannot just do what the Filipinos of the colonial era could, especially that
there are now modern modes of transportation in our time.
When the Spaniards reached these islands in 1565, they observed the presence of
many rivers. On these rivers, especially in the deltas, the Pre-colonial Filipinos dwelt on
because of the benefits that these narrow bodies of water provided. First, the rivers provided
navigable channels of transportation and communication. Second, the rivers served as a
source of life due of the resources that it yielded them. Third, the rivers served as irrigation
systems to the agricultural fields in the low-lying areas. Fourth, the rivers were the Great Bath
of all the people within the community and they served as the places where everything could
be washed or cleaned. Certainly those who lived in the downstream became highly
dependent on the rivers.
Before the construction of bridges, canoes called bangkas were used in either bridging
one side of the river to the other; hence the forebears were able to perfect the use of rivers as
channels of transportation and communication. At the time of the Spaniards, places became
more accessible due to the construction of infrastructures which lessened the challenges that
travelers experienced.
In this lesson, certain photographs have not been included due to the limited number
of pages allowed for this module.
Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the state of the Philippines in the Spanish Period by studying certain
infrastructures like bridges.
2. Examine the significance of the bridges in the Philippines and how these
infrastructures affected the lives and relationships of the Filipinos and the
Spaniards in the colonial era.
128
The Introduction of Photography in the Philippines
In 1839, the daguerreotype camera was invented in Europe. Two years thereafter, it
was introduced to the Philippines by the traveler Sinebaldo de Mas who was considered as
spy of the King of Spain by many Spaniards living in the country. Since, many colonial officials
did not like either the Residencia or the Visita, the old Spanish institutions established in
Castile, many colonial officials avoided and turned a cold feeling towards him (Pascual, 2013).
The Residencia which was initially exercised in Spain was first resorted to the Indies (or the
Spanish territories in Meso and Latin America, including the Philippines and other adjacent
territories) in 1501 (Agoncillo, 1990). The idea that Sinebaldo de Mas was sent secretly by
the king of Spain in order to investigate on the affairs of the state caused fear among the
Spaniards in Manila (Pascual, 2013). One could not blame the Spanish officials because a
residenciado or the colonial official who was found guilty of public misconduct would suffer
heavy fines, sequestration of assets or imprisonment or a combination of the three penalties
(Zaide, 2010). It must be noted that there were avenues of corruption in Obras Publicas which
facilitated the construction of certain infrastructures in the country.
Unlike other Spaniards who just arrived from Spain and were helped by their
countrymen, Sinebaldo de Mas was not welcome in the circle of the residenciados in Manila
and elsewhere. Because of this, he experienced financial shortage. He used his camera to
earn a living among the members of the alta sociedad in the country (Pascual, 2013). Hence,
he became the first photographer seen and occasionally employed by the prominent families
of Manila. Whether Sinebaldo de Mas was feared because of his camera, which was thought
to be recording the condition of the Philippines at that time, a conclusion cannot be made
about it because his photos were never used as pieces of evidence in order to prove whether
the Philippines was going backward, indeed, and hence the corrupt could be persecuted.
Photos during his time in the country were merely used to portrait the images of the capricious
elite.
In the succeeding years, European photographers arrived in the country. Because of

this, some studios emerged. Although affluent families in Manila were the only ones who
could avail their services, their studios were able to record various activities and aspects of
life—city or pastoral—like experiences in disasters, ways of life, local industry and livelihood,
government offices and various sceneries of the country.
Because of photography, infrastructures in Manila and other parts of the country were
eventually documented: The construction of infrastructures, like the San Sebastian Church
which was identified as the First Steel Church in the East, became evident (Paterno, 2018;
“San Sebastian”, n.d.). Formerly, the appearance of bridges was sketched by artists like
the Puente Grande with wooden superstructure spanning the Rio de Pasig. The bridge was
sketched in 1794 by Fernando Brambila, a member of the Malaspina Expedition (U.S. Army
Corps of Engineer, 1915). The Puente Grande which was subsequently known as Puente de
Espaňa became a major thoroughfare for pedestrians and carriages from 1630 to 1914.
The Construction of Bridges in the Philippines
Sensing the difficulty of transportation due to the presence of many rivers in the
country, the Spaniards constructed bridges in the Philippines. The construction of the first
bridges could be attributed to the first colonial officials who attempted to put the distant areas
of the country under Spanish colonial rule as effectively possible and the religious
129
missionaries who exerted great efforts in spreading Catholicism all throughout the archipelago
(Villalon, 2011). This motive was in accordance with the system of governance and the
planning of pueblos known as Leyes de las Indias (The Laws of the Indies) (del Castillo-
Noche, 2016). This law prescribed that the communities should be established permanently
and must be safe from being raided; that it must also be accessible by land or sea to other
pueblos. With the inherent desire for accessibility, there came a pressing need to establish
road networks and bridges whether the colonial officials were forced by the law or not. Thus,
the country’s first bridges like the Puente de Malagonlong in Tayabas, the Puente de Britanico
in Iloilo and the Puente de Isabel in Imus Cavite were constructed in order to connect local
roads, facilitate the missionary
works of the religious
congregations effectively and
better supervision of the
localities and smoother transfer
of goods (Matias, 2014).
Bridges like the Puente

de Capricho in Majayjay, Laguna
which was built in 1851 by a
Franciscan friar named Padre
Victoriano del Moral were made
to hasten the spread of
Christianity in the areas
characterized by rugged terrain
and the presence of rivers and
Figure 22. The Puente de Malagonlong in Tayabas, Quezon. streams. The Puente de
(Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/ Capricho in Majayjay, Laguna
11084033@N08/19849418408). which was constructed through
obras publicas was never
completed and used for carriages because the local polistas revolted out of the oppressive
supervison of the Franciscan friar. The stone bridge has been called by the locals as Tulay
de Pigi because the politas were whipped in their buttocks just to compel them to work.
Majayjay had a great significance to the Franciscan missionaries because it was at their
pathway from Bicol to Manila. In fact, it was their place of rest before they would continue
their journey to Manila (GMA 7 News and Public Affairs, 2013).
The building of bridges or puentes, including roads or caminos in the country was
initially made by the religious congregations assigned to a particular jurisdiction. These friars
were neither trained engineers nor builders; that was why there was uncertainty if his hand-
sketched design would be translated into a formidable structure. But because of practical skills
and knowledge learned in Europe and because of their basic understanding of Renaissance
building techniques, as well as a pattern book brought in from Mexico or Europe, the
construction of lasting bridges still commenced (del Castillo-Noche, 2016). The friars took the
risk of being the first engineers and architects because of the necessity of spreading
Catholicism through the construction of churches, roads and bridges.
Due to the increasing demands of political and economic activities as well in the
Philippines, specialized engineers from Spain were soon necessary. This led to the
130
establishment of
Inspección General de
Obras Publicas (the
General Board of
Public Works) by a
Royal Decree in 1866
(del Castillo-Noche,
2016). The decree
allowed the more
scientific and effective
construction of
structures to last a
lifetime. Building these
structures however
required the Filipinos’
participation. They Figure 23. The Puente de España. (Gopal, 2013)
were conscripted by
their local officials—
either by their gobernadorcillos or cabezas de barangay or, in some instances, competent
principales. Working on these structures, bridges and roads especially, was very difficult. In
the case of bridges, the polistas had to employ the classical designs of Europe of which most
basic is the Roman arch, taught upon them by the friar-engineer-architects (Villalon, 2011).
Working conditions in the designated places were severe. The polistas had to quarry
huge stones and shape them into cubic forms. Since these stones were durable, they had a
high demand in the construction of buildings. These stones were quarried in mountains and
were brought to the work place with the use of local carts by numerous able-bodied men.
These stones would then be cut precisely into cubic shapes of different sizes in order to form
arches that would serve as the support system of the bridges’ surface. The Roman arch had
a better benefit, likewise, because it allowed the use of its spandrel by small canoes used by
the Filipinos in travelling elsewhere or in fishing along the river.
How the stones put together as if they were cemented in order to prevent the structure
from further collapse is puzzling. After cutting, the stones were put one after the other and
cemented together using argamasa (mortar), a mixture of powdered lime and water. Lime
was obtained from limestone quarries, coral reefs, and seashells (“The Spanish Colonial
Tradition from 1565 to 1898”, 2013). Depending upon what was available in the locality,
ingredients as plant sap, molasses, and even eggs (egg white) were used to make the mortar
more binding and durable.
Significance of Bridges
Since the designs of bridges were originally European and most of the materials used
in their construction were local, the type of construction employed was Arquitectura Mestiza
or mixed architecture, a term used by the Jesuit Ignacio Alcina as early as 1668, because it
is the espousal of Western and Philippine elements (Villalon, 2014; “The Spanish Colonial
Tradition from 1565 to 1898”, 2013). It can be observed that the areas where bridges were
usually constructed were the areas characterized by a rugged terrain and the presence of
rivers. With the desire to hasten missionary activities, bridges were constructed and,
131
inevitably, the old bumpy roads were connected which facilitated better supervision by the
military and civil authorities.
Since the construction of bridges employed polistas from the pueblo itself or the
alcaldia where it was a part, the bridge was a melting pot of both local and Western. Not only
because of the designs and materials used but also the entirety of the bridge itself. While it is
true that it would bear the name of the builder through a marker placed elsewhere in it, it also
bore the identity of the unsung workers through the markings underneath the structure. The
markings indicate freemasonic symbols which meant that the Filipinos were the stone cutters
or carvers and the builder of the Philippines by means of working hard in the construction of
bridges that connected the pueblos and alcaldias (GMA 7 News and Public Affairs, 2013).
The linking of these local government units in the colonial era would eventually lead to
increased economic activities and, to a certain extent, progress in the localities. While it is
true that the bridges connected roads and towns and provinces, they also meant demarcation
lines. The bridges defined the boundaries of these local government units from one another.
Activity
Choose a particular infrastructure or establishment (e.g., a building, bridge, road,

etc.). Using primary and secondary sources, write a brief history of that
infrastructure or establishment.
❖
References
de Jesus. Ed C. (1980). The tobacco monopoly in the Philippines: Bureaucratic enterprise and
social change, 1766-1880). Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
del Castillo-Noche, Manuel Maximo Lopez. (2009). Philippine history of the bridges. Retrieved
from https://www.scribd.com/document/316619637/PH-History-of-Bridges
GMA 7 News and Public Affairs (Producer), & David, Kara (Host). (2013). Ang Lihim ng
lumang tulay [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
8Q2WU_gvSaU&list=LLlDDbKS7jlWUijmNp2LJEkg&index=510.
Gopal, Lou. (2013). Jones bridge. In Manila nostalgia. Retrieved from http://www.
lougopal.com/manila/?p=472.
Matias, Jonathan R. (2014). Puentes de España: A tale of two bridges. Retrieved from
http://www.sulugarden.com/wp-content/Sulu_Blog_Puentes_de_Espa%C3%B1a-
A_tale_of_two_bridges.pdf
132
Mundigo, A., & Crouch, D. (Trans.). (1973). The laws of the Indies. Ministerio de la
Vivienda, Madrid. Retrieved from http://codesproject.asu.edu/sites/default/files/
THE%20LAWS%20OF%20THE%20INDIEStranslated.pdf
Pascual, Mc Donald M. (2013). Ang paglaganap at gamit ng fotograpiya mula kolonyang

Kastila tungong okupasyong Amerikano. Unpublished research.
Paterno, Tina. (2018). The making of the all-steel gothic revival San Sebastian Basilica.
Retrieved from https://bluprint.onemega.com/making-san-sebastian-basilica/
San Sebastian basilica. (n.d. ) Retrieved from https://www.wmf.org/project/san-sebastian-

basilica
The Spanish colonial tradition from 1565 to 1898. (2013). Retrieved from https://studylib.
net.doc/8250485/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-from-1565-to-1898-the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineer. (1915). Professional memoirs (Vol. 7). Engineer School
Washington Barracks, D.C.
Villalon, Augusto. (2011). Spanish colonial bridges in the Philippines. Retrieved from
https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/28865/spanish-colonial-bridges-in-the-philippines/
Villalon, Augusto. (2014). Why wooden houses survived the earthquake. Retrieved from
https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/152381/why-wooden-houses-survived-the-earthquake/
133
THE “MORO” PROBLEM

(For Liberal Arts Majors)
Introduction
One of the misunderstood groups of people—if not the most misunderstood indeed—
in the country is the group of the Muslims. Before the coming of the Spaniards, they used to
be identified as the most dominant group in the country practicing a monotheistic belief. The
Spaniards found out that Muslims were not only dominant in Mindanao, in the areas of
Cotabato, Zamboanga and the Sulu Archipelago, but also in Southern Palawan, the Tagalog-
speaking provinces like Mindoro and Batangas, Manila and the Kapampangan areas in the
north. Being their traditional enemy during the crusades and way back in Spain when the
Muslims invaded the Iberian Peninsula, they called the Muslims in the Philippines as Moros.
The Muslim Filipinos then became their natural enemies in their 333-year occupation of the
country.
The Muslim Filipinos were described by the Spaniards as brute, arrogant, ungrateful
and deceitful. Seen as warlike without the rudiments of civilization, they were regarded as
marauders, plunderers and abductors. The military harassments made by the Spaniards
against them, especially during the Moro Wars, caused the Muslims to develop suspicion and
intrinsic hatred among the colonizers and the subjects of their dominions, who in one way or
another, were used in military expeditions against them. This suspicion and hatred became
persistent as the Muslims continued their acts of piracy, contending the Spanish fleet that was
sent to subdue them in 1848. The persistence of their ill-feeling transcended up to these days
as shown by the problems of separatism and violence in Mindanao.
Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the origin of the problems between the Christian and Muslim
Filipinos that persisted until these days through the use of primary sources.
2. Propose recommendations or possible solutions that can mitigate present-day
problems based on their own understanding of the causes and their anticipation
of future scenarios.
The Origin of the Problem
Muslims in the Philippines were usually stigmatized in the writing of Philippine history.
Historical accounts branded them as backwards, lovers of violence, pirates, and antithetic to
Christianity. This problem is a product of colonial disorientation brought upon by the
134
Spaniards when they conquered the Philippines, when they painted a negative image of the
Muslims to the minds of their newly-conquered subjects. This negative perspective can be
traced to the Conquista-Reconquista Period in Spain. That period was characterized by the
Muslims conquest of the Iberian Peninsula (Conquista) and the attempt of the Christian
Kingdoms of Spain to regain the territory occupied by the Muslims (Reconquista).
When the Spaniards started to subdue the various communities in the Philippines in
1565, they encountered various Muslim communities in Manila, Mindoro, Batangas,
Maguindanao, and Sulu. From then on, the Muslims were referred to as the Moros in Spanish
historical annals, although they did not have any relationship whatsoever with their invaders
from Northern Africa where the term Moor was derived. The vilification of the Moros in colonial
accounts was justified by the depredations and piratical incursions which they launched
against the Christianized colonial settlements most especially in the Visayas area. If for the
Spaniards, the Moros were sheer evil because of their attacks against the Christian
communities, for the Muslims, it was their way of preserving their ancient liberties which was
threatened by the Spanish presence in the area. Thus they were able to justify their attacks
as their way of defending themselves from Spanish subjugation.
The Persistence of the Problem
The problem, however, continued to escalate when the Spaniards left the Philippines
and the sovereignty was transferred to the Americans. Through the Bates Treaty (later
reduced to Bates Agreement), the Sultan of Sulu relinquished his sovereignty to the
Americans and reduced his power to ceremonial matters only. At first, although the Moros
were hesitant to accept American domination, they soon respected the new colonizers to the
extent of petitioning them to continue colonizing Muslim Mindanao should the Philippines be
granted with independence. They would rather remain as an American colony than to be
incorporated to the proposed Republic. The wish of the Muslims was not granted and they
were eventually incorporated to the newly-born Philippine Republic.
One of the challenges which befallen the Republic of the Philippines was the
integration of the cultural minorities to the national body-politic. As a solution, the House of
Representatives created a special committee in 1954 which would cater the demands and
desires of the cultural minorities. In its report, the committee recommended the establishment
of a commission which would tackle the problem of Muslim integration. Through Republic Act
1888, the Commission on National Integration was formed which aimed at advancing and
developing all of the cultural minorities besides the Muslims. The works of the Commission,
however, did not please all the Muslims. As a matter of fact, Congressman Ombra
Amilbangsa even criticized the bad practices and inefficient services of the Commission. By
the 1960s, the Moro Problem continued to thrive to the point that the Senate Committee on
National Minorities issued a report in 1963, highlighting the discontent in Mindanao. The
Committee traced the root causes of the discontent to (1) land problems, (2) disparity in
education, (3) lack of livelihood opportunities and (4) issues on health and transportation.
The Consequence
The issue on the Moro Problem shook the very foundation of Philippine society and
the dream of unifying all the Filipinos into a single body-politic became problematic. One of
the main reasons for this is the mutual distrust between the Muslims and the Christians. In a
135
study made by the Filipinas Foundation in 1971, sixty-five percent of the Muslims in the
Philippines at the time when the study was conducted viewed their Muslim identity with higher
regards as compared to Filipino identity. To them, Filipino identity was based on Christian
identity or being a Bisaya which meant being a slave, an idea which was far from being
espoused to the ideals of Islam.
On the other hand, the related study conducted by Lacar and Hunt (1972) between
1970 and 1971 revealed that the negative perspective on the Muslims continued to thrive in
some universities in Manila, Dumaguete and Cotabato. They even remarked that based on
the answers given by their respondents in the University of the Philippines, the premier
academic institution in the country imbued with high regard to intellectualism, negative
perception still thrived. Distrust was also pointed out by Bulatao in his study in 1973 where
he claimed that Christians accused the Muslims on being unmindful in the development of the
country.
Activity
1. Interview all of the member of your household and ask the following questions:
a. What is your perception of the Muslims?
b. Is your perception the Muslims based on what you studied in school or based on
what was introduced to you by the media or other people?
2. Based on the interview your conducted, write a short narrative and state whether the
negative perception on the Muslims continue to thrive in your community.
❖
References
Filipinas Foundation, Inc. (1971). An anatomy of Philippine Muslim affairs: A study in depth
on Muslim affairs in the Philippines conducted under the auspices of Filipinas
Foundation Inc. Makati: Author.
Bulatao, Rodolfo. (1973) Ethnic attitudes in five Philippine Cities. Quezon City: UP Social
Research Laboratory.
Gowing, Peter. (1977) Of different minds: Muslims and Christian perceptions of the Mindanao
problem. In Philippine quarterly of culture and society (Issue. 5, pp. 243–252).
University of San Carlos Publications.
Hernandez, Jose Rhommel. (2010). Reduccion: Ang pag-uwi sa diskurso ng pananakop at
136
pakikipagtunggali. Malay 23 (No. 1, pp. 67–80). De La Salle University Press.
Lacar, Luis and Chester Hunt. (1972). Attitudes of Filipino Christian college students toward
Filipino Muslims and their implications for national integration. In Solidarity (Issue 8,
No. 7, pp.: 3–9). Solidaridad Publishing House.
McAmis, Robert D. (1973). Muslim Filipinos in the 1970s. In Solidarity (Issue 8, No. 6, pp.
3–15). Solidaridad Publishing House.
Pidal, Ramon Menendez. (1950). The Spaniards in their history (W. Starkie, Trans.). New
York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
137
IMPLEMENTING PUBLIC ORDER THROUGH THE CLAVERIA DECREE OF 1849

(For Computer Science, Accountancy and Business Administration Majors)
Introduction
Have you ever wondered why there are Filipinos known by the surnames Reyes, delos
Santos, Estrella, Mendoza and Salvatierra as there are Filipinos known by the surnames
Dimagiba, Polotan, Poqui, Poquita and Kahabagan? Does it mean that the Spanish sounding
surnames denote the presence of Spanish blood—or at least mestizo blood—on the part of
those who possess them? If one were to think of that predicament, only a fragment of the
confusion brought by the surnames would be threshed out. How about the initiation of public
order and the process through which this initiation was carried out in the country by merely
distributing surnames among the local inhabitants? That by merely prompting the Filipinos to
adopt surnames, Spain would leave not only a long-lasting legacy among the Filipinos until
the present time but also public order from which it benefited politically, economically and
culturally.
Learning Outcomes
1. Explain the reasons why the Filipinos had to adopt surnames in the 19th century.
2. Evaluate the circumstances through which the decree was implemented among
the Filipinos.
3. Deconstruct the idea that the Filipinos bearing Spanish-sounding surnames have
Spanish descent.
The Claveria Decree of 1849
The 19th century can be considered as the golden age of Spanish colonial regime in
the country. This is because their attention was no longer limited to pacification or the
conquest of the far-flung areas of the archipelago; rather they gave attention to other matters
or issues that troubled the society. It was at this time that they gave attention to public health
and thus the introduction of measures and the building of hospitals in order to mitigate the
spread of contagious diseases like STDs, bubonic plague and cholera, among others. It was
at this point when reforms were introduced in the education sector and the building of more
schools such as the Escuela Normal de Maestros besides those that were established before.
The Claveria Decree of 1849 or the November 21, 1849 Decree was not different from
those that have already been mentioned as part of the reforms introduced by Spain in the
country. It was a superior decree issued by Governor-General Narciso Claveria in order that
138
the native populace of the country would take possession of surnames from a catalogue called
Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos (Alphabetical List of Surnames) which was compiled by the
reverend father provincials of the various religious congregations in the country. The principal
purpose of the decree was to provide exact identity on every citizen as he observed the lack
of surnames that would distinguish individuals belonging to the same family (Cojuangco,
2006).
According to the observation of Claveria himself, many individuals arbitrarily adopted

the names of saints that it resulted into the existence of thousands of individuals possessing
the same surname and thus serious problems became evident.
Why the Decree was Implemented
In the localities, many problems were encountered by the Spanish authorities. Some
of them were insufficient collection of taxes, difficulty of enforcing laws and administering
justice, inadvertent incestuous affair between relatives and legitimacy of births and
inheritances. Governor Claveria (1849) was alarmed of the consequences that these
problems yielded, primarily “because family names are not transmitted from parents to their
children, so that it is sometimes impossible to prove the degrees of consanguinity for [the]
purpose of marriage, rendering useless the parochial books which in Catholic countries are
used for all kinds of transactions” (para. 1).
Insufficient collection of taxes in the pueblos was usually the result of (1) the
clandestine corrupt practices of some cabezas de barangay who were at the forefront of
collecting taxes among the people and (2) tax evasion by means of hiding into places due to
the exorbitant amount of tax being collected. To get out of this predicament and possibly of
incarceration, the gobernadorcillo had to sell his property in order to compensate the amount
of uncollected or unremitted taxes—all of which were expected from him. Thus, many
gobernadorcillos, in the Bicol Region for instance, became bankrupt due to that covert yet
usual practice.
When it comes to law enforcement, the authorities had the difficulty of distinguishing
and running after criminals and scoundrels due to the absence of exact identities—that is the
absence of surnames. It must be remembered that many Filipinos bore the same names
during that period. Conversely, how the Filipinos knew each other was surprising even if there
were, for instance, five or seven individuals who possessed the same name, say Juan or Jose,
and even those individuals did not have surnames to distinguish them from one another.
Interestingly each Filipino knew all of the residents in his barangay because he barely had the
opportunity of getting out of his immediate environment in order to go to the kabisera and
undergo checkup through the services of a medico titular.
Due to the absence of strict implementation on the use of surnames prior to 1849,
there were middle classes who resorted to changing their surnames. This tolerance did not
only create a problem on ascertaining inheritance and legitimacy but also created fear among
the church ministers. According to Governor Claveria himself, the church ministers were
alarmed of the presence of married couples who would be inadvertently discovered of being
cousins. Accordingly, after hearing the testimonies of the Most Reverend Bishops, the
Reverend Provincials of the religious congregations and the Honorable Assessor General of
the government, he ordered the strict observance of the provisions of his superior decree.
139
The Compilation of Surnames
The surnames were compiled by the members of the religious congregations namely,
the Jesuits, Franciscans, Augustinians, Dominicans and Recollects. These religious
individuals listed Spanish surnames, as well as the various names of the Virgin and the saints.
Those who were assigned in the alcaldias had to send local appellations like Karunungan,
Karamihan, and Kahabagan, surnames that became prevalent in Laguna; Makapagal,
Gatpolintan, and Gatmaitan in the Kapampangan areas; and Dimayuga, Dimagiba, Dimatulac,
and Dimalanta in Batangas (Cojuangco, 2006).
Due to the apparent inadequacy of the surnames, the list had to comprise local terms
for geographic features, minerals and names of vegetables, animals, insects and fishes.
Conjuangco (2012) further explains that geographic features written in the Catalogo included
bukid (spelled as buquid), bundok (bondoc) and gubat while bulawan, ginto (guinto), pilak
(pilac; silver) and tumbaga (copper) were taken from the mineral kingdom. Names of
vegetables like kamote (camote), kalabasa (calabasa), balatong, hebechuelas, pichay and
malunggay were appropriated. Animals and insects, on the other hand, comprised pabo,
pato, pajaro and bukbok (bocboc; powder beetle) while fishes included bulik (bulic), lapu-lapu
and hito (para. 5).
Bodily descriptions and parts as balbon (hairy), balbas (beard), bayag (testicles), pantog
(bladder), puso (heart) and puki (poqui; vagina) were added. Funny or vulgar words like bangkay
(spelled as bangcay), tanga, gago, kupal (spelled as cupal; smegma), maitim (dark), malibog
(horny), ungas, tae, unggoy (onggoy) were likewise counted. There were even local words like
bagkat (bagcat; to lift), dakkel (dacquel; big), kupag (cupag; coconut pulp), salaknib (salacnib;
shield) taken from the Iloko language. Even languages such as Tagalog and Iloko (Yloco) and
names of provinces like Tarlac and Zambales were allocated. And yes, the term Pilipino was
also in it (Catalogo de Alfabetico, n.d.).
Though it was not fast enough, the compilation of surnames was easily facilitated
because the Church ministers were assigned to the different areas of the archipelago. The
Jesuits were in charge of Surigao, Zamboanga, Davao and Cotabato. The Franciscans were
in charge of Quezon, Aurora, Samar, Leyte and portions of Bulacan. The Agustinians took
charge of the provinces of Batangas, Pampanga, Iloilo, Cebu, Capiz, Antique, Aklan and the
Ilocos provinces. The Dominicans were assigned in Batanes, Cagayan, Pangasinan, Tarlac,
Bataan and Zambales, while the Recollects were delegated in Bohol, Cavite, Siquijor and
Dumaguete (Cojuangco, 2006). These ministers listed local words and terms which could be
sent to the colonial capital for inclusion in the Catalogo.
The Distribution of Surnames
Due to the absence of photocopying machines, the surnames had to be distributed by

clusters of pages from the Catalogo. This, in effect, made the surnames allocated to the
localities began with the same letter. For instance, Domingo Abella, former director of the
National Archives of the Philippines, once noted that surnames beginning with letter A were
distributed in the capital towns of Albay, Sorsogon and Catanduanes (para. 6).
In the province of Albay, surnames beginning with letters B and C were allocated to
the residents in the coastal towns facing the Pacific while surnames starting with letter M were
140
issued in the Iraya Valley at Daraga. Surnames beginning with letter S were given to the
northern towns of Polangui and Libon while the letter R was provided in the town of Oas (para.
6). Well known public historian Ambeth Ocampo wrote that most of the surnames beginning
with the letter R were distributed to the residents in the town of Oas in Albay. Sometimes,
surnames began with the first letter of the names of the towns. For instance, the surnames
distributed in Tigabauan, Guimbal and Miag-ao in the province of Iloilo began with the letters
T, G and M respectively (2013). The explanation is simple: Governor Claverial instructed
his alcade mayores to allocate surnames starting with the same letter to each town (Claveria,
1849).
The printed Catalogue was given to the alcalde mayores of the provinces. In turn,
these heads of provinces assigned to each town under their jurisdiction a number of surnames
that corresponded to the number of families therein (provision 1). After apportioning a certain
number of surnames for each town, the alcade mayor had to send the surnames to the
parishes for eventual distribution to the barangays. The distribution in the barangays had to
be carried on with the help of the gobernadorcillo¸ another municipal official and two
trustworthy principales. During the distribution of surnames, the cabeza de barangay (literally,
head of the barangay) had to accompany his subjects. The head of the family was the only
member allowed to receive or choose a surname. In case that he had died before the
enactment of the decree, the oldest member was required to take his behalf. The surname
received or chosen would be adopted by the whole family, their close relatives and their future
descendants (provisions 2 and 10).
To ascertain consanguinity, the heads of families had to inform their children,

especially those who were living in other towns, of the adopted surnames. In case that the
head of the family had been dead, the children had to adopt the surname of their grandfather—
or in the case of his death—the brothers or relatives of their father. Those who were born
without fathers had to follow the surname of their mothers—or if also unknown—the surname
of the guardian, baptismal sponsor or that of the parish priest in case that the baptismal
sponsor would not allow it (provisions 5, 6 and 12). This was necessarily done in order to
ensure that all members of the same family bore the same surname.
Surnames that have been widely used by those who had adopted them like Dela Cruz,
Santos, Delos Santos and Delos Reyes were not included in the Catalogo anymore.
Surprisingly, Cruz and Reyes were still listed. This attempt was made in order to refrain from
having hundreds of individuals bearing the same surnames.
The Impact of the Claveria Decree
Indeed, the Claveria Decree was implemented all throughout the dominions of Spain
in the country. One striking effect was the instruction given among school teachers to “register
all the children attending school, with their names and surnames, and shall see to it that they
shall not address or know each other except by the surname listed in the register which should
be that of the parents. In case of lack of enthusiasm in compliance with this order, the
teachers shall be punished in proportion to the offense at the discretion of the head of the
province” (provision 11). Moreover, school teachers were used for registrations like what the
government is doing in times of census and election until an automated election process was
implemented recently.
141
The adoption of surnames by the Filipinos created an identity. The imposition of

surnames had to compel them to another Hispanizing process as evidenced by the strict
implementation of the decree. Governor Claveria ordered, “Once the lists of the cabecerias
were finalized and approved by the reverend parish priest, a register for each of them was
prepared so that by assembling all of these, a general register for each town would be
provided, signed by the gobernadorcillo and approved by the parish priest, following the
customary practice for the annual inventories of the provinces; three copies thereof shall be
prepared, one to serve as a master copy in the parish, another to be conserved by the head
of the province in the archives, and the third to be sent to the Superior Government for
inclusion in the expediente (case file) of this decree and for other uses as needed” (provision
16). Thus, the colonial government came up with a nationwide registration of names from
which it could determine the population of the areas under its jurisdiction.
What became the impact of the Claveria decree? Eventually, the decree established
a registry en masse for the Filipinos. The surnames they adopted could not be changed with
malice any longer or the culprits had to suffer eight days in prison with a fianza worth three
pesos (provision 21). The registry, in turn, provided the colonial government with a list from
which tributes could be determined from the populace. Moreover, the decree allowed the
government to regulate the migration of people and the better enforcement of laws and justice.
On the part of the Church, the unexpected incestuous affairs between unknown relatives were
prevented. By and large, the decree became an effective regulatory mechanism on the part
of the colonial government to enforce obedience among the ruled while it attempted to give
them exact identities through the adoption of surnames.
Busting the Myths
The Claveria decree produced both understanding and confusion regarding the nature
of Filipino surnames. First, there are some Filipinos who entertain the idea that the non-
Spanish-sounding surnames were the surnames distributed to the lowly individuals during the
Spanish regime. Allegedly, these individuals had no choice but to adopt whatever surname
that was given to them by the Spaniards. On the contrary, the surnames compiled in the
Catalogo comprised of Spanish-sounding surnames, local appellations, names of vegetables,
animals, minerals and fishes, including geographic features and artistic performances.
Governor Clavera had no intention in mind other than addressing the problems experienced
by the government and the Church concerning the lack of exact identities that each individual
had in the 19th century. The distribution of the surnames had no prejudice on whoever would
adopt them as their family cognomina for posterity.
Another confusion that the story of surnames has brought upon many Filipinos is the
idea about the Spanish-sounding surnames as the result of the existence of Spanish ancestry.
To some people, it is thought as the product of intermarriage between a Spaniard and a
Filipino woman. It must be considered that in the alcadias where Spanish-sounding surnames
were also distributed, there were very few Spaniards living there: the alcalde mayor and his
wife, the cura parroco, the medico titular, a few more government officials and guardia civiles.
Paul Morrow (2010) relates the 2000 census of the Philippine government and the 2001 study
made by Stanford University on the supposed European genetic composition of the Filipinos.
The 2000 census determined that the Malay heritage of the Filipinos remained unmixed to a
high percentage of 95% while the 2001 study yielded a very minimal rate of 3.6% European
heredity. It must be borne in mind that the Filipinos who adopted surnames in 1849 had the
privilege to choose from the list allotted to them by the alcade mayor.
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On the issue of blood relationship, when two Filipinos bear the same surnames—
especially the Spanish-sounding surnames, it does not automatically mean that they are
relatives. This is because many Filipinos—the well-to-do in particular—had adopted the
names of saints and other popular cognomens like Cruz (Cross), de la Cruz (of the Cross),
de los Reyes (of the Kings) prior to the enactment of the decree. Some of these Filipinos, in
fact, used the surnames indiscriminately that they could change them at their desire. The
imposition of the decree by Governor Claveria, himself, made the surnames of every family
permanent.
Activity
Make an interview to your paternal or maternal grandfather. Ask him of what he

knows about the origin of your surname or middle name by allowing him to recall the
place of origin of his paternal grandfather. Write the gist of your interview in three
paragraphs of not more than five sentences each.
❖
References
Alas, Pepe. (2019). Today in Filipino history: Catalogo alfabetico de Apellido. Retrieved from
https://pepealas.wordpress.com/2019/11/21/today-in-filipino-history-catalogo-
alfabetico-de-apellidos/
Catalogo alfabetico de apellidos. (n.d.). Manila: National Archives of the Philippines.
Claveria, Narciso. (1849). Decree of Don Narciso Claveria, governor of the Philippines, 21
November 1849. Retrieved from http://www.zahlerweb.info/pm/claveria.htm.
Cojuangco, Margarita. (2006, May 7). What’s in a name? The Philippine Star, p. I1.
Morrow, Paul. (2010). Claveria’s decree. Retrieved from https://www.pilipino-express.com/

history-a-culture/in-other-words/895-claverias-catalogue.html
Ocampo, Ambeth. (2013). A sense of order. Retrieved from https://opinion.inquirer.net/

46885/a-sense-of-order.
Ocampo, Ambeth. (2020). How Filipinos got their surnames. https://opinion.inquirer.net

/127676/how-filipinos-got-their-surnames
THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM IN THE PHILIPPINES:

ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
143
(For Education Majors)
Introduction
It is imperative that future educators and teachers should not only be familiar with
classroom management and teaching but also the historical development of education system
in the Philippines, more particularly the curriculum.
The term curriculum refers to the set of disciplines or courses being taken or studied
by an individual or a group of individuals called learners at a given period in a given setting.
In the country, and even in other countries, curriculum is varied depending upon a
given time and setting. For instance, the curriculum during the Spanish period is very different
from that of the American period because it was tailored to direct students to three major
degrees only. Besides, the former was regarded as a part of an older epoch. Similarly,
curriculum is varied between levels, say between high school and college levels because the
latter prepares the students to their future careers.
Objectives
1. Examine the development of the school curriculum in the Philippines.

2. Propose experience-based suggestions in improving the school curriculum in the
Philippines.
The Pre-Colonial Education
Prior to the eventual colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards in 1565, the
Filipinos had already achieved and possessed high degree of cultural practices. Such culture
practices were evident in their beliefs, traditions, customs, mores, habits, languages and
folklores.
Compared to the Spanish Period, the education system was not as complicated as
during Pre-colonial era. Children learned the basic knowledge, patterns of behavior and skills
through unsystematic and un-deliberate. Knowledge and practices were acquired through
paying attention to examples, listening to pieces of advice and observation and imitation.
Education was identified as informal and conducted along with the day-to-day life.
144
The early Filipinos had

already a system of writing known as
Baybayin. The scripts were carved in
bamboo, tree barks or stones. The
system of writing was used in making
correspondences with other
barangays or sometimes in keeping
records. They were strictly
compelled to obey the laws of the
barangay promulgated by the datu
and the council of the elders (in the
case of Luzon and the Visayas) or
the Sultan and the Ruma Bichara (in
the case of Sulu and Maguindanao).
Likewise, they identified themselves
as parts of the society–i.e., the
barangay–to which they lived.
Figure 24. The system of writing by the Pre-colonial Filipinos called
Baybayin. (Retrieved from https://narrastudio.com/
blogs/journal/baybayin-the-ancient-filipino-script-lives-on).
The Spanish-devised Curriculum
During Spanish regime, schools were established for the children of the Spaniards,
mestizos and the affluent Filipinos. The first colegio was established in 1589 and this was the
Colegio de San Ignacio that was later elevated into the rank of a university in 1621. This first
university established in the Philippines was directed by the Jesuit fathers. But when the
Jesuits were expelled in 1768, the Universidad de San Ignacio, along with Colegio de San
Ildefonso and Colegio de San Jose which were established in Cebu in 1595 and in Manila in
1601 respectively, closed.
The Dominican fathers, on the other hand, founded the Colegio de Santisimo Rosario
(now the University of Santo Tomas) in Manila in 1611 and the Colegio de San Juan de Letran
in 1630. The Santisimo Rosario was elevated into the rank of a university by Pope Innocent
X upon the request of King Phillip IV in 1645.
When the Jesuits were allowed to return to the archipelago, the Escuela Pia (Charity
School) was given to them to manage. They renamed the school Ateneo de Municipal and
improved its education standard. It must be noted that the Spanish-time colegios were only
equivalent to the present-time high schools. Thus, it was necessary for the students to finish
studies in colegios before taking up courses in universidades.
Remarkably, the Spanish authorities, by virtue of the Educational Decree of 1863, two
public elementary schools were established in each town—i.e., one for the boys and another
for the girls–to stress reading and writing in Spanish, arithmetic and catechism. Boys and girls
attended separate schools which meant that there was no co-educational system during that
period. At the higher level of education, boys from ‘de buena familia’ (the elite) took up
courses in universities.
The girls were also given rudiments of education. Two kinds of school were founded
for them, namely: the beaterio, a combined school and nunnery, and the colegio, a regular
school. The schools mainly taught the girls with home nursing, embroidery, Spanish language
145
and literature and catechism. Some of the schools for girls founded during the Spanish era
were the Colegio de Sta. Isabel in 1632 and the Beaterio de la Compania de Jesus (now St.
Mary’s College of Quezon City) in 1694. In the later years, the Colegio de Sta, Isabel absorbed
the Colegio de Sta. Potenciana.
The education curriculum of colegios and universidades in the Philippines were in

accord to that of the school curriculum in Europe, although a wide discrepancy could be
determined when it comes to practice. At the Ateneo de Municipal, for instance, subject
offered ranged from the languages, the arts, social sciences to the pure and natural sciences.
Consider, for example, the subjects taken by Rizal from 1872 to 1887.
Figure 25. The transcript of records of Rizal at the Ateneo Municipal. (Bonoan, 1979).
Philippine universities offered only three degrees namely: medicine, law and theology.
At the University of Santo Tomas, the following subjects were taken by Rizal.
146
Figure 26. The subjects taken Up by Rizal at UST. (Zaide, 1999).
The Filipinos during the Spanish period were Christianized and some of them received
formal education. A curriculum was introduced though it had little opportunities to offer.
Education during the American Period
When Treaty of Paris was signed signaling the formal take-over of the United States,
the Americans, among others, popularized education with the American soldiers acting as the
first teachers. Unlike in the Spanish period, education during the time of the Americans
became a matter of right among the populace. Many poor children took the opportunity,
realizing that it was what they waited for a long time. While a democratized system of
education was introduced though, it would also serve as a mechanism by the new colonizers
in order to effectively subdue the country.
With the establishment of the Philippine Assembly in 1907, the Filipinos tasted the
advantage to govern their country. The first bill that the assembly passed was the Gabaldon
Law which appropriated one million pesos for the establishment of barrio schools in the
provinces. Most of the barrio schools which were called as Gabaldon schools became central
elementary schools of provincial municipalities eventually.
147
Because of the objective of replacing American teachers with Filipino ones, normal
schools were opened. The devised curriculum centered on the training of future elementary
teachers. In this level, the teachers were observed to be so strict to their students.
Many Filipinos were allowed by the colonial administration to go to the United States
and study governance, education, business, agriculture and science. These Filipinos were
called pensionados. This new group of intellectuals who constituted the Philippine
bureaucracy, government and education institutions introduced several reforms. The new
school administrators expanded the scope of the curriculum to meet the standards of their
American alma maters and the demands of the country at that time.
Education in the Japanese Occupation
The Second World War (1941-1945) aggravated the sufferings that had already
inflicted by the Americans. Just like the Americans and their predecessors, the Japanese-
sponsored education system only served as propaganda apparatus in order to gain the
sympathy of the Filipinos. By and large, it aimed at serving their interest of effectively putting
the Filipinos under the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. They introduced Niponggo
(also known as Nihongo) and Japanese history and culture in the new curriculum. Subjects
reflecting foreign culture and traditions other than theirs were abrogated in accordance with
the principle of Asia for the Asians.
The use of Niponggo was not confined, however, in schools alone, especially that most
of the schools were closed because of the peoples’ fear against the abuses committed by the
Japanese Army. Niponggo was also serialized over newspapers and radio programs. Since
there was a total proscription on American and British influences, the use of Tagalog in
correspondence and literature proliferated.
In the schools that opened, hiragana (the soft cursive styles of kana) and katakana
(the sharp cursive styles) were taught. Moreover, among the circulating newspapers were
published some Japanese words written in Roma-ji (the Romanized version). These changes
in the school curriculum did not facilitate the progress of education for the peoples’ benefit.
Instead, it only paved the way towards the conqueror’s vested interests.
Activity
1. Write a comparative matrix on education system of the Philippines during different

periods of the colonizers and identify their differences. You may identify two items
for each colonial period.
2. Write a reflection paper on Gabaldon Law.
❖
148
References
Bonoan, Raul J. (1979). Rizal’s record at the Ateneo. In Philippine Studies (Vol. 27, No. 1,
pp.53-73). Ateneo de Manila University Press. Retrieved from
https://www.jstor.org/stable/42632455.
Estioko, L. SVD. (1994). History of education: A Filipino perspective. Manila: Logos

Publications, Inc.
Onofre Corpuz (1989). The roots of the Filipino nation (Vols. 1 & 2). Quezon City: Aklahi
Foundation.
Rizal, Jose. (1999). Memoirs of a student in Manila (Appendix B). In G.F. Zaide & S.M. Zaide
(Authors), Jose Rizal: Life, works and writings of a genius, writer, scientist and hero
(2nd Ed.). All Nations Publishing.
Sajid Musa and Rushnan Ziatnov. (2012). Features and historical aspect of the Philippine
educational system (Vol. 2, No. 2). European Journal of Contemporary Education.
Zaide, Gregorio F. and Sonia M. Zaide. (1999). Jose Rizal: Life, works and writings of a
genius, writer, scientist and hero (2nd Ed.). All Nations Publishing.
149
UNIT 5
Appreciating Historic
and Heritage Sites
Figure 27. The world heritage icon Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte. (Photo by Narciso Cabanilla).
150
DEALING WITH LOCAL HISTORY
Introduction
The fiesta of a town shows the high spirits of the people who are happily expecting of
the spectacles that would happen in the plaza. In fact, even before the start of the festivities,
the honorable mayor, the vice mayor, the members of the town council and all of the
townspeople become so excited yet apprehensive of what might happen—excited because of
the vivacity that the programs and spectacles might yield; apprehensive because the
programs and spectacles might not work properly as expected, as according to plan.
The fiesta of a town might mean various to all of us: to the good mayor and other town
officials, it means stability and, to a certain extent, progress; to the vendors, it means income;
to the artists, it means medium of artistic expression; to the Church, it means doing religious
traditions over again and, partly likewise, thanksgiving; to the teachers, it means additional
work as far as the rehearsals and performances of their students or pupils are concerned; to
the ordinary people, it means delightful occasion commemorating the founding of the town.
But to the historian, it means all of those that have been mentioned.
But do the ordinary people regard the celebration of fiesta as part of their local history?
Does the fiesta bring the value of local history within their consciousness? Do they know the
meaning of local history and understand its role in national history and national development
in the first place? These are some of the questions that must be addressed when stimulated
to study local history.
Objectives
1. Understand the necessity of doing local history.

2. Apply the methods employed in doing local history.
3. Appreciate the value of local history in the study of national history and
development.
What is Local History?
Local history is the “unheard history of a community or locality which constitutes the
experiences and testimonies of the unsung individuals across periods”. It is the area of history
that also puts recognition to these collective experiences and testimonies and attempts to
situate their value in national history. It is, in effect, a departure from the conventional
151
treatment of national history which starts from the center of power, the “hegemonizing” factor.
It is, in other words, a decentralizing reaction to the orthodox study of history presented by
previous scholars.
How does local history differ from oral history? Oral history, on the other hand, is the
historical experience or phenomenon that transpired from generation to generation by word
of mouth. It is the verbal testimony that highlights the importance of the unsung—his words
that would be heard, his right to articulate what he witnessed, and, more importantly, his
equitable attempt to become a part of a larger context of history. It is the unwritten story or
tradition that tells of his exploits which in effect gives meaning or value to his existence. Oral
history is usually employed in the study of local history.
The Role of Local History in National History and National Development
Does local history have anything to do with national history and national development?
How about more with nation-building?
Since the colonial times until the ‘70s and ‘80s, historians and researchers have been
largely dealing with history from the domain of power or the national hierarchy. The unsung
people—the bulk of the populace, the inarticulate masses, has not been given enough citation
and recognition in the struggle for freedom, for the birth of the country, for development, for
nation-building, etc. These unsung people and their communities have been neglected,
hence putting their contributions and achievements into oblivion. Accordingly, the study of
history became synonymous to the study of the lives and feats of the powers-that-be.
The near failure to cite and recognize the role and contributions of the unsung people
left a wide gap in the study of history. The Cebuanos, much more the Ifugaos, for instance,
were not so much discussed in Philippine history, unlike the Tagalogs of Luzon. How could
Philippine History at that time be called as “national history” in the strictest sense of the term
“national” if there was no equal treatment and representation of the experiences and
participation of all the culture groups in the country?
According to Dr. Samuel K. Tan (1998), the devolution of power from the national
government to its local units has marked the beginning of a new political history in the country.
The passage of two measures namely the Local Government Code and the Autonomous Act
for Muslim Mindanao paved the way to the strengthening of the local political units. The
autonomy emphasized in the measures gave rise to the tolerance of local initiatives in
developing local potentials and in enhancing sense of creative and innovative responses to
development. The autonomy of the localities allows them to plan out for their lives and
implement projects to achieve their goals. Thus, the localities are expected to shape their
destiny and crystallize their identity.
In the process of shaping and crystallizing their destiny and local identity, the localities
would learn again the richness of their historical experiences and cultural heritage. The
localities would give sense to themselves and therefore, local history, would surface as a
potent element in emphasizing the role of the localities in national development and in looking
at development as holistic and “national”.
152
The Methods of Local History
Why do people write history? The question seems so easy to understand yet it can
elicit a lot of answers. One possible answer is “It is a requirement.” Another is, “To understand
the present in order to suppose what the future is in store for humanity.” To borrow the simple
words of Howie Severino, one of the awardees by the PUP Samahan ng mga Mag-aaral ng
Kasaysayan (PUPSMK) in the 2012 Gawad Kalatas with the rank of Maringal na Pantas, “Ang
lahat ng bagay ay may kuwento” (Severino, acceptance speech, May 8, 2012). Those words
are true, indeed, but how many have thought that with the writing of history, people would
understand their roots, they would bridge their diversity, they would love their country more
than before, they would see their defects as well as their strengths, they would achieve
political determinism and self-respect, among others.
Sometimes, the problem in writing history is when what is about to be written recaps
what has been done by other sources before. In doing local history, this problem is largely
avoided because sources used are from the people or small institutions and organizations in
the community or locality. Sources such as correspondences and diaries, including material
possessions like antique cabinets, anting-anting, and clothing, provide important information
that cannot be provided by other sources. Dealing with local history, therefore, attempts to
enrich the rather narrow concentration of historical accounts.
The writing of local history in the country has been somewhat a passive tradition in the
previous decades. Proofs to this are the short accounts contained in souvenir programs made
for town fiestas regarding the history of the town and for founding anniversaries of institutions,
organizations, and the like. These short accounts do not broaden the space of historical
knowledge; rather, they only leave curiosity among the readers.
The writing of a detailed and interesting, factual, and scientific local history is not easy
as what others might think. Writing of history in general is reconstructing the surviving part of
the recorded part of the witnessed part of the history as a whole. The theme that is attempted
to be reconstructed might come from geography, life history (biography), local economy or
livelihood, dwellings (houses), environment, traditions, established institutions or social
organizations, and many more. The aforementioned areas might also be the source of
perspective or tool of interpretation to be employed. For example, a researcher might write
the history of a town using the lens of performing arts; hence the book of Dr. Resil Mojares
(1985) of the University of San Carlos was titled Theater in Society, Society in Theater. The
work tells of the role of theater in the society and the life of the society in the world of theater.
Since history is not a mere hearsay or hoax, the writing of local history follows certain
research cannons. The work must be (1) Authentic, (2) Accurate, (3) Objective, (4) Reliable,
(5) Relevant, and (6) Systematic or Scientific. Authenticity of the work means its originality—
it must not be a duplication of what has been done by other scholars before. Since it is the
desire of every historian to come up with a genuine work, local history becomes the focus of
many scholars nowadays because it offers numerous themes that are waiting to be dealt with
(Pascual, n.d.).
Authenticity, however, must not be the only one taken into consideration. The work
must be accurate in terms of details. It must also be logical in terms of presenting, analyzing
and interpreting data. It must be noted that a historical account would be meaningless if it
would not be read by the students or any group of publics. It remains to be a document which
153
failed to impart the lessons and value of the past. A historical account becomes at par
meaningful if it educates people by giving equity and value to their collective experiences.
Although there is no such thing as objectivity in history according the strict definition of the
term, a history scholar must attempt to become impartial as much as possible. Impartiality is done
by avoiding or lessening the use of adjectives and superlatives. When a researcher calls his great
grandfather as “the extraordinary gobernadorcillo” who led a demonstration during the Spanish
Period, the credibility and reliability of his account would diminish. Largely, a work exudes
reliability when it is authentic, accurate, and objective.
The need to write local history in order to fill the gap which can be observed in the so-
called national history is itself a justification. Although scholars have their respective sets of
relevance when they do research, the absence of accounts that would tell the varied events that
took place in the different parts of the archipelago is a sufficient ground why writing of local history
must be undertaken. And just as in other disciplines, undertaking a research in local history must
be done systematically or scientifically.
In conducting a research in local history, the work must primarily consider the presence of
sources of information and time and space. By saying sources of information, what is meant are
those written and tangible sources of information, primary or secondary. Examples of written
sources are documents like diaries and birth certificates while of tangible sources are
archaeological finds like agricultural implements, potteries, old dwellings, caves, bathing places,
and ornaments, including the remains of a person who lived in the very remote past. By saying
time and space, what is referred to are the period and setting of the study.
For a source material to be acceptable, it must undergo both the rigorous rules of External
and Internal Criticisms. External Criticism means the examination of the authenticity of a source
material while Internal Criticism means the scrutiny of the credibility of a source material. A diary
which may appear authentic may not necessarily tell factual data and, therefore, is not credible
likewise.
The main purpose of External Criticism is to determine fabricated sources and hoax stories
from the real, to detect misleading sources and to identify the time, space, authorship or affiliation
of the sources. Tangible sources like archaeological materials have to be tested by
archaeologists, chemists and/or biologists before factual evidence would be concluded.
Accordingly, history and historical scholarship becomes the conglomerating endeavor of science
disciplines like Chemistry, Biology, Psychology, Archaeology, Sociology, Anthropology,
Demography, including Computer Science (Pascual, n.d.).
On the other hand, the principal purpose of establishing credibility is to determine the
accuracy of what the research or work attempts to claim as something truthful. In doing the
scrutiny of credibility, the researcher or historian has to play the role of a prosecutor, defense
counsel and judge all in one. As a judge, he rules out no evidence whatever if it is relevant. To
him, any single detail of information is credible provided it can pass the test of credibility
(Gottschalk 1950).
Sources of Historical Data
Formerly, sources of data have been primarily documents and, therefore, historians
like Teodoro Agoncillo would say, “Kung walang dokumento, walang kasaysayan.” But if a
historian were to look at the array of materials that might yield valuable pieces of information,
154
he would discover that non-documentary sources can also be used, particularly that these
sources cannot be altered. Therefore, the local sources of data are generally classified as:
1. Documents. These are the written sources such as archival materials that would
become the initial sources to be sought by a researcher. A written source that bears the
original handwriting of its author is called a manuscript, although the word manuscript has
already become wider in scope nowadays to mean the mechanically printed documents too.
Written sources, which are either primary or secondary, directly provide the researcher
with instant pieces of information. A primary source, which is the written recollection or
testimony of the eyewitness or the person involved, bring the researcher closer to the data or
events and, hence, the researcher would have the freedom to draw impressions, analysis and
conclusions without the influence of external factor just as when, for example, a secondary
source is used wherein the ideas and prejudices of its author would inadvertently condition
him.
Although primary sources are the best documents to be used, there are certain
problems that a researcher might encounter and therefore might also discourage him from
continuing his investigation any further. First, a great bulk of the primary sources is written in
Spanish. Second, many of the documents are not in good condition because of hundreds of
years of existence. Third, doing an archival research takes a lot of time and effort.
Some institutions where a researcher can see primary sources as far as the local
history of the provinces is concerned are the National Archives of the Philippines (NAP), the
archives of the religious congregations and private archives and libraries. Some types of
primary documents that a researcher may see at the National Archives concerning the
Spanish Period are Actas (Proceedings), Decretos, Bandos (Circulars), Mapas, Planos y
Ordenes. The types of documents are classified further in bundles as Obras Publicas,
Ereccion de Pueblos, Fincas (Lands), Calamidades, Mercados, Testamentos, and Provincias
(Provinces). The National Archives has thousands of documents in hundreds of bundles that
are still to be examined by researchers and historians (Boncan, 2011).
The archives of the religious congregations would be of prime importance regarding

the establishment of towns. This is because the congregations maintain their own records
although they are not as readily accessible to researchers as those that are in the National
Archives, unless the congregations would grant authorization to researchers for the use their
archives.
Printed copies of primary sources that tackle about the American Period also exist.
Although a researcher still needs to go to Washington DC or elsewhere in the United States
if he wants a thorough investigation about the era just as when another wants to have an
exhaustive and comprehensive discussion about the Spanish regime would go the Seville in
Spain, there are some primary sources that are printed and are available in the Philippines
like the Historical Data Papers, 1952-1953, the Philippine Islands by Blair and Robertson, and
the Philippine Insurgent Records. In doing local history, a researcher might readily use
notarial documents, marriage, birth, and baptismal certificates, maps, diaries, and testaments.
2. Non-Documents. These are artifacts, remains of people, ceramics, houses, burial

sites, pieces of furniture and other objects that can also reveal pieces of historical information.
There is, of course, a difficulty in dealing with these materials. First, they do not reveal the
same impression to different persons or scholars, rather each researcher or historian has his
155
own impression and hence corroboration of this piece of evidence to manuscripts and other
tangible objects would become necessary to establish a historical fact. Second, many of these
non-documentary sources are fragmentary, deteriorating, and/or disintegrating.
Even before the presence of recorders, interviews have become a vital part in writing
history. These interviews are transcribed and corroborated with other pieces of evidence in
order to ascertain the reliability of what they claim to be true. Formerly, interviewers had a
hard time in writing interview details from their interviewees until the prevalence of the
availability of various forms of recorders like cameras, voice recorders, and mobile phones.
Since the availability of these recorders, recording, transcribing and reconstructing pieces of
information have become a lot easier.
The Perks of Doing Local History
Doing local history has always its limitations, more importantly that it is situated in a
particular time and space. What is important, however, are the gains it brings to the body of
historical scholarship. First, local history can yield changes to the interpretations of certain
aspects of national history. Sometimes, the presence of varied and contrasting interpretations
make history more alive as a discourse in the academe. Second, local history enriches
knowledge and multiplies existing accounts pertaining to national history.
In history, change becomes inevitable. Even the methods used can be accountable
to change. As an area of interest, third, local history can provide enhancements to its methods
as a discipline which may help in promoting and propagating history to a broader public.
Fourth, it can fill the gap by dealing with the history outside the domain of power. Fifth, further
interest in local history can lead to the formation of historical societies with the purpose of
advocating for the study and promotion of history. And lastly, it can open opportunities for the
establishment of repositories of history like museums, shrines, heritage sites, monuments and
libraries (Cruz, 2020).
The presence of museums, shrines, heritage sites and monuments intensify the local
economy by providing livelihood to people. These repositories of history serve as tourist
attractions to people. For example, hundreds of thousands of local and foreign tourist visit
the Ilocos Region annually because of the presence of not only panoramic beaches and
landscapes but also of numerous local museums and heritage sites.
Activity
Using available sources, write the history of your provincial hometown in three
paragraphs, with three to five sentences per paragraph. In a separate paragraph,
what pieces of information have you come to know for the first time? Why? What
pieces of information should you also countercheck with other sources? Why?
❖
156
References
Boncan, C. (2011). Oral and loal history writing: Seminar-workshop proceedings (2007-
2008). Manila: National Historical Commission of the Philippines.
Cruz, M. A. B. (2020). Kasaysayang pampook: Pag-aaral at katuturan [PowerPoint slides].
Dery, L. C. (2001). A history of the inarticulate: Local history, prostitution and other views
from the bottom. Quezon City: New Day Publishers.
Mojares, R. B. (1985). Theater in society, society in theater: Social history of a Cebuano

village, 1840-1940. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Pascual, M. (n.d.) Elements of research in history [PowerPoint slides].
Pascual, M. (n.d.) Examining historical sources: The processes of internal and external
criticisms [PowerPoint slides].
Severino, H. (2012, May 8). Acceptance speech in the 2012 Gawad Kalatas. Manila:
Polytechnic University of the Philippines.
Tan, S. K. (1998). Between two centuries. In D. B. Apilado [Ed.], History from the people
(Kasaysayan mula sa bayan): Proceedings of the 1998 seminar-workshop series on
local and oral history (Vol. 1, pp. 20-25). Manila: National Historical Institute and
Philippine National Historical Society.
157
PHILIPPINE HERITAGE AND HISTORY
Introduction
As we continue to learn the history of the Philippines through written documents, there
is a need to appreciate material culture or built heritage which also tells stories from the past.
The study of heritage is a common notion not only in the Philippines but elsewhere in the
world. In fact, the Philippines is somewhat lagged behind when it compared to other countries
whose governments are very supportive of preservation and conservation.
We learned from the earlier chapters that tangible materials like artifacts can also be
used in studying history. Learning the historical background of certain places can teach us to
appreciate its significance, thereby heritage that has been inherited from the ancestors can
be protected.
Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Understand the meaning and significance of Heritage.

2. Know the role of history in Heritage.
3. Familiarize with the National Cultural Heritage Act of 2009.
What is (Cultural) Heritage?
The most common definition of heritage is “something that has passed down or
inherited from the ancestors or previous generations”. Heritage entails the idea of
transmission from the past to present.
Culture in a very simple understanding is “how we behave” (Buckland, 2013). Edward

Tylor, the recognized founder of Cultural Anthropology, defines culture as “developed habits
of people in a society which includes customs, laws, moral knowledge, art and belief” (Lowie
et al., 1917). Therefore, culture comprises all characteristics of behavior and belief and, most
of the time, learn it unconsciously through social interactions.
Heritage is another form of culture. It is a representative of culture that was able to

surpass the challenges time. Some of these sorts are oral traditions which include folklore
and marriage songs, and visual manifestations like temples, art forms, palaces, shrines,
monuments and forts (Hampton, 2005).
158
Moreover, in 1945, the United Nations created the UNESCO (United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) which principal purpose is to protect and
preserve the cultural heritage of the world. It has 195 member states that are united to protect,
preserve and conserve the world’s heritage for the future generations. UNESCO thereafter
created different conventions, forged treaties and implemented international laws to do this
purpose.
The UN agency classified heritage into three main categories. The first one is Cultural
Heritage which has two types, namely the tangible and intangible heritage. Tangible heritage
refers to the built heritage or material culture. Under tangible heritage are three sub-
categories namely movable heritage materials like paintings, artifacts or coins; immovable
cultural heritage like monuments, historic sites or archaeological sites; and lastly is the
underwater cultural heritage which includes shipwrecks or underwater ruins. On the other
hand, intangible heritage refers to traditions in oral form, performing arts, rituals that have
handed down from generation to generation.
The second category is Natural Heritage which pertains to natural features. This
includes landscapes or geological formations. And the third category is called the Heritage in
the event of armed conflict. This category involves the protection of cultural heritage formed
because of armed conflict.
What can History do to Heritage?
History and heritage both depict the past. History, as the common notion would dictate,
can help heritage in understanding the past and as remnants of the past. The study of history
which involves time, space and social aspects plays a significant role in providing meaning
and context to heritage. Historical context is one of history’s contributions to heritage (Moody,
2015).
The Ruins
The structure
(see figure 27) was built
sometime in the 1900s in
Bacolod City. It was Don
Mariano Ledesma
Lacson from a wealthy
scion in Bacolod who
built this ancestral house
for the memory of his
wife. In WWII, the Filipino
guerillas in the city
burned the house to
ashes in order to stop the
Japanese in occupying
the said establishment as
a military garrison. At
present, the building is Figure 28. The Ruins in Bacolod City. (Photo courtesy of
Sherrenne De Amboy, 2020)
called as the counterpart
159
of Taj Mahal in the Philippines because of the motivation for its construction. Without looking
at its historical context, people who visit the place would not understand its value in the local
history of Bacolod. This is because it historical context also provides the idea of comparing
the house to the India’s magnificent Taj Mahal.
History and its role to heritage would always be a contested process with the question
of Whose voice is being heard? (Thompson, 1988 cited by Moody, 2015). But then, one
cannot deny the fact that a historian’s critical examination of data becomes an essential
process of heritage.
Preservation, Protection and Conservation in the Philippines
In order to preserve, protect and conserve, Simon Thurley from the United Kingdom
developed a model of Heritage Cycle (see figure 28). According to him, putting context would
help us understand cultural heritage and would direct us to value it. Heritage will be protected
by the people who understand the meaning and its significance. Subsequently, as these
people would appreciate heritage, they would also be eager in finding its meaning. This
approach comes with the idea of being part of the past while being at the present time or in
the future. Simply, it is about the people’s participation in abiding policy regarding heritage
undertakings. This cycle incorporates the idea that appreciation of heritage will lead to the
desire of preservation, its protection and conservation (May, 2019).
As the Philippines continue to

protect the country’s heritage,
Republic Act No. 10066 which
came to be known to be National
Cultural Heritage Act of 2009 was
enacted. The 1897 constitution
therefore mandates the
preservation, protection and
conservation of the Cultural
Heritage of the Philippines that
leads to the creation of the law.
According to Article 1, Section 2, of

Republic Act 10066, the protection
and promotion of heritage is
enshrined in the 1987
Figure 29. Heritage Cycle (Thurley, 2006) Constitution—its Article XIV,
sections 14, 15, 16, and 17. The
said article provides “that the State
shall foster the preservation, enrichment, and dynamic evolution of a Filipino culture based on
the principle of unity in diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expression. The
Constitution likewise mandates the state to conserve, develop, promote and popularize the
nation’s historical and cultural heritage and resources, as well as the artistic creations. It
further provides that all the country’s artistic and historic wealth constitutes the cultural
treasure of the nation and shall be under the protection of the state, which may regulate its
disposition” (Section 14).
160
Republic Act 10066 provided some guidelines on how to protect Philippine heritage.
It also includes certain cultural agencies that will manage the preservation, protection and
conservation of the country’s heritage (See figure 29). The category of tangible and intangible
heritage is stated below (see figure 30).
As stated in its Article 1, Section 2, the objectives of the law are as follows:
(a) Protect, preserve, conserve and promote the nation’s cultural heritage, its property and
histories, and the ethnicity of local communities;
(b) Establish and strengthen cultural institutions; and,
(c) Protect cultural workers and ensure their professional development and well-being.
Figure 30. Cultural Agencies and their role in heritage management in the Philippines
(Illustration by Sherrenne De Amboy)
Figure 31. Categories of Cultural heritage in the Philippines

(Illustration by Sherrenne De Amboy)
161
Activity
Read the following items and discuss them in at least two paragraphs of not less
than 3 sentences per paragraph.
1. What is heritage? Why do you think heritage is important?

2. Identify a heritage icon (preferably one that is near your area) and discuss briefly
its history. Why do you think that heritage icon is important to the community
where it is located?
❖
References
Buckland, M. K. (2013). Cultural heritage (Patrimony): An introduction. Zadar.

http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/culturalheritage.pdf.
Hampton, M. (2005). Heritage, local communities and economic development. In Annals of

tourism research (Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 735–759). Retrieved from https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.annals.2004.10.010.
Lowie, R. H. (1917). Edward B. Tylor. In American anthropologist (Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 262–
268). Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/660758?seq=1#metadata_
info_tab_contents
May, S. (2019). Heritage, endangerment and participation: alternative futures in the Lake
District. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 26(1), 71–86.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2019.1620827.
Moody J. (2015) Heritage and History. In: Waterton E., Watson S. (Eds.) The Palgrave
Handbook of Contemporary Heritage Research. Palgrave Macmillan, London.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137293565_.
Republic Act 10066. (2010). Official Gazette. Retrieved from https://www.officialgazette.

gov.ph/2010/03/26/republic-act-no-10066/.
Thurley, S. (2005). Into the future. Our strategy for for 2005-2010. Conservation Bulletin
[English Heritage]. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Heritage-cycle-Thurley-
2005_fig1_334024601.
Waterton, E., & Watson, S. (Eds.). (2015). The Palgrave handbook of contemporary
heritage research. Palgrave Macmillan, London. Retrieved from https://doi.org/
10.1057/9781137293565.
162
MID-TERM EXAMINATION
(Appendix A)
Surname, Given Name M.I. Course Instructor
Program Year-Section Date
“God is watching us…from a distance.”
Direction: Read the following items thoroughly and discuss their answers in at least
three (3) paragraphs. Fifty (50) points shall be allotted to each item. You
may write your answers in Filipino. Good luck!
1. Discuss the relevance of primary sources in the study of Philippine history. What are
its advantages vis-a-vis those of the secondary sources? You may cite an example
from the sources included in this module to prove your claim.
2. In your opinion, what else is another event in Philippine History which is considered
controversial? What makes the event controversial? What are its conflicting sides?
Cite specific details to prove your claim. Which side, do you think, is more reliable or
convincing? Why?
CONGRATULATIONS!
163
FINAL TERM EXAMINATION

(Appendix B)
Surname, Given Name M.I. Course Instructor
Program Year-Section Date
“Ang pagte-take ng exam ay parang panliligaw lang;

kailangang dedicated at faithful para pumasa!”
Direction: Read the following items thoroughly and discuss their answers in at least
three (3) paragraphs. Fifty (50) points shall be allotted to each item. You
may write your answers in Filipino. Good luck!
1. After reading the lessons in Unit 4-A and a lesson (according to your field of
specialism) in Unit 4-B, what three perceptions have you formulated about the
conditions of the Philippines in the Colonial Period? What, do you think, are the
factors that took place in the Colonial Period which brought you to such perceptions?
2. After studying all the lessons included in this module, how would you value and
promote the following:
a. Philippine history
b. Filipino heritage
c. Rights and welfare of the Filipino people?
CONGRATULATIONS!
164

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Readings in Philippine History

Readings in Philippine History

List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………. iii

“The very concept of objective truth is fading out of the world.

Mabuhay ang Department of History, ang College of Social Sciences and

The RIPH Team

Figure 1. Reseña Historica de la Inauguracion de la Iglesia de San Ignacio de Loyola de Manila

MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF HISTORY

Notwithstanding the necessity of writing history, the knowledge of identifying sources

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

History originated as a derivation of historia, an ancient Greek term for learning

The Relevance of History

• History contributes to Moral Understanding

The Repositories of Historical Sources

1. Archivo General de Indias (Seville)

1. National Archives and Records Service (NARS)

4. Lily Library (Bloomington, Indiana)

Classification and Types of Historical Sources

Main Types of Written Sources

Types of Unwritten Sources

Archaeological Evidence. Archaeological evidence refers to remains such as artifacts and

Gottschalk, L. (1950). Understanding history. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Hoefferle, C. (2013). The essential historiography reader (1st Ed.). Pearson.

Rosales, A., & Sebastian, R. R. (2008) Historia: Pag-usbong, pakikipagtagpo at pagbubuo.

Stearns, P. N. (1998). Why study history? Retrieved from https://www.historians.org/

TESTS OF AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY

The usual mistake committed by a researcher, especially a budding one, is when he

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Discern the significance of External and Internal Criticisms

What is the Difference between Method [of History] and Historiography?

External Criticism: The Test of Authenticity

Authenticity means originality. In history, it is more important to use original sources

Internal Criticism: The Test of Credibility

After ascertaining the genuineness or originality of sources, the historian has to

1. Competence of the source in telling the truth

According to Gottschalk (1950), in examining the credibility of a source, the historian

An independent source, even when it states certain pieces of information claimed by

In History, there is no such thing as objectivity or judgment-free account. Even

Basic Assumptions with Sources

2. The authenticity of a source increases the credibility of that source.

3. A primary source is more reliable than a secondary one.

4. The credibility of a source is increased if it is corroborated by independent sources.

What to Consider with Disagreeing or Hostile Sources?

3. If the source or witness is hostile, it becomes less credible. Corroboration to other

Ethics in Historical Research

❖ Conscious as to where he is coming from (biases, e.g., point of view, presuppositions,

❖ Objective and accurate in examining and analyzing his sources.

❖ Conscientious in properly citing his sources.

❖ Adhere himself to the highest integrity of scholarship by avoiding academic or

❖ Engage himself in a scientific scholarship through the proper application of the

❖ Offer authentic pieces of evidence to any serious claims or arguments.

❖ Refrain from duplicating what has been done before.

❖ Acknowledge indebtedness from other historians or those who extended assistance.

❖ Exude respect for criticisms from peers and other historians.

❖ Show respect to other viewpoints.

❖ Avoid irresponsible use of sources in order to deliberately mislead readers, conceal

Block, M. (1953). The historian’s craft. Alfred A. Knopf.

Gottschalk, L. (1950). Understanding History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Pascual, M. (n.d.) Ethics in historical research [PowerPoint Slides].

TESTS OF AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY:

The Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or simply

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Apply External and Internal Criticisms in the scrutiny of sources.