Acknowledgment

First and foremost, I thank God the Almighty and his mother the virgin Marry, for they have been
with me my entire life with their gracious and generous protection. Next in line are my parents
without whom nothing I ever did and none that I am would be realty. Furthermore, I would like to
thank all my instructors notably Mr. Tewodros Yibeltal (MSc.) for he and all that I forget to mention
by name had helped me a lot to get enthusiastic and be motivated about mechanical designing.

https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/difference-between-carbon-stainless-steel/

https://www.machinedesign.com/materials/article/21831967/comparing-stainless-steel-and-other-
metals

https://qualityinspection.org/carbon-vs-alloy-vs-stainless-steel-grades-might-buy-china/

http://www.worldwidepipe.com/barlows-formula.html

Chapter one: introduction

1.1. Definition
The etymology of the term “pressure vessel” is a combination of two words; hence in order to
thoroughly understand what a pressure vessel means it would be vital to define the two words;
“pressure” and “vessel” separately.
The word pressure refers to the fluid contained, and it denotes that the fluid stored is a pressurized
fluid. Usually, the inside pressure is higher than the outside pressure. On the other hand a vessel is
any kind of container where things are stored /contained within; therefore, a pressure vessel is a
container within which a pressurized fluid is contained.
It is an ordinary task to relate that a pressurized fluid exists at high temperature because of the
direct relation between pressure and temperature. Hence a fluid inside a pressure vessel, unless
specially treated, exists at a high temperature.
Mostly the terms tank and pressure vessels are misunderstood and misplaced, so distinguishing
between the two is necessary. A tank is any type of container where what’s contained within is kept
at atmospheric pressure, meaning the inside and outside pressures are almost identical. In contrast,
the internal pressure is mostly higher than the outside for the case of pressure vessels, hence the
name “pressure vessel”.
A fluid contained inside a pressure vessel may undergo state change as in the case of boilers where
the pressurized liquid becomes a gas, also as in chemical plants a fluid inside a pressure vessel may
also mix with other reagents.
Analyzing all that’s been said so far, one could assume that any form of rapture or leakage in the
manufacturing of a pressure vessel is hazardous. As a matter of fact various studies show that a
significant amount of fatal accidents in factories occur due to leakage of boilers and pressure
vessels. Moreover, the designing of pressure vessels should also consider the working environment,
as many of the fluids contained within are reactive and may cause damage reacting with the
environment. Some pressure vessels are of course designed with an incorporation of a coolant
system, especially the ones which are applied in nuclear power plants.
Sometimes, the purpose of pressure vessels is merely to transport a pressurized fluid from place to
place but usually pressure vessels are components of a complex plant and are designed to meet the
various requirements that the plant necessitates. In this case even additional design considerations
should be taken in to account.

1.2. Background
Customarily, the usage of modern day machine elements and components dates back to ancient
times where advanced technologies weren’t available and yet people of the then time used to make
use of those mechanisms at times without comprehending what they really were meant for and
sometimes for the purpose they are being used for, these days.
Even though many are traced back to; ancient Greek, Rome and Egypt, there are also lots of others
which were originally created elsewhere in Africa and specifically in Ethiopia. However,
documented discoveries were only to be found on limited historical sites. Suggesting more should
be done to uncover the mystics and greatness that historical sites of Ethiopia hold, here I move on
to unveil some historical findings of the origination of the use of pressure vessels.
Arguably, it’s believed that the earliest documented design of a pressure vessel was prepared by the
multidisciplinary man Leonardo Da Vinci. Motivated by his curiosity about the power of air lifting
heavy weights underwater, he indulged himself with the thought of creating a container of power
energized by a pressurized air. He even progressed to design the so called pressurized bag of air,
which unfortunately wasn’t manufactured but is assumed to be the base for the advancements
made in the design of pressure vessels.
Through time engineers who shared the vision of Da Vinci and who understood the power of a
pressurized fluid began to design and manufacture pressure vessels, however, many failed to
recognize the enormous extent of danger it holds within. Thus, frequent explosions and fatalities
began to be registered. Accordingly, the need for the creation of code for construction of pressure
vessels and boilers began to arise and the first of all was published in 1907.
The inclusion of code of construction of pressure vessels developed over time and many
engineering associations began to comprise a section of codes for pressure vessels amongst others.
And as technological advancements progressed, so did the safety and qualities of the design.
After all, Rome wasn’t built in a day, and in the same manner the design of pressure vessels has
never been safer, better and efficient, thanks to modern day assistive software and intact codes of
designs.

1.3. Application
It is common for one to come across pressure vessels in day to day life endeavors, since their
application areas are not limited to a narrower range, rather it’s wide and broad that they can be
seen being used in almost every extents of modern life.
Some application areas include hospitals, petroleum industries, food and beverage industries,
chemical industries, pharmaceutical industries, power generation industries and so on. Their
application area in factories is not only limited for storage purposes but they are also used for
manufacturing purposes.
According to the way that they are utilized we can classify pressure vessels as unfired and fired
pressure vessels. As the name indicates types of pressure vessels operating under exposure to a
combustion process are classed as fired types, typical example of a fired pressure vessel is a boiler,
on the other hand, those that aren’t exposed to a combustion process are known as unfired, the
application of these type of pressure vessels is merely for storage, an example of these sort of
pressure vessels can be pressure vessels used for storing gasoline in service stations.

1.4. Construction materials and fabrication

In a general sense the materials used to build a pressure vessel are desired to have good mechanical
properties, high corrosion resistance and are required to be as economical as possible. And
specifically some pressure vessel construction materials also require additional qualities as per
their particular working environment. Some of these qualities include good resistance against
neutron irradiation and hydrogen embrittlement.
The mechanical properties that generally are of interest are; yield strength, ultimate strength,
ductility, fracture toughness, resistance to cyclic operation and so on.
But the degree of those qualities mentioned might vary from design to design, for instance a
pressure vessel for an oxygen gas is required to be built from a good corrosion resistant material
while what’s primarily required from a material of kerosene containing pressure vessel might be
good mechanical property.
Commonly, the construction materials used to build pressure vessels can broadly be categorized
into two main classes; metallic and non-metallic. Steels being the lavish construction metal some
other types of non-ferrous metals like aluminum and copper are also frequently used. Expensive
metals such as titanium and zirconium are also used for some special operational requirements.
And under non-metallic materials the common ones are plastics, composite materials and
concretes.
To sum up, selecting the right material is essential to prevent failures that the pressure vessels
might encounter, these failures are generally stress dependent. Therefore, both analytical and
experimental methods to test the construction materials are in order .
Furthermore, designs of pressure vessels vary in accordance with the variation of their application
area, some are installed in a moving members while others are stationed in a fixed nonmoving
structure, some are installed at high altitudes while others operate at lower ones. Therefore, it is
crucial to consider the working environment and conditions of pressure vessels before designing
them.
Additional factors accountable for alterations in design of a pressure vessel include; the type of
fluid to be contained, the alignment and positioning of the vessel, the inside and outside
temperatures and many more.
Perceiving all the special cares taken while designing pressure vessels one can automatically
recognize that any mode of failure in the designing process is intolerable. A poor design of pressure
vessels could be fatal, hence a great care should be taken while designing and manufacturing
pressure vessels.

1.5. Classification
Subsequently, according to the factors mentioned above pressure vessels can be classified in to
various categories from which some are mentioned as follows: -

I. ACCORDING TO DIMENSION: -
 Pressure vessels, according to their dimensions, may be classified as “thin shell” or “thick
shell”. If the wall thickness of the shell (t) is less than 1/10th of the diameter of the shell (d),
then it is called a thin shell. On the other hand, if the wall thickness of the shell is greater
than 1/10th of the diameter of the shell, then it is said to be a thick shell. Thin shells are used
in boilers, tanks and pipes, whereas thick shells are used in high pressure cylinders, tanks,
gun barrels etc.
 An additional criterion to classify the pressure vessels as thin shell or thick shell is the
internal fluid pressure (p) and the allowable stress (σt). If the internal fluid pressure (p) is
less than 1/6th of the allowable stress, then it is called a thin shell. On the other hand, if the
internal fluid pressure is greater than 1/6th of the allowable stress, then it is said to be a
thick shell.
  Nevertheless, the minimum practical wall thickness including a corrosion allowance of 2
mm, should obey the general guide as put by the code of design and it’s shown in the
following table: -

Vessel diameter in (m) Minimum thickness in (mm)

1 5
1-2.0 7
2-2.5 9
2.5-3.0 10
3-3.5 12
Table 1.1. Practical wall thickness

II. ACCORDING TO END CONSTRUCTION: -

 Pressure vessels, according to the end construction, may be classified as “open end” or
“closed end”. A simple cylinder with a piston, such as cylinder of a press is an example of an
open-end vessel, whereas a tank is an example of a closed end vessel.
 In case of vessels having open ends, the circumferential or hoop stresses are induced by the
fluid pressure, whereas in case of closed ends, longitudinal stresses in addition to
circumferential stresses are induced.

III. ACCORDING TO GEOMETRY OF THE SHELL: -

 As illustrated in the diagrams below the shell of a pressure vessel may assume a cylindrical
(Figure 1.3. and Figure 1.4.), a conical or a spherical geometry, of which the most common one
is the cylindrical type of pressure vessel and next to it spherical type of pressure vessel is
the second most abundant.

Figure 1.1. Spherical shell pressure vessel Figure 1.2. Conical shell pressure vessel

IV. ACCORDING TO ALIGNMENT OF VESSEL: -

  Pressure vessels, specifically cylindrical pressure vessels, according to the way they are
positioned or aligned can be classified in to two; horizontally positioned and vertically
positioned pressure vessels.

Figure 1.3. Horizontal pressure vessel Figure 1.4. Vertical pressure vessel

V. ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

 The construction materials used to build a pressure vessel are of two type; brittle
construction material and ductile construction material.
 Some examples of brittle type of construction material include cast irons, concretes and so
on. And some examples of ductile construction materials are steels and non-ferrous metals.
 Furthermore, some typical construction materials used are discussed in chapter 3.
VI. ACCORDING TO DIRECTION OF FORCE
 Generally, a pressure vessel is exposed to either internal pressure or external pressure, but
in some special cases a vessel subjected to both can be found.

Figure 1.5.A vessel subjected to external pressure Figure 1.6.A vessel subjected to internal pressure

VII. ACCORDING TO OPERATION TEMPERATURE

  Pressure vessels operate in a temperature ranging from as low as -20 ○c to 450○c and even
more. The classification of pressure vessels according to their operating temperature is
presented in the following table.

Type Operation temperature in

(○c)
Low temperature vessel ≤ -20
Normal temperature vessel -20 – 150
Medium temperature vessel 150 – 450
High temperature vessel ≥ 450
Table 1.2. Classification of pressure vessels according to operating temperature

VIII. ACCORDING TO DESIGN PRESSURE

 In the same manner as operating temperature pressure vessels are designed by taking the
operational pressure in to account, the pressure can be either internal or external. Below is
a table of classification of pressure vessels based on their operating pressure.

Type Operation pressure in (MPa)

Low pressure vessel 0.1 – 1.6
Medium pressure vessel 1.6 – 10
High pressure vessel 10 – 100
Ultra-high pressure vessel ≥ 100
Table 1.3. Classification of pressure vessels according to operating pressure

IX. ACCORDING TO THE MANUFACTURING METHOD

 The way components of a pressure vessel are assembled varies from vessel to vessel,
accordingly based on the method used to assemble them pressure vessels are classified as
follows: -
 Welded pressure vessel
 Forged pressure vessel
 Multi wall pressure vessel
 Multi wrapped pressure vessel
 Band wrapped pressure vessel

X. ACCORDING TO THEIR PURPOSES

 As explained briefly in the application area section of the material pressure vessels have a
variety of purposes generally speaking based on their purposes we can classify them as
follows: -
 Heat exchanger pressure vessels
 Separation pressure vessels
 Reaction pressure vessels
 Storage component pressure vessels

1.6. Inspection, testing and maintenance of pressure vessels

  The fact that pressure vessels function in hostile operating environments, increases their
chance of being corroded and fail. Therefore, even after a careful designing, manufacturing
and installation of pressure vessels, a regular and thorough inspection, testing and
maintenance as required is in order.
 The following table shows the common types of failure in boilers and pressure vessels.
Types of failure Examples
Corrosion Corrosion under insulation
Sulfate corrosion
Ammine corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) Chloride SCC
Ammonia SCC
Hydrogen-induced cracking
Cyclic stress Low-cycle thermal fatigue
Penetration-related stress
Uncontrolled events Localized fire
Environmental damage
Uncontrolled process excursion
Table 1.4. Common types of failures in pressure vessels
 But comprehending the types of failure is not enough, rather knowing when the failures
happen and taking preventive and curative measures is what’s required of a real engineer.
Below is presented a table showing the observable damages in pressure vessels.

Observed damages
Reduction of pressure boundary
thickness/ wall thinning
Pressure boundary surface damage/
pitting
Base metal contamination
Sub-surface cracking
Localized cracking
Structural instability/ bulges
Localized accelerated corrosion
Table 1.5. Observed damages in pressure vessels

Figure 1.7. Bulging Figure 1.8.Full circumferential skirt cracks Figure 1.9.Corrosion
  Nevertheless, all the observing and testing of the vessels is for maintenance purposes, so
after detecting what’s wrong, a care full and skilled maintenance is required of a real
mechanical engineer. By following a scientific way of maintenance we could preserve our
pressure vessel in order to enable its continued use and function, above a minimum
acceptable level of performance over its design service life without unforeseen renewal or
major repair activities. Having said that below is a table showing different types of
maintenance.

Type Description
Corrective Maintenance tasks are intentionally withheld
maintenance until an asset stops working or starts failing.
Maintenance is then performed as necessitated.
Preventive Maintenance tasks are performed at regular
maintenance intervals.
Predictive Maintenance is conduced only when it is
maintenance confirmed necessary through the use of non-
destructive tests that detect potential failure
conditions before their occurrence.
Table 1.6. Types of maintenance

1.7. Statement of the problem

Specifically, this material presents a complete design of a pressure vessel considering the
constraining parameters provided by the instructor of the course Mr. Tewodros Yibeltal, which are
presented as follows: -
 Fluid contained – Tar/Asphalt
 State of the fluid contained – Semi-Liquid
 Position of the vessel – Horizontal
 Type of head – Flanged
 Temperature of the fluid – 275○c
 Pressure exerted by the fluid – 78 MPa
All the reset parameters are to be determined taking the above provided data into account.

LITTLE ABOUT TAR/ASPHALT

1.8. O BJECTIVE OF THE DESIGN

MAIN OBJECTIVE

The main objective of the design is to prepare a guide and a manual which would be sufficient
enough to present all the data and design considerations required to manufacturing the shell and
head of a pressure vessel which is aligned horizontally, having a flanged type of head, containing
Tar as its working fluid at a temperature value of 275○c and an internal pressure value of 78 MPa.
 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

The specific objective of the projects would be to design the following components
 The shell (Horizontal shell)
 The head (Flanged and dished type/ Torispherical head)
 Nozzle and
 Other openings
As per the instructions received from our instructor the design of support and nozzle aren’t
discussed in this project.

1.9. Methodology
The general procedure and guideline I used in order to design the pressure vessel with the
specifications mentioned above follows the standard guideline: I firs

1.10. Scope of the project

The scope of this project is only limited to manual calculation and design of the shell and head of a
pressure vessel which is aligned horizontally, having a flanged type of head, containing Tar as its
working fluid at a temperature value of 275○c and an internal pressure value of 78 MPa.
Therefore, because of the insufficient amount of time available and the required task’s limitations,
testing via computer simulation, fabrication of the vessel and testing of the product are beyond the
limits of this project.

1.11. Limitations
I had faced difficulties in acquiring a proper guidance on how to carry out the project as it was
impossible to maintain regular contact sessions with my instructor because of the political
instability we faced as a nation at the time I worked on the project.
In addition, the fact that I had no prior experience in doing an engineering project has also
contributed to the hard time I had encountered carrying out this project.
Therefore, I humbly ask my instructor Mr. Tewodros Y. to consider those factors in my evaluation,
as they were beyond my control and may have impacted my project negatively.
Chapter two: Literature review
Below is the review of works of people about pressure vessel design and I have tried to narrow it
down to the works which are similar to mine in specifications. I have also included a review of
works of senior students, which by the way is shockingly unprofessional and jam-packed with
plagiarism.
Aklilu G/Hiwot (Graduate of Bahir Dar institute of technology) presented a paper which consisted
detailed information on how to design a horizontally positioned pressure vessel with a flange and
dished/torispherical/ type head and a working fluid of tar/asphalt. It is a neatly presented paper
with quality and relevant content, calculations and drawings. However, the paper isn’t without its
drawbacks. Even though, his paper had a section about the properties of tar and had mentioned
that tar is less corrosive in the design section he gave a corrosion allowance value of 2 mm, and that
was un-economical consideration, it gave an unneeded raise to the cost of the material. In addition,
the bigger the thickness the harder the assembly process is. Therefore, on this regard the paper has
limitations. But in my paper I have considered the least possible corrosion allowance value as both
the construction material (i.e. Low alloy steel) and the medium (i.e. Tar/Asphalt) are less corrosive.
Furthermore, I strongly criticize the material selection used on the paper as it didn’t consider most
parameters including important mechanical properties. On the contrary on my paper this is
corrected and the best suiting material of all, low alloy steel is utilized.
Chapter three: Component design
3.1. Design technique used
Before directly heading to the design, it is worth mentioning the two common designing techniques
and which one of them is applied in this project. Generally speaking, there are two ways that an
engineer could design components of machineries and machines and these are: -

I. DESIGN BY RULE
This type of designing technique is usually applied for designs where simplification is
demanded. It’s a method by which the designer just has to follow a series of preset rules to
design the machine element. Even though the predefined rules are results of iterative and
continuous experiments, tests and experience, the fact that they do not consider every
design altering variable make them susceptible to complications. Therefore, this method
addresses many of the design altering variables by considering allowances and factors of
safety.
II. DESIGN BY ANALYSIS
Unlike design by rule, design by analysis accounts for most modes of failure and provides
rational margins of safety against each modes of failure. Especially for machine elements
involving cyclic operation and requiring superior safety, analysis of every detail is only
economical and the design by analysis method is the appropriate way of designing such
components.
Because of the so called “design altering variables” haven’t been considered in the given parameters
of this project, it is only fair to use the first technique to, therefore the design by rule approach has
been deployed throughout the material.

3.2. Material selection

The next step in designing the various components of a pressure vessel is a selection of an
appropriate construction material. And in order to do that the following have to be taken in to
account: -

 The operational temperature and pressure

 The degree of corrosiveness of the working fluid
 The mechanical properties of the material.
 The cost required
 The degree of exposure to radiation
 The degree of exposure to hydrogen diffusion and so on.

But again specifically for this project only the first four are considered because of the fact that the
problem statement doesn’t specify where the pressure vessel is to be installed.
And since the design by rule technique is being applied, it is no surprise that only the most
commonly used construction materials with data provided for are assumed. And these are: -
 Carbon steel
 Carbon-manganese steel
  Carbon molybdenum steel
 Low alloy steel
 Different types of Stainless steel
Therefore, presented below is the analysis of operational temperature and pressure as well as
consideration of corrosiveness of the working fluid, other mechanical properties and cost required.
i. The operational temperature given is 275○c, and according to Table1.2 we may categorize
the pressure vessel under Medium temperature vessel. Thus the material we select must be
able to efficiently withstand the operational temperature. And from the list of materials
above Low alloy steel and Stainless steel 18Cr/8Ni Ti stabilized (321) are
chronologically the first and second highest at retaining a good mechanical property at a
temperature value of 275○c.
ii. The operational pressure given is 78 MPa, and according to Table1.3 we may categorize the
pressure vessel under High pressure vessel. Thus a material with a greater value of tensile
strength is required so as it could resist the high pressure exerted on it. Accordingly, from
the list of our material selection once again chronologically the first and second highest at
having good material strength are Low alloy steel and Stainless steel 18Cr/8Ni Ti
stabilized (321) respectively.
iii. As discussed above on the “Little about Tar/Asphalt” section of this material, the working
fluid asphalt is known to cause corrosion to the container material but its degree of
corrosiveness is low. As a result, a moderately corrosion resistance material would be good
enough. From the list of construction materials mentioned above relatively Stainless steel
18Cr/8Ni unstabilised (304) takes the edge over the rest when it comes to corrosion
resistance however, since asphalt isn’t highly corrosive other types of stainless steels and
Low alloy steel could also be utilized.
iv. The comparison on mechanical properties such as toughness, hardness and strength puts
Low alloy steels in front of the other contenders, with the exception of ductility at which
stainless steels take the edge.
v. Finally, according to cost the materials can be ranked in an ascending order as Carbon
steel<low alloy steel<stainless steel.

Parameters Stainless steel Low alloy steel Carbon steel

(highest=3, lowest=1)
Resistance to high 2 3 1
temperature
Resistance to high 2 3 1
pressure
Corrosion resistance 3 2 1
Other mechanical 1 3 2
properties
Cost 1 2 3
Total 9 13 ✓ 8
Table 3.1. Ranking of commonly used construction materials
In conclusion, as summarized on Table 3.1, from the list of most commonly used materials for
pressure vessel construction, according to temperature resistance, pressure withstanding and
possession of good mechanical properties, the one more fitting to this project is Low alloy steel. So
subsequently Low alloy steel is my choice of construction material.

3.3. Shell design

Given data: -
 Medium: - Tar/Asphalt
 Internal pressure (Pi) = 78 MPa
 Internal temperature = 275○c
 Position of vessel: - Horizontal

3.3.1. Design pressure (PD)

To cover up for unanticipated factors, the design pressure has to be greater than the maximum
operating pressure by 10% of the maximum pressure value or by 0.069 - 0.17 MPa. Again to be
even safer the greater of the two is taken.
Hence, accordingly we calculate the values of the maximum pressure, 10% of the maximum
pressure, the comparison between 0.069 - 0.17 MPa and 10% the maximum pressure and the
design pressure.
Let: - PD be the design pressure and
PMAX be the maximum pressure
PI be the internal pressure (normal pressure)

PMAX = PI + 0.17 MPa

PMAX = 78 MPa + 0.17 MPa
PMAX = 78.17 MPa
Now, we compute for 10% of the maximum operating pressure (P MAX)
10
10% PMAX = ( * 78.17) MPa
100
10% PMAX = 7.817 MPa
Since, the obtained value of 10% PMAX is greater than 0.17 MPa our design pressure will be the
summation of 10% PMAX and the maximum pressure.
PD = PMAX + 10% PMAX
PD = 78.17 MPa + 7.817 MPa
PD = 85.987 MPa
 3.3.2 Design temperature (TD)

Assuming the vessel is insulated and there is no external exposure to any form of heat addition
process such as solar heating, the design temperature designated by T D assumes the value of the
summation of the internal fluid temperature and an allowance of 25 ○c. Therefore,
TD = (275 + 25) ○c
TD = 300○c

3.3.3 Design stress (S)

As a design by rule method is being applied, the following three tables are core in acquiring the
design stress value.

Material Tensile Design stress at given design temperature ○c (MPa)

strength 0 to 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(MPa)
Carbon steel 360 135 125 115 105 95 85 80 70 _ _
(semi-killed or
silicon killed )
Carbon- 460 180 170 150 140 130 115 105 100 _ _
manganese steel
(semi-killed or
silicon killed )
Carbon- 450 180 170 145 140 130 120 110 110
molybdenum steel,
0.5 percent MO
Low alloy steel (Ni, 550 240 240 240 240 240 235 230 220 190 170
Cr, Mo, V)
Stainless steel 510 165 145 130 115 110 105 100 100 95 90
18Cr/8Ni
unstabilised (304)
Stainless steel 540 165 150 140 135 130 130 125 120 120 115
18Cr/8Ni Ti
stabilized (321)
Stainless steel 520 175 150 135 120 115 110 105 105 100 95
1
18Cr/8Ni Mo 22
percent (316)
Table 3.2. Design stress values for some common materials
 Property Material
Carbon, Carbon- Austenitic stainless Non-ferrous metals
manganese, Low alloy steels
steels
Minimum yield stress 1.5 1.5 1.5
or 0.2 percent proof
stress, at the design
temperature
Minimum tensile 2.35 2.5 4.0
strength, at room
temperature
Mean stress to produce 1.5 1.5 1.0
rupture at 105 h at the
design temperature
Table 3.3. Design stress factors for some common materials

Type of joint Degree of radiography

100 percent Spot None
Double- welded butt 1.0 0.85 0.7
joint or equivalent
Single- welded butt 0.9 0.8 0.65
joint with bonding
strips
Table 3.4. Welded joint efficiency and construction categories
From the design stress table, Table 3.2, above for our choice of material, Low alloy steel, at the
design temperature value of 300○c, the value of design stress is 235 MPa.
But this is before considering allowances. Thus, taking allowances in to account, assuming the
degree of ductility of our material, it’s more likely that the dominant stress would cause a rupture
rather than a creep. Hence, the factor we seek from Table 3.3 is the one that corresponds our choice
of construction material, Low alloy steel, and mean stress to produce rupture, which would be 1.5.
In addition, taking single-weld butt joint with bonding strips, as our method of welding for
fabrication, from Table 3.4 we obtain the welded joint factor at 100 percent degree of radiography
as: E= 0.9.
Therefore, the design stress becomes:
 Design stress/Allowable stress (S)= (235 * 1.5*0.9) MPa = 317.25 MPa

3.3.4 Optimum Vessel Proportion

The first thing to consider in determining the vessel proportion is to check whether the vessel is
thick or thin. Conventionally, a thin pressure vessel is one whose thickness to diameter ratio is less
1 1
than , and a thick pressure vessel has a thickness to diameter ratio greater than .
10 10
 But since both thickness and diameter aren’t given we need to come up with another option to
identify which category our pressure vessel is classed under.
According to ASME a thin cylinder abides with the following mathematical expression: -

 Considering the circumferential direction: PI < 0.385*S*E

 Considering longitudinal direction: PI < 1.25*S*E

Now substituting our values on the above expression yields:

PI = 78 MPa PI < 0.385*S*E
S = 317.25 MPa (0.385*317.25*0.9) MPa = 109.93 MPa
E = 0.9 (i.e. 78 MPa < 109.93 MPa)
PI < 1.25*S*E
(1.25*317.25*0.9) MPa = 356.9 MPa
(i.e. 78 MPa < 356.9 MPa)
Since, the obtained values are greater than the internal pressure; our pressure vessel is a thin cylinder.

CORROSION ALLOWANCE (C)

Incidents such as corrosion and erosion eventually lead to thinning wall; hence it’s crucial to
consider a corrosion allowance while calculating the thickness of the wall.
But as briefly discussed before, the tendency of our material to get corroded is less as is the
tendency of the fluid. Thus, we will only consider the least corrosion allowance factor which is 1.5
mm.
 C = 1.5 mm
L
LENGTH TO DIAMETER RATIO ( )
D
L
The next step would be to determine the length to diameter ratio ( ) of the vessel. This can be
D
obtained from the following table.

Internal Pressure (MPa) L

Length to diameter ratio ( ¿
D
0 – 1.7 3
1.7 – 3.45 4
>3.45 5
Table 3.5. Length to diameter ratio
Since the given internal pressure value is 78 MPa, our length to diameter ratio falls under the third
category. (i.e. 78 MPa > 3.45 MPa)
L
 =5
D
Now that we have the length to diameter ratio what comes next is determining the values of the
length and diameter individually. And to do that first we have to obtain the value of vessel ratio (F 2)
L
so that we could read the value of the volume from volume vs. graph.
D
The vessel ratio is calculated as follows:

C = 1.5 mm = 1.5*10-3 m F2 = C ( S∗E

PI
−0.6
)
S = 317.25 MPa
E= 0.9
F2 = 1.5*10-3 m ( 317.2578 MPa∗0.9
MPa
−0.6 )

F2 = 4.6 * 10-3 m = 4.6 mm

PI = 78 MPa
F2 = 0.18 in ≈ 0.2 in ☞ since, the graph is presented with
American units its essential to convert the metric system
into American unit.
L
Now using the graph of Vs volume we can obtain the volume of our pressure vessel at: F2 = 0.2 in
D
L
=5
D

Figure 3.1.L/D Vs volume graph

As indicated in Figure 3.1, at vessel ratio value of 0.2 in and at length to diameter ratio of 5 the
vessel volume reads 3 ft3. (I.e. an estimation of where 0.2 in vessel ratio will be located had been
made)
Now converting the volume in to metric units we get: -
1 ft3 = 0.0283168 m3

3 ft3 = V
V = 0.0849505 m3 ≈ 0.085 m3
Having the volume of the cylinder acquired, to find the value of the diameter as usual we need to
follow the preset rule presented by the following table:
 L D
D

√
3 3 6V
5π

√
4 3 12 V
13 π

√
5 3 3V
4π

√
6 3 12 V
19 π

√
7 3 6V
11 π

√
8 3 12 V
25 π
Table 3.6. Diameter for different L/D ratios
Accordingly, the appropriate equation for our case is the one indicated on the 3 rd row of Table 3.6.

D=
√
3 3V
4π

√√
3
D=
3 3 (0.085 m )
4π
D = 3 0.020292255 m3
D = 0.272757543 m ≈ 0.3 m
And radius becomes:
D 0.3 m
R= = = 0.15 m
2 2
And from the length to diameter ratio the length of the shell is calculated as:
L L
=5→ =5
D 0.3 m
L = 1.5 m
And finally the thickness equation for a thin cylinder is given as follows:
R = 0.15 m
PI R
S = 317.25 MPa ts’ =
2 SE+0.4 P I
E= 0.9
PI = 78 MPa
 ( 78 MPa ) (0.15 m)
ts’ =
[ ( 2 )( 317.25 MPa ) ( 0.9 ) + ( 0.4 )(78 MPa)]
11.7 ( MPa ) (m)
ts’ =
602.25 MPa
ts’ = 0.02 m = 20 mm
A pre-obtained corrosion allowance value of 1.5 mm should be added:
ts = 20 mm + 1.5 mm = 21.5 mm
The final step would be to check whether the shell can withstand the internal pressure or not: -
 Checking for circumferential (Hoop stress):

P I ∗D 78 MPa∗300 m m
σ t 1= = = 544.2 MPa
2t 2∗21.5 mm
 Checking for axial (Longitudinal stress):
P I ∗D 78 MPa∗300 mm
σ t 1= = = 272.1 MPa
4t 4∗21.5 mm
 Since the tensile strength of our construction material (Low alloy steel) is greater than the
values of the hoop stress and longitudinal stress the design of the shell is safe. (i.e. tensile
strength of low alloy steel = 550MPa)
EXTERNAL PRESSURE (PE)
Finally, the external pressure on the cylinder need to be calculated and here is how it’s done:
The first step in calculating the external pressure is to determine the diameter to thickness ratio
D =300mm D 300 mm
= = 13.95 ≈ 14
ts = 21.5mm
t s 21.5 mm

D
Now for a diameter to thickness ratio value greater than or equal to 10 (i.e. ≥ 10), the external
ts
pressure can be calculated using the following formula:

P =
E
( 3)
4
(B)

D
( )
ts
But in order to determine the value of B, we first have to obtain the value of buckling strain A. And
D L
this value can be read from the following graph using the ratio parameters of and .
ts D
 D
= 14
ts

L 1500 mm
=
D 300 mm

 From the graph at, D/ts = 14 and L/D = 5

the value of buckling strain A is read to be
7, as shown in Figure 3.2.
A = 7*0.001 = 0.007

Figure 3.2. Buckling strain

Now, using the modulus of elasticity of low alloy steel and the buckling strain value obtained from
above we can read the value of B, from the following graph:

A = 0.007
E = 199.9GPa = 29,000,000 psi
 Figure 3.3. The values of factor B

 From the graph at, E = 29,000,000 psi and

A = 7 the value of factor B is read to be
18,000 psi, as shown in Figure 3.3.
B = 10,000 psi = 69 MPa

Therefore, having obtained the factor B we can now calculate the value of external pressure on the
cylinder as follows: -

D = 300 mm
P =
( 3)
4
(B)
=
( 3)
4
(124 MPa)
ts = 21.5 mm E
D 300 mm
( ) ( )
B = 124 MPa ts 21.5 mm

PE = 11.84 MPa

Figure 3.4.
Two dimensional
view the shell
(dimensions
are in mm)
 Figure3.5. Three dimensional view of the shell

Figure3.6. Internal pressure (PI = 78 MPa) Figure3.7. External pressure (PE = 11.84 MPa)

3.3 Head design

The next component to be designed in this section is the head of the pressure vessel. And as
explained earlier in this material the type of head required to be designed is Torispherical/
flanged and dished/ head.
Presented below is the geometry of a Torispherical head with notations:

Figure3.8. Geometry of a Torispherical head

As expressed in the diagram the design of a Torispherical head has the following annotations:
 R – half of diameter of the shell
  r – knuckle radius
 H – depth of dish
 th – thickness of head
 L – crown radius/ diameter of the shell
 θ - The angel measured between the axis of rotation and the intersection
of the crown and the knuckle.
Now the first step in the design of the head would be to determine the thickness and this is done by
using the formula:
P D∗L∗M
th =
2 SE−0.2 P D
The standard dictates an optimum design of a typical Torispherical head to have a proportion of;
knuckle radius equal with six percent (6%) of crown radius and the crown radius is equal with the
6
shell diameter. (I.e. r = *L = 0.06L, L = D = 300 mm, r = 18 mm)
100
And the value of M is obtained from the following calculation:

M=
1
4 [ √]
* 3+
L
r

M=
1
4 [ √ ]
* 3+
L
0.06 L
M = 1.77
Now that we have calculated the value of M we can proceed to calculating the thickness of the head.

PD = 85.987 MPa P D∗L∗M

th =
L = D = 300 mm
2 SE−0.2 P D

M = 1.77 ( 85.987 MPa )( 300 mm ) (1.77)

th =
S = 317.25 MPa
[ ( 2 )( 317.25 MPa ) ( 0.9 ) ]−[ ( 0.2 ) (85.987 MPa)]
E = 0.9 45659.097 ( MPa ) (mm)
th =
571.05−17.1974
th = 82.4 mm
But since the calculated value of head thickness is uneconomical we shall consider another
standard; for the same construction material, design pressure and design temperature as the shell’s
then the thickness of the head is 1.77 times that of the shells.
ts = 21.5 mm th = 1.77 ts

th = 1.77*21.5 mm = 38.055 mm ≈ 38 mm
And the other parameters can be obtained by applying geometrical approach as shown in the figure
below:

th = 38 mm
L = D = 300 mm
r = 18 mm

Figure3.9. Dimension of the head

From Figure3.9, we can see that: -
R = 150mm
H = 89 mm
θ = 28○
3.3.1 STRESS ANALYSIS OF TORISPHERICAL HEAD

Now that we have obtained the geometry of our head, the analysis of stress to check for failure is a
must, hence presented below is stress analysis of the head at different positions.
The significant two types of stress that occur on the head are:

 Latitudinal stress (σ φ)
 Marginal stress (σ L)
Allowable stress of the PI = 78 MPa
material
th = 38 mm
S = 317.25 MPa
L = 300 mm
R = 150 mm

1) At junction point of crown and knuckle:

( )
PI L PI L L
σ L= σφ = 3−
2 th 4 th R

σ L=
78 MPa∗300 mm
2∗38 mm
σφ =
78 MPa∗300 mm
4∗38 mm (3−
300 mm
150 mm )
 σ L= 307 MPa σ φ= 154 MPa
 Both the stress values are less than the allowable stress. Therefore, the design is safe.

2) On the crown
PI L
σ L =σ φ=
2t h
78 MPa∗300 mm
σ L =σ φ=
2∗38 mm
σ L= 307 MPa
 Both the stress values are less than the allowable stress. Therefore, the design is safe.

3) On the knuckle

( )
PI L PI L L
σ L= σφ = 1−
2 th th 2R

78 MPa∗300 mm
σ L= = 307 MPa σφ =
2∗38 mm
78 MPa∗300 mm
38 mm
1− (
300 mm
2∗150 mm
=0 )
 Both the stress values are less than the allowable stress. Therefore, the design is safe.

4) At the tangent line

PI R PI R
σ L= σφ =
2t h th

78 MPa∗150 mm 78 MPa∗150 mm
σ L= = 154 MPa σφ = = 307 MPa
2∗38 mm 38 mm
 Both the stress values are less than the allowable stress. Therefore, the design is safe.
 Figure3.10. Three dimensional view of the head

3.4. Design of openings

The purpose of having openings on the shell or head of a vessel is so crucial as
openings are of a great importance for the following purposes:
 For the purpose of attaching nozzles to allow a passage for the working
fluid in and out of the vessel.
 For the purpose of inspection; with a hand hole on the shell or the head of a
pressure vessel proper inspection of damage can be done without entering
the vessel.
 For the purpose of maintenance and repair; after inspecting the vessel
through hand holes, if a damage is detected manholes are left on the head
or shell of the vessel so that one could enter the vessel and repair the
damage.
 For cleaning purposes; a fluid inside a pressure vessel maybe highly
corrosive and residue may also be accumulated inside a vessel, hence a
proper and regular cleaning action is made through holes left for cleaning.
 For the purpose of installing different measuring gauges; the internal
pressure, leveling of the vessel and other parameters should be maintained
to the proper amount and this is done by installing reading gauges through
a hole on the shell or the head.
However, openings can be a great stress concentration areas and failure is likely to occur where
openings are present. Thus, in order to prevent that from happening the opened area should be
compensated properly to withstand the pressure. And this is done by reinforcing the opening with
the construction metal or a pad in some cases.
The first step to design an opening of any sort is to check for suitability of the head and the shell to
carry one. And whether or not a shell or a head is able to endure an opening on it, is reliant on the
geometry of the vessel.
Therefore, below is presented the aptness of our shell and head to sustain the various types of
openings needed.
D- Diameter of shell = 300 mm
 Inspection holes
ts- Thickness of shell = 21.5 mm
 Man holes
L- Crown radius= D= 300 mm  Opening for Equipment nozzle etc

th- thickness of head= 38 mm

 The standard for pressure vessel designing according to ASME dictates that for a vessel with
diameter 304.8 mm and less, inspection holes aren’t required given there are two 19.05 mm
pipe size removable connections.
 Furthermore, man holes couldn’t be positioned on a vessel with a diameter value as small as
ours; therefore a man hole wouldn’t also be practical.
  Therefore, the only openings that could exist are opening for an equipment nozzle to let the
working fluid, tar in our case, into and out of the vessel and a hand hole for cleaning and
purposes.

3.4.1 DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT NOZZLE AND ITS OPENING

Since our diameter falls below the 304.8 mm mark, the vessel only needs two 19.05 mm pipe size
removable connections whose design is detailed as follows:
Mainly any sort of nozzle is composed of a nozzle neck and a connecting part with a pipe, the
connecting part can assume different forms such as a threaded joint or a flanged connection. In
addition, as per the demand of the design a reinforcement pad might also be integrated.
Since the openings are intended for addition and discharge of the fluid it’s only appropriate to
position them on the heads of the pressure vessel. Therefore, it is in consideration of this fact that
the design is made.
The shape of the opening is usually circular or elliptical shape and in some cases it may also assume
an obround shape. But in our case since we are planning to connect our nozzle with a circular
external pipe, the ideal selections would be a circular shape. Hence below is the design of a circular
equipment nozzle.
As explained above the diameter of the opening has been obtained from the ASME code and is given
to be:
19.05mm
dn = 19.05 mm → rn = = 9.5 mm
2
If a nozzle design is self-compensating an additional design of reinforcement pad is not required, on
the contrary a non-self-compensating nozzle design will require a reinforcement pad. In addition, a
nozzle may be a stub or a protruding type, if it’s a stub it won’t penetrate the vessel on the other
hand if it’s a protruding type some part of it will be inside the vessel. In our case since the purpose
of the nozzle is to let the fluid in and out of the vessel, it should be a protruding type so that any
form of licking and spilling could be prevented.
Now having obtained the diameter of the opening, the next step will be to check whether or not the
removed area can be compensated by the areas gained from allowances considered in the design of
the head.
Visually the area removed for an opening is demonstrated in the figure below:
 A B
Figure3.11. A visual demonstration of stress on the equipment opening
As it can be seen in Figure3.11 A, the area removed for an opening is in fact a circular section,
however when the head is subjected to a compressive or a tensile stress as shown in Figure3.11 B,
the missing part to bear the stress is definitely a rectangular section with a dimension given by the
product of the diameter of the opening and the thickness of the wall.
Hence, load bearing area removed can be calculated as:
Areq = dn* th
Therefore, the reinforcement areas should be greater than or equal to the area of the removed load
bearing section so that failure can be prevented.

Areq = dn* th
dn = 19.05 mm
th = 38 mm Areq = (19.05*38) mm2
Areq = 724 mm2 = 7.24*10-4 m2
Therefore, the required area of reinforcement should be greater than or equal to the amount of load
bearing area removed which is 724 mm2.
Hereafter, before calculating the available area for reinforcement to help us with the calculations
the vertical and horizontal reinforcement limits should be dealt with as explained below.

REINFORCEMENT LIMITS FOR THE EQUIPMENT OPENING

This is where we obtain the horizontal and vertical extensions of reinforcing areas which are to
bear the stress on the opening area.
The standard for the design of reinforcement limits states (keeping in mind that the equipment
opening is to be designed on the head):
 Horizontal limit: parallel to the head and assumes the value which is larger of the
following:
 dn
 0.5dn + thn + tnn
 Vertical limit: perpendicularly aligned with the head and assumes the value which is
smaller of the following:
 2.5 thn Where: dn –diameter of the nozzle
 2.5tnn
thn – nominal thickness of the head
tnn – nominal thickness of the nozzle
From the parameters above we already have obtained the diameter of the nozzle and the nominal
thickness values of the head and the nozzle are obtained by considering commercially available
sizes which are; the next greater commercially available thickness value greater than the calculated
(i.e. th = 38 mm) for the case of the head and the one fitting to the next greater commercially
available diameter value than the standard diameter (i.e. d n = 19.05 mm) for the case of the nozzle.
 Nominal thickness for the minimum required plate thickness of t h = 38 mm is:
thn = 40 mm (steel-plate-techinfo.pdf (sangeetametal.com))
 Nominal thickness of a nozzle with a diameter value of d n = 19.05 mm is:
tnn = 2.77 mm (Pipes - Nominal Wall Thickness (engineeringtoolbox.com))
Therefore, now we can calculate the horizontal and vertical reinforcement limits by substituting
those values in to the respective equations.
Horizontal limit:
X = dn = 19.05 mm
X = rn + thn + tnn = 9.525 mm + 40 mm + 2.77 mm = 52.3 mm

 Taking the larger value the horizontal limit becomes: X = 52.3 mm

Vertical limit:
Y = 2.5thn = 2.5(40 mm) = 100 mm
Y = 2.5tnn = 2.5*(2.77 mm) = 6.925 mm

 Taking the smaller value the vertical limit becomes: Y = 6.925 mm

Diagrammatically, the vertical and horizontal reinforcement limits are shown below:

Figure3.12. Reinforcement limits for the equipment opening

AVAILABLE AREA OF REINFORCEMENT FOR THE EQUIPMENT OPENING

 Now that we have all what we need we can determine the value of available area of reinforcement.
The available areas are listed and dealt with as follows:

Areq = 724 mm2 = 7.24*10-4 m2  Area available in vessel wall: larger of the following
dn = 19.05 mm A1 = dn (thn – th) A1 = 2(thn – th) (tnn + thn)

thn = 40 mm A1 = 19.05 mm (40 mm – 38 mm) A1 = 171.1 mm2

th = 38 mm A1 = 38.1 mm2 = 3.81*10-5 m2 A1 = 1.711*10-4 m2

 Taking the larger of the two: A1 = 1.711*10-4 m2
tnn = 2.77 mm  Area available in nozzle wall
i. Outward (smaller of the following)
P D rn
tnr = A2 = 5 thn (tnn – trn) A2 = 5tnn (tnn – trn)
4 SE−0.4 PD
= A2 = 5*40 mm (2.77 – 0.74) mm A2 = 5*2.77 mm (2.77 – 0.74) mm
85.987 MPa∗9.525 mm A2 = 406 mm2 = 4.06*10-4 m2 A2 = 28.12 mm2 = 2.812*10-5 m2
4∗317.25 MPa∗0.9−0.4∗85.987 MPa  Taking the smaller of the two: A =2.812*10-5 m2 2

ii. Inward
A3 = 5(thn) (tnn)
A3 = 5(40 mm) (2.77 mm)
A3 = 554 mm2 = 5.54*10-4 m2

 Area of welds
A4 = 2(0.5) (thn 2)
In order for the opening to be self compensating A the summation of the2 available areas should be
4 = 2(0.5) (40 mm)
greater than or equal to the required area.
Aavailable = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 A4 = 1600 mm2 = 16*10-4 m2
Aavailable = 1.711*10-4 m2 + 0.2812*10-4 m2 + 0.554*10-4 m2 + 16*10-4 m2
Aavailable = 18.5*10-4 m2
Here we can clearly see that the sum of the available areas is sufficiently greater than the
removed area (i.e. Aavailable > Areq →18.5*10-4 m2 > 7.24*10-4 m2). Hence there is no need for an
additional reinforcement pad. And the design is self-compensating.

DESIGN OF BOLTED FLANGED JOINT FOR THE EQUIPMENT OPENING

Having designed the opening the next step would be to design a fitting flange to link the nozzle with
the external pipe and bolts and nuts to do the linking.
Unless there is a special requirement flanges are available in the market with different proportions
sizes and material of construction. The type of bolt used to link it with the pipe is also one
parameter for the selection of the right flange. Hence the design of the bolt and the nut comes first.
The stress that’s most likely to develop is a tensile stress which acts in a manner that tends to
separate the nozzle from the externally linked pipe and induce a tensile stress on the bolts. And the
effective diameter that resists this pressure is the diameter of the circle touching the bolt holes.
 Nominal pipe Diameter of Diameter of Diameter of Bolt circle
The size (mm) flange bolts bolt holes (mm)
(D) (mm) (mm)
12.7 120.65 19.05 22.352 82.55
19.05 130.175 PI = 78 MPa 22.352
19.05 88.9
25.4 149.225 22.225 25.4 101.6
31.75 158.75 22.225 25.4 111.125
38.1 177.8 25.4 28.448 123.825
50.8 215.9 22.225 25.4 165.1
63.5 244.475 25.4 28.448 190.5
101.6 311.15 31.75 35.052 241.3
pressure exerted on the flange bolts that induces tensile stress is due to fluid flow but in our case
since the flow velocity is not given we can assume the pressure due to fluid flow to be one-fourth of
1
the internal pressure (PF = P ).
4 I
1 1
Therefore, PF = PI = = ( 78 MPa )= 19.5 MPa: where, PF – pressure due to fluid flow
4 4
PI– internal pressure
Following this we can determine the appropriate flange size for a pipe diameter of 19.05 mm. But in
order to select the fitting flange the following points should be taken into account.

 Material of construction
The selection of flange material is no different from that of the head and the shell as all the criteria
deployed there also apply for the flange. Hence the flange material is Low alloy steel.

 Operating temperature
From the given parameters we know that the vessel is going to operate in a 300℃ environment.

 Operating pressure
The pressure exerted on the flange has been calculated above (PF = 19.5 MPa).
 Now using the above specifications according to the standard set by ASME the type of
flange suitable for our design is a Class 1500 low alloy steel at the operation
temperature of 300℃ (Flange Pressure Rating Explained (and Charts) - Projectmaterials).
 And dimensions for a flange of class 1500 low alloy steel material can be obtained from
the following table.

Table 3.7 Design dimensions of class 1500 flange

From Table 3.7, the diameter of the flange for our pipe (19.05 mm), is D = 130.175 mm. Using this
we can proceed to determining bolt and nut dimensions as follows:
The thickness of the nozzle as well as the external pipe has been acquired before and it is:
tnn = 2.77 mm
Now, the nominal diameter of the bolts is calculated using the following formula:
 d = 0.75 tnn +10 mm
d = 0.75 (2.77 mm) +10 mm = 12 mm (i.e. M12)
Number of bolts (n):
n = 0.0275 D + 1.6
n = 0.0275 (130.175) + 1.6 = 5
Thickness of flange (tf):
tf = 1.5 tnn + 3 mm
tf = 1.5 (2.77 mm) + 3 mm = 7.2 mm
Width of flange (B):
B = 2.3 d = 2.3 (12 mm) = 27.6 mm
And the height of raised face of the flange according to standards for a class of 1500 flange type is
(Class 1500 Flanges : ASTM A182 / ASME SA182 - B16.5 - Unified Alloys):
RF = 6.35 mm
Raised face diameter of flange (DRF) (Class 1500 Flanges : ASTM A182 / ASME SA182 - B16.5 - Unified
Alloys):
DRF = 43 mm
Height of flange (H) (Class 1500 Flanges : ASTM A182 / ASME SA182 - B16.5 - Unified Alloys):
H = 60.33 mm
Pitch circle diameter of bolts (DP) (from Table 3.7):
Dp = 88.9 mm
Now the effective diameter, which resists the pressure exerted at the point of leaking, is obtained
by the following formula:
de = Dp – d: where, de – Effective diameter
 But, for a symmetrical section flange, the number of bolts should be an even number, hence
we should up round the value we calculated above and take the number of bolts to be: n = 6
(Textbook of Machine Design, R.S. Khurmi, J.K. Gupta, S.Chand2005 – page 271)

 And both our calculation from above and standards depict bolts used for a pipe with
diameter value equivalent to 19.05 mm as ours to be d = 12 mm (i.e. M12) type bolts
(pipe_bolt.pdf (asahiav.jp)). But since the opening is a passage way for a fluid in and out of
the vessel it must be leak proof, and the minimum bolt size to be utilized in a leak proofing
pipe joint is d = 16 mm(Textbook of Machine Design, R.S. Khurmi, J.K. Gupta, S.Chand2005 –
page 271). Hence, the bolt size we use will be d = 16 mm (i.e. M 16).
Therefore, De = DP – d
 De = 88.9 mm – 16 mm = 73 mm
The amount of force trying to separate the flanges is calculated using the following formula.
π 2
De = 73 mm = 0.073 m F= ( D e ) PF
4
PF = 19.5 MPa π
F= (0. 073 m)2 19.5 MPa
4
F = 81,615 N = 81.62 kN
Now using this information we can collect all the dimensional data about M16 type bolt from the
following table.

Designation Pitch Nominal Pitch Core diameter Depth of Stress

(mm) diameter diameter (mm) thread area
of bolt and of bolt Bolt Nut (mm) (mm2)
nut in mm and nut
(d) (mm)
M7 1 7 6.35 5.773 5.918 0.613 28.9
M8 1.25 8 7.188 6.466 6.647 0.767 36.6
M 10 1.5 10 9.026 8.160 8.876 0.920 58.3
M 12 1.75 12 10.863 9.858 10.106 1.074 84
M 14 2 14 12.701 11.546 11.835 1.227 115
M 16 2 16 14.701 13.546 13.835 1.227 157
M 18 2.5 18 16.376 14.933 15.294 1.534 192
M 20 2.5 20 18.376 16.933 17.294 1.534 245
Table 3.8 Design dimensions of bolt and nuts

Diagrammatically, the flange, the bolt and the nut are shown below:

3.4.2. DESIGN OF HAND-HOLE

The next suiting and appropriate opening to be designed as stated before is a hand-hole for
cleaning and other maintenance actions and the design of the hand-hole follows the same
procedure as the equipment opening.
First, the diameter of the hand-hole should be determined. The proper amount of diameter of a
hand-hole on a shell with diameter 300 mm shouldn’t be greater than 80 mm.
Therefore,

dhh = 80 mm→ rhh = 40 mm

Then, the load bearing area removed can be calculated as:

Areq = dhh* ts’
Therefore, the reinforcement areas should be greater than or equal to the area of the removed load
bearing section so that failure can be prevented.

dhh = 80mm
ts’ = 20 mm
 Areq = dhh* ts’
Areq = 80 mm * 20 mm
Areq = 1600 mm2 = 16*10-4 m2
Therefore, the required area of reinforcement should be greater than or equal to the amount of load
bearing area removed which is 1600 mm2 = 16*10-4 m2.
Next in line is the calculation of the vertical and horizontal reinforcement limits.

REINFORCEMENT LIMITS FOR THE HAND-HOLE

The standard for the design of reinforcement limits states (keeping in mind that the hand-hole is to
be designed on the shell):
 Horizontal limit: parallel to the shell and assumes the value which is larger of the
following:
 dhh
 0.5dhh + tsn + tnn
 Vertical limit: perpendicularly aligned with the shell and assumes the value which is
smaller of the following:
 2.5tsn Where: dhh –diameter of the nozzle
 2.5tnn
tsn – nominal thickness of the shell
tnn – nominal thickness of the nozzle

From the parameters above we already have obtained the diameter of the nozzle and the nominal
thickness values of the shell and the nozzle are obtained by considering commercially available
sizes which are; the next greater commercially available thickness value greater than the calculated
(i.e. ts’ = 20 mm) for the case of the shell and the one fitting to the next greater commercially
available diameter value than the standard diameter (i.e. d hh = 80 mm) for the case of the nozzle.
 Nominal thickness for the minimum required plate thickness of ts’ = 20 mm is:
tsn = 20.6375 mm (steel-plate-techinfo.pdf (sangeetametal.com))
 Nominal thickness of a nozzle with a diameter value of d hh = 80 mm is:
tnn = 5.49 mm (Pipes - Nominal Wall Thickness (engineeringtoolbox.com))
Therefore, now we can calculate the horizontal and vertical reinforcement limits by substituting
those values in to the respective equations.
Horizontal limit:
X = dhh = 80 mm
X = rhh + tsn + tnn = 40 mm + 20.6375 mm + 5.49 mm = 66.13 mm
o Taking the larger value the horizontal limit becomes: X = 80 mm
 Vertical limit:
Y = 2.5tsn = 2.5(20.6375 mm) = 51.6 mm
Y = 2.5tnn = 2.5*(5.49 mm) = 13.73 mm
o Taking the smaller value the vertical limit becomes: Y = 13.73 mm

Figure3.13. Reinforcement limits for the hand-hole

AVAILABLE AREA OF REINFORCEMENT FOR THE HAND-HOLE

Now that we have all what we need we can determine the value of available area of reinforcement.
The available areas are listed and dealt with as follows:

Areq = 1600 mm2 = 16*10-4 m2  Area available in vessel wall: larger of the following
dhh = 80 mm A1 = dhh (tsn – ts’) A1 = 2(tsn – ts’) (tnn + tsn)

tsn = 20.6375 mm A1 = 80 mm (20.6375 mm – 20 mm) A1 = 33.3 mm2

ts’ = 20 mm A1 = 51 mm2 = 0.51*10-4 m2 A1 = 0.333*10-4 m2

 Taking the larger of the two: A1 = 0.51*10-4 m2
tnn = 5.49 mm  Area available in nozzle wall
Outward (smaller of the following)
P D rh
tnr = A2 = 5 tsn (tnn – trn) A2 = 5tnn (tnn – trn)
4 SE−0.4 PD
= A2 = 5*20.6375mm (5.49 – 3.1) mm A2 = 5*5.49 mm (5.49 – 3.1) mm
85.987 MPa∗40 mm A2 = 246.6 mm2 = 2.466*10-4 m2 A2 = 65.6 mm2 = 0.656*10-4 m2
4∗317.25 MPa∗0.9−0.4∗85.987 MPa
  Taking the smaller of the two: A2 =0.656*10-4 m2
Inward
A3 = 5(tsn) (tnn)
A3 = 5(20.6375 mm) (5.49 mm)
A3 = 566.5mm2 = 5.665*10-4 m2

 Area of welds
A4 = 5(0.5) (tsn 2)
A4 = 5(0.5) (20.6375 mm) 2
A4 = 1065 mm2 = 10.65*10-4 m2

In order for the opening to be self compensating the summation of the available areas should be
greater than or equal to the required area.
Aavailable = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
Aavailable = 0.51*10-4 m2+ 0.656*10-4 m2+ 5.665*10-4 m2+ 10.65*10-4 m2
Aavailable = 17.5*10-4 m2
In the same manner as the equipment design, here also we can see that the sum of the available
areas is sufficient enough to withstand the pressure at the opening. (I.e. Aavailable > Areq →17.5*10-
4
m2 > 16*10-4 m2). Hence there is no need for an additional reinforcement pad. And the design is
self-compensating.

DESIGN OF BOLTED FLANGED JOINT FOR THE HAND -HOLE

In the same manner as the equipment opening, the next step on the design of the hand-hole would
be to design a fitting flange to link the nozzle with the cover and, bolts and nuts to do the linking.
Again unless there is a special requirement flanges are available in the market with different
proportions sizes and material of construction. The type of bolt used to link it with the cover is also
another parameter for the selection of the right flange. Hence the design of the bolt and the nut
comes first.
The stress that’s most likely to develop is a tensile stress which acts in a manner that tends to
separate the nozzle from the externally linked pipe and induce a tensile stress on the bolts. And the
effective diameter that resists this pressure is the diameter of the circle touching the bolt holes.
The pressure exerted on the flange bolts that induces tensile stress is due to fluid flow but in our
case since the flow velocity is not given we can assume the pressure due to fluid flow to be one-
1 PI = 78 MPa
fourth of the internal pressure (PF = P ).
4 I
1 1
Therefore, PF = PI = = ( 78 MPa )= 19.5 MPa: where, PF – pressure due to fluid flow
4 4
PI– internal pressure
Following this we can determine the appropriate flange size for a nozzle diameter of 80 mm. But in
order to select the fitting flange the following points should be taken into account.

 Material of construction
The selection of flange material is no different from that of the head and the shell as all the criteria
deployed there also apply for the flange. Hence the flange material is Low alloy steel.

 Operating temperature
From the given parameters we know that the vessel is going to operate in a 300℃ environment.

 Operating pressure
The pressure exerted on the flange has been calculated above (PF = 19.5 MPa).
 Now using the above specifications according to the standard set by ASME the type of
flange suitable for our design is a Class 1500 low alloy steel at the operation
temperature of 300℃ (Flange Pressure Rating Explained (and Charts) - Projectmaterials).
 And dimensions for a flange of class 1500 low alloy steel material can be obtained from
the Table 3.7.
From Table 3.7, the diameter of the flange for our nominal nozzle diameter (101.6mm), is D =
311.15 mm. Using this we can proceed to determining bolt and nut dimensions as follows:
The thickness of the nozzle as well as the external pipe has been acquired before and it is:
thn = 5.49 mm
Now, the nominal diameter of the bolts is calculated using the following formula:
d = 0.75 thn +10 mm
d = 0.75 (5.49 mm) +10 mm = 14 mm (i.e. M14)

Number of bolts (n):

n = 0.0275 D + 1.6
n = 0.0275 (311.15) + 1.6 = 10
Thickness of flange (tf):
tf = 1.5 thn + 3 mm
tf = 1.5 (5.49 mm) + 3 mm = 11.2 mm
Width of flange (B):
B = 2.3 d = 2.3 (14 mm) = 32.2 mm
And the height of raised face of the flange according to standards for a class of 1500 flange type is
(Class 1500 Flanges : ASTM A182 / ASME SA182 - B16.5 - Unified Alloys):
 RF = 6.35 mm
Raised face diameter of flange (DRF) (Class 1500 Flanges : ASTM A182 / ASME SA182 - B16.5 - Unified
Alloys):
DRF = 157.16 mm
Height of flange (H) (Class 1500 Flanges : ASTM A182 / ASME SA182 - B16.5 - Unified Alloys):
H = 123.83 mm
Pitch circle diameter of bolts (DP) (from Table 3.7):
DP = 241.3 mm
Now the effective diameter, which resists the pressure exerted at the point of leaking, is obtained
by the following formula:
de = Dp – d: where, de – Effective diameter
 And both our calculation from above and standards depict bolts used for a nozzles with
diameter value equivalent to 80 mm as ours to be d = 14 mm (i.e. M14) type bolt
(pipe_bolt.pdf (asahiav.jp)). But since the opening is a passage way for a fluid in and out of
the vessel it must be leak proof, and the minimum bolt size to be utilized in a leak proofing
pipe joint is d = 16 mm(Textbook of Machine Design, R.S. Khurmi, J.K. Gupta, S.Chand2005 –
page 271). Hence, the bolt size we use will be d = 16 mm (i.e. M 16).
Therefore, De = DP – d
De = 241.3 mm – 16 mm = 225.3 mm
The amount of force trying to separate the flanges is calculated using the following formula.
π
De = 225.3 mm = 0.2253 m F= ( D )2 P
4 e F
PF = 19.5 MPa π
F= (0.2253 m)2 19.5 MPa
4
F = 777,404.2 N = 777.4 kN
Now using this information we can collect all the dimensional data about M16 type bolt from Table
3.8.
Diagrammatically, the flange, the bolt and the nut are shown below: