152 M.A. Part Il History Paper-V HISTORICAL METHOD AND PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY© : University of Mumbai Dr. Devanand Shinde Vice Chancellor Incharge University of Mumbai, Mumbai Dr. DhaneswarHarichandan Anil R. Bankar Director Incharge, Associate Prof. of History & Asst, Director & Institure of Distance & Open Learning, Incharge Study Material Section, University of Mumbai, Mumbai IDOL, University of Mumbai Programme Co-ordinator : Anil R, Bankar Associate Prof, of History & Asst. Director & Incharge Study Material Section, IDOL, University of Mumbai : Dr. G T. Sawant Rid, Professor of History Dr HS Gorge Principal Assistant College, Vikhroli, Mumbai- 83 Dr. E. J. D'souza Rtd, Principal Asmita College, Vikroli, Mumbai Reprint February 2018, M.A. Part -ll, History Paper - V, Historical Method and Philosophy of History Published by + Director Incharge Institute of Distance and Open Leaming, University of Mumbai, Vidyanagari, Mumbai- 400 098, DIP Composed Ashwini Ants Gurukripa Chawl, M.C. Chagla Marg, Bamanwada Vile Parle (E), Mumbai - 400 099. Printed by ACME PACKS AND PRINTS (INDIA) PRIVATE LIMITED ‘AWing, Gala No. 28, Ground Fler, Vrwan| Industial Estate Vishweshwar Nagar Road, Goregaon (Eas), Mumbai 400 063 Tel :91 - 22-4099 7676CONTENTS UNIT NO. TITLE PAGE NO. 1, HISTORY: MEANING, SCOPE AND NATURE 1 2. SIGNIGICANCE, COLLECTIONAND CLASSIFICANCE OF SOURCES. 23 3. AUXILIARY SCIENCES 40 4, EVALUATION OF SOURCES: AUTHENTICITY 87 5. INTERPRETATIONS AND SYNTHESIS OF SOURCES 74 6. PRESENTATION OF RESULT OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 83 7. LOGICAL PROCESS 93 8. FOOTNOTE, BIBLIOGRAPHY AND, 10. 1 12. 13. 14. 15. INDICATION OF SOURCES 102 PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY: ITS SCOPE AND RELEVANCE TO HISTORY 112 PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY: THEOLOGICAL, AND SECULAR APPROACHES. 127 IDEALIST, POSITIVIST, MATERIALISTIC VIEW OF HISTORY 137 APPOROACHES TO HISTORY 156 INDIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY : COLONIAL SCHOOL 173 INDIAN HISTORIOGARAPHY :NATIONALISTSCHOOL = 191 INDIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY: II MARXIST AND ORIENTALIST SCHOOL 208SYLLABUS M.A. PART-1 PAPER - V HISTORICAL METHOD AND PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY a) History : Meaning, Scope and Nature b) Significance of Sources, collection and classification of sources a) Auxiliary Sciences b) Steps in Historical Research c) Mechanical Aids to Historical Research Evaluation of Sources a) Authenticity b) Credibility Interpretations and Synthesis of Sources Presentation of Result of Historical Research a) Effective presentation b) Logical Process c) Footnote, Bibliography & Indication of Sources The Philosophy of History a) Its scope and its relevance to History b) Theological and secular approach a) Idealist View of History b) Positivist view of History c) Materialistic view of History Approaches to History a) Empiricist School of History b) Annales School of History c) Materialistic view of History Indian Historiography a) Colonial b) Nationalist c) Marxist d) Orientalist School[4 HISTORY: MEANING, SCOPE AND NATURE Unit Structure 1.0 Objectives 4.1. Introduction 1.2. Meaning of History 1.3 Aims and Objectives of History 1.4 Scope of Historical Methods and Limitations. 1.5 Nature of History 1.6 Whether History is an Art or Science? 1.7 Types of History, 1.8 Summary 4.9 Unit End Questions 1.10 Additional Readings. 1.0 Objectives: After the study of this unit, the student will be able to:— 1. Understand the meaning of history. 2. Grass the scope of History. 3. Explain the Nature of History. 4, Comprehend the Methods of History. 5 6 Perceive history as an art as well as science. . Explain the types of History.1.1 Introduction:— In this unit three aspects of history are discussed namely meaning scope and Nature of History. We shall confine our attention to some definitions, meaning,aims, objectives and other related matters so that clear idea of ‘Whats History’ is fixed in mind. A good knowledge of expanding dimensions of history and new trends in History would benefit students to understand history explicitly. 1.2 MEANING OF HISTORY History is a growing discipline the serious study of which started in the second half of the 18th century, so itis said that itis stilin the developing stage as a comprehensive subject. The following definitions will be useful to know how learned people looked at history as a subject. R.G. Collingwood: English historian of the 20th century gives a simple definition. He says ‘History is a research or an inquiry about the past’. Itis an enquiry by men who have experience of historical thinking, He must also be trained in the Methods of history to carry on the inquiry in the right way. G.B.Vicco: This Italian philosopher initiated the development of history as an autonomous science (New Science) he expressed his view ofhistory as, “Human nature can only be understood through history, for history comprises the various ways in which men have expressed themselves at different times and itis in such expressive forms that the human character directly reveals itself”. His description of history puts us on the right track. He emphasizes on the expression of human character through the ages. G WF, Hegel, the German philosopher of the 19th century defines history as, “The history of the world is none other than the Consciousness of Freedom, a progress whose development according to the necessity of its nature, itis our business to investigate”, This gives us a clear idea of the nature of historical studies. The great idea of the progress of man’s freedom is not political only but freedom from the uncertainties, fears and disabilities of life is also envisaged. It was after thirty years only that Charles Darwin published his theory of ‘The Origin of Species’ or theory of Evolution which revolutionized the thinking in every sphere of human life. Karl Marx another German philosopher saw class-struggle and a dialectical materialism as the essence of the historical progress.3 Most of the above definitions describe the nature of history in terms of philosophy. The down to earth description of history would be easy to understand German historian of the 19th century who gives a brief definition of history as, Leopold Van Ranke. “History is the story of the events in the past as they actually happened”. Ranke insists on telling how the actual past was in reality. He wanted critical analysis of evidence and an impartial factual account to be presented before the readers. Another historian of the 19th century was Prof. GJ. Renier, a Frenchman who said ‘History is the story of experiences of men living in civilized societies” Prof. Renier has civilized societies in view. History could be reconstructed in a written or an oral form only after the development of language which is usually possible in civilized societies even in the early stages. 1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF HISTORY History is a social science as it deals with the activities and experiences of men in civilized societies. The aims and objectives of history therefore give a time and faithful account of what happened in the past. The objectin giving such accounts to critically examine the evidence and present the facts without bias. Historians aim at placing the facts in their social, political and economic settings without bias and leave the reader to draw his own conclusion. Historians of the modem times stick to objective narration instead of wasting their energy in passing judgments. Kari Marx might have presented history as a story of struggle between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’ but historians first objective must be to reconstruct the past as a ‘total history’ of men in time as Bloch and Braudel the founders of New History have advocated 1.3.1 ITS METHODS: All social sciences have their own methods of collecting and ascertaining facts. History has also its own method of collecting and ascertaining facts. As history is mainly concerned with the activities of men in the past, they have to adopt methods different from economics and psychology. The historians have to function within the parameter of time and place. The main features of the methods are as under. (1) Data - The datais in the form of record such as diaries, chronicles, annals, inscriptions, government documents, autobiographies, biographies, letters and personal records - travels, business transactions etc.4 Besides these written records there are relics of the past in the form ofarticles, movements, tools, pottery, structures on the surface and below the surface or under rivers or seas in short archaeological relics. (2) Chronology: History is concerned with the events in time so the records should be dated, Even though itis difficult to fix the dates of ancient and medieval events. (3) Language: The old records should be rendered in the modem language and translations of foreign documents should be obtained. In case of uncommon scripts like the Harappan script we have to wait until the contents of such records are decoded. (4) Surveys: Just as chronology is important. The research student has to visit the sites and get a firsthand knowledge of the situation Gazetteers of such places are to be reviewed and maps of the past have to be obtained (5) Classification: After the collection of the data in the form of texts, manuscripts and the pictures of artifacts it should be classified, critically examined and analyzed. Statistical representation and use of graphs wherever possible would facilitate to reconstruct the story of the past events. This is a broad outline of what a research student has to do after collection of the source - material. After he writes his thesis, he has to see thatthe sources are indicated in the form of Footnotes and a bibliography is furnished at the end. Since the first part of this paper is concemed with Methods of History, we shall discuss the aspects of research methods in detail in the following pages 1.3.2 UTILITY OF HISTORY: After going through the description of the nature of historical studies ‘one important question arises that ‘what is history ?’ or in plain words why should we study history and whatis the use of historical knowledge? Many students are confused and they needed a clear answer to the question that whats the utility of history. To understand the same question, the following points are useful:- 1) When anybody says what the use of history is, the idea uppermost in his mindis of like commercial value of the study of history, In commerce itself , the historical method of maintaining commercial transaction is valuable as chronological and place wise or regional records of large industries are very important to indicate the progress or reverses. No businessman can afford to ignore his experience or the past events which took place in his special field or business.5 2) Some successful people usually argue that their ignorance of ‘History’ never came in their way, to progress. But such a viewis superficial. The ignorance for a long time may be of traditional or political history gives moments of frustration even in their chosen fields of technological progress. None can ignore labour movements; and the history of the country. They should know something about the political movements of their country like Satyagraha etc. 3) Political leaders should know not only the political history of their country but also study the local problems of their people which are rooted in the past. People enable them to need a fair knowledge of the past in order to deal the problems successfully with their present problems and plan forthe future. 4) Men in high office, statesmen, executives and social leaders cannot disregard history. The intellectuals had to equip themselves with the historical knowledge. George Kitson Clark writes that “A man must believe something, the fact he summarily rejected which great many people believe in it, The first thing to do in such political and social condition is to get clearly in mind what historical conclusion, the language, the political creed, the programme and the propaganda of the moment assume and then consider the evidence upon which such conclusion must rest ‘these guidelines would be most useful to young journalists and old statesmen alike, 5) For ordinary man history is useful in many ways. Historical knowledge, the tradition to which he is succesor, the institution which he brought up and the laws he obeys,teach him several lessons. In short he must understand properly the society and the world in which he lives with several odds. 6) Historical knowledge in general enables us to gain a critical attitude towards our own civilization. History illuminates human nature. The history of man's “actions in time” reveals the range of man’s capacities and his latent powers and thus guides us to know what manis. History widens our horizon and provides liberal education. E.H.Carr says, that “Itis one of the functions of history to cast a beam of the past over the issues which dominate present and future. In fact man’s past, present and future are interlocked at every moment” 7) Lastly we point out that biographies, historical dramas, novels and other literary works make use of history. The journalists and politicians cuta sorry figure without a sound knowledge of historical facts. The writing for instance of good poetry and judging it good depend upon familiarity with poetry that is no knowledge of the history of poetry. (H.P.Rickman in Introduction to Pattem and Meaning in History by W. Dilthey)Check your Progress: Q.1. whatis the meaning of History? SCOPE OF HISTORY: The main task of historians is to show what man is as is revealed through the evidence of his activities and experiences in the past. The man depends upon the surviving evidence of the past as it was. The first problem that determines the scope of his inquiry is the relics and traces of the past in various forms . Although, man’s written records of his activities and experiences are of recent origin but the unwritten records of the past represented by artifacts and folklore are incalculable. The sources of information are written records and archaeological remains. The method of history should be adjusted as per the availability of these sources which would lead to adequate knowledge of events The scope of historical knowledge is expanded by new forms of evidence or by new ways of utilizing the old sources. The main sources of information of the past were limited to texts and chronicles. Leopold Von Ranke showed how diplomatic records and church records could be utilized to reconstruct the history of the past. Niebuhr compiled a corpus of Roman Constitutional law from the inscriptions. in the 19th century the archaeological artifacts added one more dimension to the methodology of History. The decoding of the Harappan script and other unknown picture-or symbols of ancient records throw much light on the unknown history of the most ancient civilization of Africa, Asia and South America. Anew way of looking at old literature in oral or written expands our vision of history. The Hindu Mythology is looked upon by educated as childish fantasies. But they are examined by Pargiter and Winternitz which shows that a true picture of real social life of the Ancient Indian people can be reconstructed from the indirect and unintentional narratives of those myths. The Limitation of the method is the Historical knowledge which is indirect and inferential. It is gained from the fragments of surviving evidence, Because the famous libraries of Nalanda, Beijing and other were destroyed by vandals. Not this much some of the secret documents were either seized by the conquerors or disappeared mysteriously, There were other considerations which suppressed the7 truth.Therefore there is a need of new technique to squeeze the truth out of the available sources. In addition to this, there will be new discoveries which will expand the vision of history. 1.4.1 NEW SCIENCE AND NEW HISTORY G. B. Vico the 18th century philosopher was the first thinker of his time. He widened the scope of history and claimed its validity for historical knowledge. He dismissed Rene Descartes view that historical knowledge is not possible. The past is dead and gone how can one reconstruct it as it actually was VICO'S reasoning is that ‘Man can know what man has done’ and on this basis the knowledge of the pastis valid if he possessed the facts of the past. From his principle of 'Venum factom’ (knowledge of thing made by the maker) he maintaines that the system of language, customs, laws, government and other institutions is the thought of history, which represents the genesis and development of human societies and their institutions. He shows that the science of language i.e. philology helps to reconstruct, the history of the past as well as provides means of verification of the facts narrated orally or in writing. He want strict discipline in collection and interpretation of documents which made history an autonomous science or a ‘New Science! Vico expanded the vision of history and ensured the validity of the narrative by an intelligent and imaginative use of language, customs, laws and institutions of the time under study. The 20th century thinkers Mare Bloch and Fernand Braudel put forward the concept of ‘New History’. This expanded the scope in every respect. They pointed out, that there exists at all times, elements which are not ‘conscious’ or visible in the social development which is known as unconscious history, Historians have to look beyond the events that are ‘conscious’ or appear on the surface. A mass of unknown and formless elements like climate of opinion influence the thoughts and activities of men These elements have to be understood. The historical situation is full of such unconscious or unseen elements which spring on the surface or conscious suddenly. For example unrest among workers or peasant's broke out unexpectedly at times. The scope of New History is to know such event means the total history of man. In the 20th century another view of history that is the subaltern view adds one more dimension to history. Itis the study of masses from below. 1.4.2: SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY The scope of a subject means the number of matters or things’ covered for satisfaction of Knowledge of a chosen subject. Usually for any subject that we study, the purpose of which is clearly defined. Thus,8 in various disciplines University or Boards of Education determine the syllabus. The matters to be studied are clearly indicated by, giving a list of items. This is a routine programme for studying a subject. We cannot limit our alteration to educational practice alone. We have to specify topics for discussion and have to allow discussion on matters related to the specified topics. At higher levels we have to consider the spectrum of views on that matter. The scope of the subject under study is not determined arbitrarily. History is a social science and like all social sciences researches is carried out. New areas of knowledge are added to history . Which in turn stimulate further inquiry in the subject. Thus, itis imperative to look at history in this perspective. Subject-matter of history as envisaged by historians and philosophers of history of a complex character. Historians want to reconstruct the past and put it in a form of a story. Philosophers of history want to detect the hidden plan behind the course of history. Now historians and philosophers cannot be segregated, We therefore have to take a comprehensive view of the Subject matter of history that is the scope of history. The scope of history in general is suggested by the definition of the nature of history that we accept. If we accept the definition by Collingwood as a purposive inquiry into the past activities of man; the scope would be probably unlimited, The definition by Prof Renier that history is the story of experiences of men in civilized societies, we may ignore the activities of men in so-called ‘uncivilized societies’, Karl Marx would limit our scope to class-conflicts whereas Hegel would enlarge the scope to the study of progress of consciousness of freedom. Leopold Von Ranke tells us that the scope of historical studies is to reconstruct a true and real account of what actually happened in the past. This has to be done on the basis of critical evidence. Ranke thus outlines the scope of the subject, the aims and objectives of the historical studies arm also the limitations and the ‘expanding horizon of the subject-matter. We shall now point out the main features of the scope of history, Main features of the scope: In order to facilitate understanding the scope of history, the following features would be helpful :- (1) The scope of historical study depends upon the subject of inquiry of the past events. (2) The scope of history is determined by the activities, experiences and thoughts of men at different times in the past. (3) The scope depends upon the nature of inquiry of the past such as social, economic, political or other kind of inquiry. Thus if we9 want to know a single aspect of Quit India Movement of 1942 say economic aspect, its scope is narrower than a general assessment of the Movement from different angles. (4) _Ifwe intend to study universal history of the progress of mankind itis greater in extent than a local or a national history. (5) Similarly when we think about world history the time factor makes itnecessary to define what exactly we want to study. If we simply say human activities it would mean a never ending search as human activities from the beginning to our days implies scope beyond our human capacities. (6) Just as the present has innumerable matters for consideration, the past which for some generations in the past was a living present and as such they dealt with many known and unknown matters. The scope of our studies in general matters would be both impossible and end in a cloud. We have therefore to fix our attention on some points, Limitations of the scope: When we say history is a study of man’s activities in time, the scope of our inquiry is limited by the time factor. If we do not fix the time of what happened in the past it would be a fantasy. The scope of history is limited by our knowledge of chronological details. Man appeared on this planet several million years ago but the recorded history of his activities cannot be pushed back beyond five thousand years. Those records do not give us a clear idea of his activities in civilized societies. History in the real sense of the term began when the Greek Statesman Warrior Herodotus wrote about Greco-Persian War in the 5th century B.C. This was the first history of its kind in the world and the beginning of History is thus reckoned from that time. The scope of history of the world is thus limited to the history of mans social activities to a few thousand years. The activities of men before the historical period, that is before Sth century B.C. is enveloped in the mist of ignorance The second factor that limits the scope of history is the geographical factor. When we talk about world history we actually refer to few places on the earth. As everybody knows more than half the surface of the earth is covered by water. Out of the remaining part a sizeable surface is occupied by hills, mountains, deserts and rivers ice etc, Thus the habitable portion of the earth is limited, Further man grew civilizations in a few favourable lands. The scope of history is thus limited10 Thirdly the scope of history cannot be rigidly fixed at any time Suppose today we say history covers life of man and his activities in civilized societies, a few years or centuries after our time, historians would say history is concerned with activities and experiences of men and women only in highly developed societies or they may say it is confined only to the societies which are now developing Fourthly just as the scope of history is limited by time itis limited by the prevailing conception of history at a given time. In communist, countries the conception of history is different from those of democratic countries or countries under despotic rule. Thus the scope of historical inquiry responds to the necessity of knowing the truth about certain people at certain time. We shall see in the next lesson how different types of histories expand the horizon of the inquiry and also discuss in this lesson later on how our historical methods and techniques limit our scope. Before that we will now review the stages of expansion of our vision of history. 1.4.3 STAGES IN THE EXPANSION OF HISTORICAL VISION. Herodotus the ‘father of secular history’ wrote his account of the Greco-Persian War provided very useful information of contemporary Greece. His book started writing of history in the western world. His purpose in writing the narrative was to see that glorious deeds of the heroes of the war were not forgotten by the subsequent generations, The scope of history outlined by him was the heroic deeds of Greek warriors. The subsequent Greek and Roman writers slightly modified the pattern. Livy the Roman historian of the 1st century B.C. wrote the history of Rome ‘with a wider view of describing the lives of men who lived in the Roman Empire. The scope of history thus was expanded The note worthy feature of Greco-Roman histories was the humanistic approach that the writers adopted. This was abandoned in the early medieval period under the influence of Christian theology. The scope of history during the middle Ages was undefined as the writers believed that man’s activities were directed by Divine Providence. The Christian doctrines however promoted periodization of History and also and a universal approach. Renaissance of the 15th century once again brought man at the centre of the world. The period of the Enlightenment limited the scope of history only to the recent past which they regarded as a period of rational activity. The Romanticists ‘expanded their vision and began the study of the past ages. The scope of history from the 18th century under the inspiration from Rousseau's ‘Social contract’ made great strides in the production of historical literature. The researches of the 19th century and the1 ambitions projects of the Annales and subaltern historians have included many matters covered by other social sciences and total history of men. H.G. Well's. “Outline of World History” (1920) started the movement and will Durant wrote about world civilizations. Check your Progress :- Q.1, Explain the meaning and Scope of History. 1.5. NATURE OF HISTORY :— itis the fact that the distinctive character of social research which is derived from social phenomenon has certain difficulties when itis brought under the application of scientific procedure. Because the behavior of human being is under the influence of various contemporary forces as environmental, temporal, physiological, social and cultural \tis difficult for the researcher to understand the information in the diversity of the human behaviors, It is a formidable task of the social scientist to discover any principle or order which could be applied to all men of form the basis of data. Even then the interactions of people are based on some expectations, which from conceive groups. It means reasonable prediction of people's behavior can be made with the help of some tools or methods of study, Lund burg points out that if we increase our knowledge of variables, we can judge the effects of variables on each offer and can predict with much accuracy. The physical phenomena are known through the senses while the social are known through tradition, customs and values which are not, possible to be verified and concluded easily. In this regard itis said thatis a development of some standardized concept and techniques which measure objectively the most subjective things. It is argued that social phenomenon is more heterogeneous than the physical phenomenon However, by adequate classification of some trait and properties, fair degree of homogeneity can be sought in each class and reached to conclusion. There is a controlled laboratory experiment in the physical sciences. The sciences develop a number of human problems which can be brought within the reach of laboratory experiment. Many a times, in social sciences the researcher does not understand what is the cause and what is the effect as poverty and lack of skills. Maclver says that unless the researcher realizes that he will ask wrong question and will find out wrong answer. This difficulty is related to the under developed techniques and methodology as well as uniformity with12 the data. As Merton says research in history and other social sciences is farbehind than the research in physical science. But this is not cent percent true because in 20" century the research in both sciences has reached almost the same level The scope of research in history is as broad as the range of human behavior and its manifestation. The store of research problems in history and social sciences is inexhaustible, The research in social sciences and history is conducted mostly to profound a new theory. This could be achieved by very hard work. However, the research in these sciences has to achieve a far greater level. In the process of social research some theories have been developed. But they are based on very limited area. Hence, they are called as plausible, Context-bound or culture bound, means valid only in particular context or culture. In short such theories should be tested in different contexts to make representative of wider social situation and multiple classes. Itis clear that generalization from a particular socio-cultural context since these contexts topically differ from each other. But in this context the natural sciences are in better position due to the homogeneity of their subject matter. This is the reality that the social scientist or historian is skeptical about the conclusion on the theories developed in particular society. Itis therefore, said that the use of theory or conclusion of other socio-cultural context or historical background without proper criticism is improper. Because the soil or background is, different, Such research is acceptable after itis tested scientifically. In developing countries, the social forces are diverse to other. There is a conflict between traditions and modernity of industrialism. It means there is unrest in such society. Naturally there is much scope for research in the developing countries like India India is a welfare state. Its arranging all programmers procuring all facilities for the benefit of weaker section of the society, as women, children, socially mentally and physically handicapped people. The Government has been passing the progressive legislations. Such legislations need reliable information about the people whose welfare is sought and contemplated. In order to acquire enough strength, capability and motivation to the weaker section and not to make him corrupt, the social scientist should administer their search on the basis of reliable data, This will enable the progressive legislation to assess the needs of the people. Otherwise everything will be based on assumption, which is certainly not favorable for development of human life. India is on the verge of industrialization. It comes under productive organization. In other words, there is a compromise with traditional norms in the life of people. Effects on workers, efficiency norms and13 transformation of society are some of the important questions raised in the country. The bureaucratization of labor force, industrial technology, growth of elite group, subjective attitude, objective incentives, rise of novel jobs form new work relations in the productive organization. industrialization changes the occupational structure and demands specialized skills, This may solve this may create a problem of shortage of capital but budgetary provision may solve this tangle. The population explosion, rapid urbanization, decrease in infant mortality, migration towards city and change in age composition are the implications of industrialization, Technological modemization has disintegrated the traditional kinship organization and family system. in addition to this, the industrialization has increased the problems like transportation, problems of residence or slums, problem of environment, problems of social control, social strategy, participation of public in political events and policy making, creation of unions, change in the attitude towards religion and beliefs, change in social position, new criteria of placement and valuation. Ithas therefore resulted complication in the system if stratification and created status ambiguity. This is the urgent need for scientific research in all social sciences and history on a fairly large scale, to provide for a systematic understanding of nature of problems, a sound diagnosis and an effective treatment plan. As a matter of fact, the complexity in the present situation requires interdisciplinary collaboration among researchers for an effective multi pronged attack on above maladies to correct and find them solutions and make them more meaningful 1.5.1 NATURE OF HISTORICAL SOURCES Source here means source of knowledge of historical facts. The question arises ‘what constitutes a historical source material? Let us take two examples from Ancient Indian history to elucidate the nature of historical source. A standard version of ‘Arthashastra’ of Kautilya and Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi. Arthashatra helps us to recreate an image of the Mauryan polity, the organization of the government, the economy and social and cultural information. It tells us about so many things which were in the past and still continue to exist at present like the system of taxes etc. The Sanchi Great Stupa presents a different aspect of historical facts. The huge mound of bricks with a high gate and images of Buddha and the early doctrines of the faith in the stone pictures are silent witnesses of the Ancient indian architecture and sculpture. They do not tell us anything unless we approach them with the necessary knowledge to understand them,14 The silent sources like the Stupa are public and open to all - scholars orilliterates, However the sources of the former type that is in book form are limited to those who can read and understand it. The sources of history fall into two broad categories i) written records ofall kinds in scripts and symbols and i) Artifacts or remains of the past in concrete form like buildings, moments etc. The artifacts that are articles made by man in the past can be seen and touched thus the knowledge gained by the perception and contemplation is not in doubt. The former type of source however is open to doubt and needs proper scrutiny and corroborating or -supporting evidence. We shall now discuss the nature of these sources in relation to their utility in the reconstruction of the pastas it was. In this respect we have to follow the time scheme, Such as ancient, medieval and modem sources. 1. Ancient Sources: The surviving remains or relics of the past such as tools, dress, ornaments, structures, pottery, weaponry and other means and articles are considered reliable form of evidence. The writing of history only with the help of relics of the past surviving in fragment and in mutilated form may not be of much help. In the Ancient times when writing down thoughts. ideas and feeling was not in vogue, men expressed their experience in songs and ballads. The Rig Vedic text was preserved by reciting it from generations to generation from the hoary past. Now this is a source of information which Hindu historians take as trustworthy but others may not agree. The United Nations some thirty years ago appointed an editorial board headed by an English archaeologists Sir Wooley to write true and reliable history of India. Sir Wooley discussed Rig Veda as only a poem and the Aryans as tribes of barbarians who destroyed Harappa Civilization. He regards the period of a thousand years before Alexander the Great's invasion of India in 326 B.C. as Dark Age. (see Readings in Political History of India (ed) S.P. Gupta, B.A. Publishing Corporation New Delhi, 1976) This is only an ‘example of how sources based on oral traditions are treated 2. Medieval Sources: The archaeological remains and evidence in material form are comparatively more and in good conditions. They survived the ravage of time and destruction by conquerors. The written sources of Medieval Age are to be found at many places in state archives and public libraries. Most of the research work is based on sources of Medieval Age The nature of Medieval Sources is of the traditional type. The architecture and artifacts represent the feudal age. The literature is mostly influenced either by religious zeal or imperial ambition. A lot of research work can be done with the help of these records. In Maharashtra the15 “Peshwa Daftar’ offers great opportunity for research in Maratha history. Many “Rumals" (manuscripts wrapped in red cloth) are still unattended in this regard. 3. Modern Sources - The Modern Sources in addition to remains in concrete forms and written records contain micro films, maps and photographs taken from satellites. The speeches of leaders and eminent men are available in cassettes. The governments of many states of the world have made it a point to preserve contemporary records in good form and have set up committees to preserve ancient moments by archaeological surveys. The historians of the 19th century carried out research in history on alarge scale. They collected document, inscriptions Coins and medals, relics of past architectures, ancient tools and other remains of past age. They analyzed the evidence and attempted to reconstruct the past as it really was. The philosophers began to debate the validity of historical knowledge. Historical knowledge is an indirect knowledge. It is derived by inference from the facts’ as revealed through the records of the past ages. These records are in different forms such as documents and artifacts An intelligent man trained in historical methods examine the source material and re-enact the events of the past in his own mind and reconstructs the story of the past events. He cannot see the past events with his eyes but re-live those events and recapture the thoughts, feelings and experiences of that time of the persons involved in that event. The knowledge thus acquired is as sound as scientific knowledge as it is based on the thoughts of men at that time. There are many theories about historical knowledge. Hegel and other “idealists” would say “History is the History of thoughts.” Bloch and Braudel, the French historians of the Post-World War | would maintain that itis a knowledge of men in time in relation to the economic, social psychological and cultural conditions over a long duration 7.6 WHETHER HISTORY IS AN ART OR A SCIENCE? = While discussing the nature of history, we must know whether itis regarded as an art like music ora science like Physics and so on. History isa story ora narrative. It must be a true and a trustworthy story. It must be based on evidence as historical narration is not possible without it. would be fiction or a fairy-table. If itis only a record or a catalogue of facts and figures it would be tiresome, It would be readable account only ifitis told inan interesting manner. Although the Romantic School of the 19th century wrote interesting histories of the past ages with enthusiasm but the16 credibility of their narratives was doubted even then they showed the way to make history interesting, Edward Gibbon’s ‘Decline and fall of the Roman Empire is an ‘example in point. History is not a dull record of the dead past but is an account of the past to satisfy the curiosity and interest of the present, The writing of history is an art as the facts should be presented in such a way as the readers would not be bored History is a science as it starts with a problem and investigates the facts of the past. The methods and techniques used are scientific. History has developed its own techniques to establish truth of the evidence and believes in rational process. The only difference between a positive or physical science and History is that it does not put forward universal laws and does not attempt to predict. History is an autonomous science as shown by G.B. Vico and a philosophical position established by Hegel, Marx and others, Thus history is a science as well as an art. 1.7 Types of History :— 1.7.1 TYPE BASED ON TIME : History traces the progress of man through ages so that historical events are divided into different periods as - Ancient, Medieval and Modern. As we have observed elsewhere, history based on evidence began only a few thousand years ago. The problem of periodization is a hard one. The Christian way of reckoning time (which is now universally adopted) is to begin from the birth of Jesus Christ. Thus we say events before Christ and events after Christ. We know Christ was a historical figure and many things happened before his birth, All that incalculable period from the birth of Adam or the first man until Christis to be named in some way to describe in a suitable way, Historians called the earliest period as Old Stone Age the next was called New Stone Age. They were of several million years of duration, Then came the Bronze Age. We know something about society of human beings from this time. We call ita period of historical beginning some five thousand years before Christ. The terms Ancient, Medieval and Modern are only convenient means to classify the activities and level of civilized life. Classification on the basis of time factor is obviously flexible. What we call Modern to-day may be Medieval a few centuries hence. Moreover the period or a time- scale termed Ancient may not be applicable to civilizations outside the European parameter. Greco-Roman history and so the European History can hardly be pushed back in time before 7th century B.C. whereas the history of Egypt. Babylonia, China and India can be traced several centuries17 before the European history. Semi Europeans and the Americans may not be applied to Asian and African countries in the meaning of the term. The classification on the basis of time is thus relative and flexible. Historians have also named the periods as periods of History, Proto history and Pre-history. The history-period may be reckoned from the recorded traces indicating some activity e.g. Hammurabi’s code some 2000 years before Christ, Proto-history is not secular history but writing of myths, legends and ballads. In China record of such fanciful things are found but at most the period can be called Proto-history. The oral tradition of India for preserving the Vedas also falls in this category. The unfathomable time before such attempts at ‘poetic-history’is called Pre- history. Thus in short we may classify past events recorded in some form as follows. 1) Pre-History 2) Proto-History 3) History 4) Ancient 5) Medieval and 6) Modern. 1.72 TYPE BASED ON TERRITORY : This type of history covers geographical units as follows : 1) _ Regional or local history 2) National History 3) Continental History and 4) — Universal or ecumenical or World History. The periods of history as described above are applicable to these geographical units, The special features of the histories of these territorial units are as follows. 4) Regional or local history: This is a popular form of history. The Medieval historians of the Islamic countries wrote histories of regions like Ghazni but described the activities of the rulers. For example, Hamdullah Mustafi Kwaja Bini wrote ‘Gujdah' in 1329 A.D. but largely described the exploits of Sultan Muhamad and his dynasty. However in the 12th century Kalhana wrote ‘Rajatarangini'a history of Kashmir. In England in the 19th century Mrs. Bray wrote on Devonshire and LJ. Ashford on High Wycombe from its origins to 1888; In India late Dr. George Moraes guided many students of Mumbai to write history of Bombay city. 2) National History : The term ‘Nation’ means people living ina fixed territory with a feeling of togetherness and one-ness. Thus national history is not only of a territory but of the people inspired by the sentiment of one-ness. Thus the history of Ireland which was a part of British Empire in the 19th century had its separate identity so also India-upto 1947. The most important feature of national history is a sense of pride and domination. National histories usually biased18 3) Continental History: The histories of different continents became a popular feature in the 20th century. History of Asia, Europe and America are very prominent. They are written in view of some unity of purpose. Thus when Michael and Taylor or Clyde and Buss had in view the colonial empire of the European nations, The history of Europe written by many outstanding historians. David Thomson and AJP Taylor among them had the progress of European culture in view; similarly the American history is dominated by the spirit of Freedom and democracy. The history of Africa highlights only the European colonization of the Dark Continent. 4) Universal History: The foundation of the Roman Empire stimulated writing history of territories beyond one’s own territory. Itwas. in the 18th century that the idea of universal or world history was encouraged. The French Revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic wars brought Europe in close contacts with others continents. It was however the catastrophies of World War | and World War Il that once again directed the attention of the historians to think in terms of world events and world history. H. G. Wells wrote ‘Outline of World History’ in 1920 and thereafter books on world civilization by Will Durant and ‘A Study of History’ in ten volumes by Amold J. Toynbee. 1.7.3 TYPE BASED ON SPECIAL INTERESTS : In this type of history special interests of the historians determine the form of history. A critical analysis of the past events is attempted to understand the Developments in the fields of interest. We will consider the important types only. i) Political History ii) Economic History iii) Social History iv) Cultural History v) The History of Art vi) The History of Science vii) Historical Geography This list can be extended to cover many other fields like constitutional history. Diplomatic history and military history. They can be conveniently discussed under the broad heading “Political History" i) Political History History is popularly identified with political history. It deals with the most important problems of social fein any period of history. The problems of government administration, Jaw and order or civilliberty are so intimately19 related to life in society that the major part of history is devoted to political activities only, There is some truth in Sir John Seeley's statement (English historian of the 19th century) that history is past politics. Most of the text-books of history contain information about kingdoms, empires, dynastic wars, revolutions and rebellions. Ordinary men cannot, imagine history without political matters The political field covers activities of armed forces, their plans and strategies, the recruitment and the achievements. In short miltary history. In the same way diplomatic history is a very vital aspect of the relations between states. The treaties and pacts and correspondence open and secret form the substance of the State Policies. There is one more political aspect of history which has gained importance in modem times. The constitutional history of modern states is an outstanding feature that shows how and for what purpose the government of the state is formed. Some express that in written form and some as a conventional law. ii) Economic History: This type of history is common to both Economics and History. It helps both the disciplines to develop on the scientific lines. Economists could not merely abstract from society relation between social groups that interest them and be satisfied with their theories, They should get support of concrete facts from historical research. In carrying out such research historians get an opportunity to reconstruct the society of that time and trace the course of development of the particular situation Historical problems that arose in the past might be connected with various types of motives. But the most significant is found to be an economic motive; Economic choice forms the essential part of economic. history. The economic choices are linked to customs in the society. But in the final analysis customs have some foundation in economic motives; The money making motive is found to be the most powerful Karl Marx has given an economic interpretation of the historical process. He maintains that man’s social life is conditioned by the mode of production in material life and determines the general structure of the society. Economic history was stimulated by the Industrial Revolution in England in the second half of the 18th century. Amold Toynbee the uncle of the famous historian Arnold J, Toynbee wrote the economic history of England since that time economic history attracted attention of European and American writers. Now business history has flourished but it cannot, ignore the parent discipline.20 iii) Social History: Man lives in society whether it is Ancient, Medieval or Modern period, Even in the pre-historic times social life of some sort existed. The relations of one individual with another individual or relations between groups influence the thoughts, desires and activities, of men living in societies. Arnold J. Toynbee in his ten volume study of history has fumished detailed information about societies in the past. He has discussed the origin, growth and decline of civilizations. The motivation from progress is found not in isolation but in social life The family, the clan, the tribe or the nation provide opportunities for individuals to develop their personalities. Thus social history dealing with families, castes, classes and other group acquire great significance. The beliefs of the people their traditions, practices and a code of conduct have to be properly understood iv) Cultural History: Like social history cultural history is an integral part of social life of man. When we say culture it means own education, science, Philosophy, religion, art and literature. Itis the enlightened side oflife thus cultural history is a reflexion of the soul of the people. A certain country like India, China, and Greece of the ancient time may not display ‘grandeur of material civilization but they possessed a rich cultural splendor. v) The history of Art: Artis an integral part of cultural life. treflects the taste, moods and dreams of men in a particulars society at a certain time. This kind of history has developed in the West and is slowly developing in india. vi) The history of Science: The modem science has its origin in the study of history during the Renaissance period. In the 17th century with Newton, Descartes, Leibritz and a history of other mathematicians and astronomers they began the work of demolition of the old beliefs The history of science received much attention in the 20th century. “Introduction to the history of science by Sarton and History of Magic and Experimental Science’ by Lynn Thorndike are very useful but ‘Origin of Modern Science written by historian Butterfield has given a new vision to both scientists and historians. vii) Historical Geography: This is an important study as there is a ‘common error of keeping present day geography before the eye while writing history, The landscape of the past matters much. For geographical studies the perspective of time-sequence has to be bone in mind, Such studies were undertaken in the U.S. from the middle of the 18th century when ‘Mirror for the American appeared. Since then Englishmen and the American wrote profusely on the changing landscape of their countries. Human geography book by Jean Brunhesis notable. The regional historical24 records are very useful for historical studies. The information is ofimmense assistance to economic and social historians to a great extent. 1.7.4 TYPE BASED ON DIFFERENT APPROACHES : The fourth category of history is based on different approaches to the study of history. They can be named as: i) Theocratic History ii) Philosophy of History Theocratic History is not merely history of religion or religious beliefs but the Myths about the divine plan for human beings. We have dealt with theological approach to history below. In India the Vedic literature provides abundant material for such type of history. Here itis enough to say that the philosophical approach to history has enriched its outlook on the world affairs in the past as well as the present. Check your Progress:- Q.1, Explain the Scope and Nature of History? 18 SUMMAR' In the beginning of this lesson we have given a few definitions of history so that students become familiar with the different angles through which history is perceived by intellectuals. The sum and substance of the nature can be summarized as follows. 1) _ History is scientific as it begins with a problem and conducts an inquiry to solve the problem. 2) History is humanistic as it asks questions about things done and experienced by men in the past. 3) History is rational as it gives answers to the questions based on evidence. The Conclusions arrived by historians on the basis of such evidence have to be logical and without bias. 4) History reveals what man has done and so what man can do. The purposive search for truth of man’s activities, his thoughts and passions give a better idea of the present problems. While reconstructing the story of man’s creativities in, the pastit has to be done methodically.22 We have therefore referred to ‘Data, chronology, language, surveys, classification etc. so that students remember these points which will be elaborated in the subsequent lessons. In the preceding pages we have limited our attention to the long accepted nature of historical studies, After World War | two new trends started 1) The Annales and 2) The subaltem studies. Itwill be enough to mention here that the nature of ‘New History’ is yet to get general acceptance. 1.9 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the Meaning and Scope of History. 2. Describe the nature of history. 3. Discuss whether history is an art or a science. 4. Examine the types of History. 110 Additional Readings:- —s—SSSCS Carr E. H. : Whatis History London, 1971 Gottchalk : Understanding History, New York, 1950, Rajayyan K : History in theory and method, Madurai 1st edition, 1976. Renier G. J. : History its purpose and Method, London, Finberg H.P.R. : Approaches to History’ Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1962. Louis Gottschalk; understanding history, New York, 1950 7. Peter Geyl : Debates with Historians, London, 1955. aLen ala So ate ote ate ok See de teete23 b) SIGNIGICANCE, COLLECTION AND CLASSIFICANCE OF SOURCES Unit Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2. Significance of Sources and Research in History 2.3. Collection of Sources 2.4 Classification of sources 2.5 Classification of primary and secondary sources 2.6 Summary 27 Questions 2.8 Additional Readings 2.0 Objectives:— After the study of this unit, the students will be able to:- 1. Understand the importance of sources and research in History. 2. Know the collection of historical sources. 3. Understand the importance of the preservation of the collected records. 4, Comprehend the classification of sources. Grasp the clasification of sources by Prof. Garranghan. 2.1 Introduction The study of the past depends on the discovery of the source material. The collection of the material is the most important work that a research student has to undertake. The methods and techniques for the collection, use and preservation are therefore to be assimilated. It entails hard work and a patient search for scattered material. Research students should be aware of the responsibility of collecting historical sources. Itis the raw material with which he is going to build the structure of his thesis.24 2.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF SOURCES AND RESEARCH IN HISTORY: ‘According to Benjamin Franklin, research is like a new born baby, As the new born baby gives pleasure to the parents, the research gives satisfaction to the researcher. It creates complacence in the researcher for knowing the unknown area by a series of endeavors during the process ofresearch. Itis anew knowledge which holds a great potential of growth and maturity required to simplify the mysteries of life. The main function of the research in history is to its existing store and removes the outdated and inapplicable theories from the same repository. In addition to this the following points also help in understanding the importance of research. 2.2.1 It Provides Guidance to Social Planning: The Indian governmentis trying to bring about the welfare of ts people by solving their problems and creating several facilities for their development. Theis possible when the planning in the country is adequate. The success of the planning depends on a systematic knowledge of the societal sources and liabilities, similarities and dissimilarities of the organization, needs, hopes and problems of the people, Research is of immense help in securing the knowledge of all these problems and their solutions. Although, there is little expenditure in conduct of the research butitis much more worth more the money spent on it. 2.2.2 It Facilitates Control by Knowledge:- Since knowledge is power, the research in social sciences and history, affords us firsthand knowledge about the organizations and institutions. That knowledge gives us greater power to control the social phenomenon. Thus, the research is instrumental in the creation of leadership and reforms in various sectors of the society. 2.2.3 Knowledge is Enlightenment:- Knowledge discards the trust of baseless assumption, superstitions and stereotypes in the life of man. It affords a solid basis for people to hold their opinions firmly. Several scholars and historians claim that research promotes better understanding and cohesion in the society because it bring to surface the hidden oneness in the midst of diversity of human being. 2.2.4 It Suggests Effective Remedial Measures :- The research has direct relations with the social welfare schemes and casual nexus of various social maladies because it provides a better and effective remedial measure to them. The researcher analyses the problems and anomalies in the society and after judging them properly suggests the necessary structural changes for their relief. In other words25 the remedial measures based on research are deep going and they hit hard where ever itis required 2.2.5 Affords for Reliable Prediction:- Research enables us to understand the social structure, its ingredients, Components, characteristics of various units, sections, merits and demerits occurrences in the society. Naturally, the researcher can advise for prediction occurrences and as welll as possible solutions on the basis of research in social sciences and history. As a matter of fact, the social research had very low predictive potential but the research in moder times has been generating intimate knowledge of social facts which has been the very basics of social growth, Thus the research in history and social science afford sound basis for reliable social predication. Samuel Stouffer says that constant research in any field improves the tools and techniques used for the same. The research in history is not exceptional to this rule. It handles the problems of varied and different nature and categories. Each of them is challenging problems. Some of them force to improve upon the old tools and techniques and other conform to invent new tools and techniques by way of modification in the prevailing techniques. Heuristics is a special term for the collection and study of historical material. There are many types of source material and the search for the sources must be carried out on scientific ine and with great discretion The technique for successful resulthas to be mastered Prof. Renier says “Heuristics is a technique and art rather than a science. It has no general rules and knows few short-cuts. It is almost entirely a deftness in the handling of special guide books, a strong memory for bibliographical details, severe discipline in the classifying the preserving of notes”. It does not mean that only those gifted with profound memory and skill In handling books for relevant material from number of books alone are competent to undertake research work. The point to be emphasized is making, classifying and preserving of notes which the researchers so laboriously produces. The most important thing is to seek the truth and reality of the situation and provide satisfactory answer to the problem tackled by the student, If the research student feels that he has satisfactory answered the question with effective arguments supported by evidence he has accomplished his duty. Louis Gottschalk has advised the beginners who wish to undertake research and want to choose their subject to start with four questions: a) Where did the event take place? What particular area in the country is connected with it?26 b) What persons am | interested in? c) What period of the past do I wish to study? d) What kind of human activities should I study for understanding the problem? These are not the only questions that the beginner should attempt to answer. There are other questions like 1) What research has been made in the field in which | may undertake to work? 2) Whatare the topics generally chosen? Collection of sources is intimately inked to the subject that a research student chooses. Here collection of books and artifacts would be an aimless exercise, There are many scholars who are enthusiastic about doing some research. They are voracious readers and participate in debates with lot of information on general topics. Their erudition and scholarship must find an expression in writing systematically on a chosen subject. General knowledge is all right but research is a complete knowledge on a particular topic. There are many reasons which may motivate a person to undertake research. It may be a deliberate act or it may be a casual incident that, might stimulate interest in some topic or the other. There are usually four ways in which he responds to the situation, 1) He chooses his subject because of necessity. He selects a topic on an advice of well informed men for improving his position 2) He selects his topic as he is riddled by some problem e.g. caste indignities; poverty of a particular group etc. 3) Curiosity to know the truth and reality of some activity of eminent men in the past or a general activity like war or revolution 4) Anatural interest developed during the course of time. A librarian who handles many new books may get some idea or a Journalist reviewing day to day affairs may be inspired to probe into the past events. We may be stimulated for research by one of the above mentioned motives. We may also get some idea about research by going through the list of research work in different fields of history, In well-maintained libraries we can get a catalogue of work done by others. The titles of ‘some works may widen our view and suggest which particular person, period or activity attracts us the most. In most of the Universities in Maharashtra and elsewhere the subjects chosen for research are from either the Ancient or Medieval period , there are very few attempts made to deal with the recent past. Anotherar point to be noted is that most scholars prefer to write on the following themes: 1) Biographical account of leading personalities of different times. 2) Study of dynasties of the medieval period. 3) Conflicts ike revolts, rebellions, civil wars, revolution and wars. Now day's national freedom movements have also attracted some researchers. 4) Origin, growth and the present state of some local units, communities or institutions. There are in depth studies carried out in history relating to religious, social, cultural and political economy, They are no doubt very important but the general trend of research work is described above. One can get some suggestion for one’s Research topic in some such way. ithowever does not mean that the students should follow the beaten path. They are free to choose the subject keeping in view availabilty of the necessary material and the time needed for the collection of sources. If anybody chooses such a topic as activities of the Dutch and the Portuguese during decline of the Bahamani period it would be a formidable task Check your Progress: 1. Explain the significance of sources and research in history. 2.3 COLLECTION OF SOURCES :— The source material to be collected obviously will be suggested by the nature of the subject for the research. Ifitaims at describing the activities, of certain individuals or group of individuals, material will have to be collected relevantto the time and place or places of the activity. It relates toa problem that has links with business, trade or any economic activity the field of research must be determined to emphasize the historical aspect as the methodology for other disciplines is evidently different. The sources to be collected according to the chosen subject will be contained in the following form of literature or material a) Biographical works: If the research aims at biographical work of an eminent personality like British Vice-Roy's of India or provincial governor naturally their diaries, letters, Important political events during their tenures in office are of greatimportance. The research students have to go through the biographies of those intimately connected with the dignitaries.28 Since men occupying high position in government have to followa certain policy the chronicles of that period the speeches and writings by the dignitaries assumes great importance. These records will be available in archives and some with private individuals. b) History of dynasties: If the dynasties relate to ancient period there are fragmentary relics of ancient moments. In India we have to depend upon oral tradition about the dynasties, However the sculpture or temple structures that survive tells their story as in the case of Ajanta and Ellora. The photographs of these should be collected. Inscriptions and grants by the kings and donations to priests, nobles and temple establishment should be procured. ¢) Conflicts, revolts, wars etc: While collecting records about such very sensitive events chronicles, fictions, poems, eye witness accounts are no doubt important sources as they are contemporary sources. But the truth of the facts narrated there has to be ascertained. Memoirs of World War II of Winston Churchill and “An Eye-Witness account of the Indian Mutiny Lord Roberts is thus valuable. d) Most organizations and institutions keep a record of their past transactions and achievements. Certain communities in India also maintain the history of their ancestors. Temples, churches, monasteries and such other religious establishments maintain their histories. Such information is very valuable. These collections would give a larger view to the research students. 2.3.1 PRESERVATION OF COLLECTED RECORDS The collected sources must be treated as very valuable records. The manuscripts especially relating to important persons and events have to be preserved with advance techniques. The notes and copies of original documents also should be carefully preserved and a correct catalogue should be maintained. A summary of the contents should be drawn up and a ready reckoner for converting old local calendars into modern calendars and other useful tables should accompany the relevant information Check your progress: Q.1, Hightlight on collection of sources for research in history.29 2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES There are three kinds of classification in use (1) The Traditional classification based on written, unwritten material and artifacts. (2) Prof Garranghan’s classification based on the time and place of the production of sources, its content and aim and (3) Primary and Secondary Sources based on the character of the documents and artifacts. While classifying the sources we should not lose sight of the subject which we have chosen for the research. The source material assumes importance in relation to the theme with which we are dealing. Suppose we are studying the military talent of Chhatrapati Sambhaji even a passing remark in some contemporary narrative about his military capability is deemed a valuable evidence. We shall now discuss the three kinds of classification below. 2.5 TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION There are three broad categories of sources (1) Written (2) Unwritten and (3) artifacts or relies in concrete forms. Among the three kinds of sources much value is attached to the written material. The unwritten or oral history and archaeological remains need more critical examination In the written category the following sub divisions are made (1) Traditional texts on the subject (2) Chronicles, journals, periodicals etc. (3) Literature (4) General Works (6) Personal documents etc (6) Epigraphy Abrief description of the written sources will facilitate classification. (i) Traditional Texts : When the subject for research is chosen we will need to know what is so far considered as authorized text. This is necessary in the case of Ancient and Medieval matters relating to the subject. An exhaustive list of published and unpublished works would help to determine the direction of research. In the case of subjects relating to Modem period more details are available in print. However in the case of medieval period manuscripts pose a problem (i) Chronicles, journals, periodicals ete : Coming to the Modern period a lot of written material is available. Chronicles play an important, part in looking at the situation in an impersonal context. Chronicles maintained by scribes at the command of rulers as in the case of Mughal rulers do help to determine the time and place of events. Journals and periodicals of the Modern times should be treated as the expression of mature thoughts on the subject at the time of the occurrence of events that are being studied30 (iii) Literature: This category covers various types of writings Accounts of travels, description of different political systems, history of dynasties and socio-economic aspects are presented in the form of books. The Literature includes fiction, stories and dramas with the historical problem in view e.g the Marathi drama ‘Keechak Vadha;- (Killing of Keechak) had the British Vice-roy, Lord Curzon's autocracy was in view, similarly Deenabandu Mitra's ‘Neel Darpan’ had painted an agonizing picture of the indigo workers in the Bengal-Bihar region. The plays of that type or novels might not be classified as historical works but describe the tenor of life at that time. (iv) General Works : Historical account of a particular period or a biography of an eminent leader go a long way to provide insight into the events of that period. For example ‘Rise and fall of the Third Reich’ by William Shirer gives a vivid picture of Hitler’s ambition and the condition of Germany during his regime. There are Government reports regarding some important issues of the time. A white paper published in 1933 by the British Government after the Three Round Table Conferences, and reports by Archaeological Surveys of India or reports of various commissions appointed by Government to probe certain events are valuable. Similarly encyclopedia, Gazetteers, historical dictionaries, and compilation of information in the form of Year- books, who's Who are very useful (v) Personal Documents: While classifying historical sources much attention should be given to personal documents such as diaries, letters, treasured papers and such other personal effects of the leaders connected with important events in history should be carefully studied. if the individuals have written memoirs or autobiography that should be treated as a variable source of information. The famous ‘Karheche Pani Life story written by late Acharya Atre. Gandhiji’s ‘My experiments with Truth’ also offers lot of useful information regarding the socio-political life in India during their period (vi) Epigraphy : Those who are working on projects relating to the ancient period have to depend on the inscription, carvings and seals and medals. The German historian Neiburth compiled the Corpus of the Ancient Roman Constitutional Law with the help of the inscriptions. As far as history of Ancient India is concemed inscriptions, carvings in stones, grants and donations carved on copper-plates figure most prominently. The classification of the epigraphic records is slightly difficult. The problem of the dates and the contents create lot of confusion. In India each ruler of the Ancient and Early Medieval period reckons his calendar from the year of his accession to the throne. Itis difficult to identify less31 famous rulers. The seals and medals with some information carved on it in the then current language and the script at times become difficult In brief we can say the written information in the book form can be easily classified but information in the focus of inscription and carvings on hard surface should be reproduced in a convenient form and then classified as personal documents. A general bibliography must be drawn up first and then the published and unpublished writings may be classified according to the contents of the books. This has to be after the thesis is in the final form. But it is always better to sort out information at the initial stage only. It becomes convenient to give quotations from these works and refer them in the footnotes. This can be conveniently done while taking down notes on a card prepared for each item of relevant information. 2.6PROFESSORG.J. GARRANGHAN’S CLASSIFICATION Prof. Garranghan in his book ‘A Guide to Historical Method lays down the following bases for classification of historical sources. (i) Time and place of the production of a source: While classifying documents including books care must be taken to identify the source of information say a text-book of history. When was it published? and where was it published? are the obvious questions that prop up and should be answered satisfactorily. Now the real significance of these points can be understood better by an example. Elliot and Dawson refer to Khafi Khan's ‘Muntakhab-ul-Lubab. When we refer to Khafi Khan the time and place of his history book has to be mentioned not simply, when Elliot & Dawson published their book The time and place of the production of the source material give a correct idea whether the evidence presented is contemporaneous to the event or not. Further the identification of the source thus described helps to establish its authenticity. Which is so important in the reconstruction of the past. (ii) Author's manner of obtaining the information of the source, : The information supplied by the author must be trustworthy hence the question, how did the author obtain the information”? becomes essential In the case of Khafi Khan's example mentioned above two points need explanation, We know that Elliot and Dawson oblained information about ‘“Muntakhab' from the book by Khafi Khan originally written in the Persian. The second points from where Khafi Khan obtained the knowledge about Aurangzeb's life and career. That historian had to write secretly as the Emperor had banned writing about his activities and policies. The value of this source diminishes to that extent. What is needed in classification is reliable evidence. It does not matter Khafi Khan or any other authors exact date is known or not:32 (iii) Periods and countries described in the source. : A classification based on the periods is definitely convenient to handle. For ‘example Megasthenes in his ‘Indika’ mentions the period as well as the country. This is definitely a valuable source while writing about Chandragupta Maurya’s Empire. But ‘Indika’ is not available in its complete form and thus should be treated with circumspection as the fragments may not tell the facts in the proper context. The classification of such sources therefore posses a problem. (iv) Classification based on the content of the source. : This type of classification is comparatively simple. The contents of the source help us to determine its importance. In the sources referring to ancient period if the material relates to religions or social matters it should be valued according to the return of the subject for research. If we are doing research connected with economic or political affairs the socio-religious sources can be relegated to secondary levels and vice versa. (v) Classification based on direct or indirect evidence. : ifthe contents of the source give a direct or eye witness account it should be classified as more valuable or primary source whereas ifit is an indirect, source or anything not actually witnessed, it should be classified as secondary. Incase of Memoirs’ or an autobiography the narrative is by the actor himself this evidence is of a higher value than biography written by another person. Thus while classifying biographies and autobiographies. We should exercise discretion. The discovery and ascertaining the facts of the past events is the aim of any historical research and therefore direct evidence obviously more important. However indirect evidence cannot be dismissed completely without verification. 2.7 CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES Prof Garranghan's classification envisages classification of written sources only. There are many unwritten sources of historical knowledge which should also be considered while dealing with the ‘raw material’ for the reconstruction of the story of the past. In this lesson we shall deal with written sources only and reserve discussion of unwritten and other sources for the next lesson. In this lesson while discussing Primary Sources we will also explain the difference between the Primary and Original Sources. Primary Sources. : Primary Source means a source of information ofthe first importance. Itis a ‘Primary’ source because itis most reliable and relevantto the subject under research or inquiry. Itis an eye witness account from the individual or group of individuals involved in the event33 under discussion. We can describe Primary Source by pointing to the following features. (1)Itis an eye witness testimony of the person or persons involved in the event which we wish to study. Since History deals with the events of the past, the testimony that we want should be in the written form. In the Modern Times, testimony can be recorded on a cassette and the whole scene of the event video-filmed. However in Ancient and Medieval Age such devises were not available. (2) tis a first-hand testimony, The witness of the phenomenon has not borrowed the information. He explains it on his own authority. He is in a position to tell more if more questions are asked as he has so much knowledge about the happening, (3) The author of the source, the man who writes about the happening does not depend on others for his information. He does not borrow information about the facts he describes from other people He was present atthe time of the occurrence and the whole thing is fresh in his mind (4) The testimony remains unchanged even with the passage of time. The testimony once presented remains the same and any alteration might affect its reliability. (5) The time and place of the origin of the source also make the source a primary one. The witness must be present at that place and at that time. If the testimony is about how the event began would be more relevant than the report of the eye witness at other stages of the development, For example if fire broke out at a place at 9 Am and our witness tells us something about how firemen extinguished fire at 12.30 p.m., the report lacks the knowledge of the beginning of the event (6) Primary source is the one which is most useful for the subject chosen by the student for his research. Itis the content of the source a- report, testimony or narrative that makes it of primary importance for our study. In case of unwritten sources and artifacts there may be many doubts and uncertainties about time and place. The written records showing the time and piace ‘are treated as more trustworthy accounts of the past for this reason. ORIGINAL SOURCES: Primary source is considered an important source from the point of view of the chosen subject for research. A Primary source if itis original is obviously of great importance. But all original sources are not treated as Primary, This will be clear from the following description (1) An original source is one that is first issued from the hand of the author, It may be a rough copy or it may be in the own hand writing ofthe author of a document.34 2) It is not a copy or a translation of any document issued by other person or persons. Thus a xerox copy or a typed copy is not an original on similarly translated works are not treated as original. (3) An Original source contains a fresh or a creative idea and therefore assumes higher place e.g. Karl Marx's ‘Das capital’ is not only a primary source but also an original theory in economics. (4) Anoriginal documents usually to be found in manuscript and without modification or amendments. Itis in a rough and raw form. Primary and Original Sources. : As pointed out earlier a Primary source is treated a valuable one because of, the reliability and relevance of the contents of the source. An Original copy is an earliest, unpolished copy issued from the hand of the author. The contents do not matter as much as its origin. A Primary Source in original form is most valuable one. Check your progress:- Q.1, What are the features of primary sources ? 2.8 CLASSFICATION OF SOURCES .8.1 SECONDARY SOURCES Secondary Sources should not be dismissed as trifle in the reconstruction of the story of the past. In fact they play an important role in the writing of history. Secondary sources present an indirect evidence. It should be analyzed properly and should not be set aside simply because itis nota first hand eye witness account. Many other factors go into the making a discovery of the truth. We shall analyse the outstanding features of Secondary Sources below: 1) Secondary Source is an indirect source : A fourth century A.D Poet and playwrite in his famous drama. ‘Mudrarakshas' has referred to the story of how Chanakya used ring (Mudra) to persuade Nanda’s minister Rakshas to serve Chandragupta Maurya after the overthrow of the Nanda dynasty. Vishakhadutta wrote his drama after a lapse of eight hundred years. This is obviously a Secondary source of knowledge about the Mauryan accession to powerin ancient Magadha. This is not a primary source butit cannot be dismissed as of no consequence in the absence of primary source. 2) Asource becomes primary : or secondary when we apply the test of proximity or nearness of time and place. An eye-witness account35 of a person participating in the activity is of primary importance but ifthat man narrates his story to someone after a lapse of several years itis a Secondary Source as many other factors come into play during the time of the event and its narration. Thus an autobiography written in the old age is of secondary importance. The main principle in determining a source as secondary is whether the person, reporting the event was at the place of happening, If he was away at some other place or at a distance of time as in case of play write Vishakhadutta the source becomes an indirect and therefore a secondary source, Itis second hand testimony. 3) The author of a Secondary Source is unable to provide full particulars : As in the cases before our modem law courts an eye-witness could provide more information if he is cross-examined. In the same way an eye-witness account of Lord Roberts of the Indian Mutiny could provide answers to our questions but Emil Ludwigs ‘Napoleon’ (A biography) leaves many questions unanswered 4) Secondary Source is a derivation from other source : Ithas no independent standing. It is based on information furnished by other sources. All commentaries and explanatory writings on religious treatises like ‘Manava Dharma Shatra’ or Mansmriti have no independent’ standing. They might interpret and explain the contents but the knowledge that they present is of derivative kind. 5) Secondary Sources are dynamic : Primary Sources are static and rigid. They do not change Secondary Sources on the other hand grows with the passage of time as many scholars express their views and also discover some more aspects of the events of the past scholars like D.O. Kosambi and Romila Thapar have enlightened us on the ancient cultures by their useful interpretation of the known facts. Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources Primary Sources : Most of these sources are of a confidential and personal experience. For example diaries and letters sent and received. A.will made by a person, a day to day account, contracts and engagements are some of the personal kind of transactions. A society or astate also maintains chronicles, daily transactions, geographical surveys and reports of bodies of experts appointed by government, demographic and revenue records and documents of diplomatic activity ete, The main direction in deciding the primary nature of the source in respect of state or intuitional records is the impersonal nature, The disinterestedness is a strong point about compilation of routine information. In the case of personal documents the strong point is the confidential and secret nature36 of the possessions and the activities ‘Archaeological’ remains constitute Primary Sources. Secondary Sources : Primary Sources are limited in number the written and unwritten sources of the secondary class are many. Biographies of rulers, eminent men in public life, Travel accounts, novels, Dramas, wall paintings and sculpture. text-books of history commentaries and explanations fallin this category, We can know about the existence of Mohenjo Daro and Harappan civilization as the primary evidence is before us but the existence of the Vedic Civilization based on literary sources do not possess that authenticity. We believe it to be true but may change our mind if new evidence is discovered sometime in future. Unlike the Primary Sources, the Secondary Source are in a state of flux. Mythology, legends, folk stories, and ballads are a source of information but of doubtful validity. They can be treated as Secondary Source of historical knowledge with caution. The Hindu Puranas were treated as Childish nonsense until Pargiter and ‘Wintemitz’ showed their true nature as a Secondary Source of historical knowledge. We should exercise our discretion while handling the source for our narrative 2.8.2 UNWRITTEN SOURCES - ORAL HISTORY ETC. The Italian historians Marc Bloch and Braudel had introduced the idea of Annales’ and ‘unconscious history.’ They have laid the foundation of anew methodology for a systematic study. In case of unwritten sources ‘such new approach is yet to be developed, We may focus our attention ona few categories of unwritten sources. 1) Tradition : A slow changing society in backward areas regard tradition as the Divine Order. The caste-system in India and ethnic disparities are an unwritten but binding norms of behavior. While classifying the sources the background of the present day traditions may be keptin view. For example the Mughal Emperors while granting Mansabs gave preference to the Turks and Mughals by birth then the Maratha-Peshwas and men of their own community. The traditional oral history of Ancient India is found in the Vedic and Puranic literature in the form of oral tradition. Rig Veda is the oldest composition which has survived for five thousand years because of oral tradition. The preceptor teaching to recite it correctly to his disciple and the latter to his disciple. This tradition continued generation together, The purity of the text was guaranteed by the belief that it was Divine Revelation and any errorin its recitation was asin, Of course its main object was religious and it contains prayers and socio-religious matters in the course request for the grace of the A-mighty.37 Similarly the Purans originated as oral tradition. The Vedic and the Puranic literature were putin the written form only in the 4th and Sth century thatis during the Gupta period. These sources therefore are considered as secondary. Oral history of other Kinds in India is found in the ballads and folklores. In the beginning ‘Mahabharata’ which is a mine of information about Ancient India, was recited as a poem Jaya by ‘Sutas’ or bards on special occasions but later on was composed by ‘Vyas’ as ‘Mahabharata’ epic. The other epic ‘Ramayana’ was similarly written by ‘Valmiki’ Another form of unwritten source of historical knowledge about Indian was the smruti literature, Authors like Manu and Yadnavalkya composed them but the smrutiliterature flowered during the Gupta Age. It continued toreceive attention by scholars in the Medieval Age even when the Muslim Rule had begun. Books could be destroyed but memorizing and reciting the same could not be stopped, While, dealing with Indian history of the Ancient and Medieval times the oral tradition should not be ignored for this reason 2.9 OTHER SOURCES - ARCHAEOLOG' Besides the written and unwritten composition and compilations we come across sources or evidence in concrete form as relics of the past. Pyramids and the sphinx of Egypt, Code Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappan excavated cities, the Aztec and Maya relics of Central America and many other ancient structures like the Great Wall of China and similar relics in Europe and elsewhere represent mute evidence of the past ages. The Archaeology department in India has undertaken the work of excavating certain sites to see if any discovery could be made. Excavation under the sea is also contemplated by researchers like Dr. S. R. Rao to discover Dwarka and Sri Krishna submerged under the sea off the coast of Saurashtra Gujarat. The artifacts like the vessels, dress, weapons, tools omaments and other articles found in most of the museums of different countries symbolize the past age. The ravages of time and the savage destruction of monuments and temples in medieval period in India has deprived our generation an opportunity to have a glimpse of the structures and articles of the past ages. We can reconstruct the history of the past with these concrete historical sources. 2.10 SIGILLIOGRAPHIC SOURCES Sigilliography is the science of seals and medals. The inscription or carving on the seals and medals help us to know the time and place and form an image of the social, economic and political conditions of that38 time. The seals of the Indus Valley civilization are a good source of information but the symbols engraved on the Seals are yet to be deciphered, One Mr Natwar Jha a Government officer in Gujarat claims to have deciphered the Harappan script, He has published his work ‘Vedic Glossary on Indus Seals’. A computer scientist Mr. N.S. Rajaram verified the work (A report in Times of India November 4, 1997) . If the claim is accepted by world ‘scholars. Ancient Indian History will have an altogether anew orientation. Numismation: The coins of the past ages also reveal information about the economy of the period when the coin was struck by the king or the ruler. Similarly the medals of the Gupta period show us many aspects, of the Gupta culture. Even the Coins of the Mughal rulers and Hindu kings give us interesting information. The coins found at different places also indicate the trade relations between the countries of origin and discovery. Sculpture : Another source of knowledge about the pastis the carving work and the moulds not the walls of temples and holy places. The Khajurao, in MP, Ajanta, Ellora and many places in Maharashtra, Rajasthan. Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu reveal the glories of the past ages. Check your progress: Q.1, Examine the important features of the Secondary sources 2.11 Summary :— The classification of sources collected by the researcher may be done in different, ways. We have discussed three ways of classification (1) The Traditional one (2) Prof Garranghan's classification and (3) Primary and Secondary Sources. The points to be bome in mind are two. The first is not to lose sight of the chosen subject for research and the second is the reliability and relevance of the sources. Another point to bear in mind is that the handling of the collected material should be easy and smooth. The classification of documents in the traditional manner or as primary and secondary is convenient. However classification on the basis of time, place, content and objective as advocated by Prof Garranghan is more dynamic. The research in highly advanced nations is comparatively less tiresome and quicker than in nations where the mechanical aids are difficult to obtain. In India scholars have to depend on conventional methods. Accomplete list of books concerning the chosen subjectis not available at39 one place. The researcher has to travel a lot. His aid to study is the quotations, notes, old records in archives are always not to be found in good conditions. However these difficulties are easily overcome if the search for the knowledge of the true and real image of the events, activities experiences and thoughts is kept firmly in the mind. 2.12 QUESTIONS 1 2. 3. 4, Explain the nature of historical sources. Discuss the significance of the classification of sources Assess the importance of Prof Garranghan's classification Examine the main features of the Primary and Secondary Sources. Additional Readings :— 1 2. 3. ema ae Carr-E.H. : Whatis History? London. 1971 Elton GR. : The Practice of History. London. 1969 Gananghan G.J. A Guide to Historical Method (Ed) Jean DeLanglen S.1, New York, 1957 Sherman Kent: Writing History, 2nd edition New York. 1967. Bloch Mare : The Historian's craft Manchester, 1954 Elton G.R. : The Practice of History London,|967 Gottschalk Louis : Understanding History, New York, 1956 Subramanian N. : Historiography Madurai, 1978. So ato oh eeteet fo ake fo ate ote40 [3] AUXILIARY SCIENCES A) SOCIAL SCIENCES B) NATURAL SCIENCES C) ANCILLIARY DISCIPLINES Outline of the Topic: 3.0 34 3.2 3.3 34 3.5 3.6 37 38 3.9 Objectives Introduction History in relation to other Social Sciences Political Science and History Sociology and History Economics and History Psychology and History Geography and History Anthropology and History Summary 3.10 Questions 3.11 Additional Readings 3.0 Objectives :- After the study of this unit, the student will be able to 1. Understand the relationship between history and other social science. Comprehend the relation between history and Anthropology. Grasp the relation between history and ancillary-disciplines and studies. ‘Summarize the relation between history and natural sciences.41 3.1 Introduction:— The auxiliary or supporting sciences and disciplines of History are many. They can be easily divided as 1) Social Sciences 2) Natural sciences and 3) Ancillary or serving disciplines or studies. We shall consider the Social Sciences as detailed above in this unit and the other two will be discussed in the next unit. Auxiliary sciences are one category but for the sake of convenience we have made the sub-divisions. 3.2 History In Relation To Other Social Scoences — History deals with man’s activities in the past Man by nature is a social animal hence we ignore the animal part of his life and look at the social life of man. History thus becomes a study of man in society. Itis the study of not the dead past but the past made alive by the light of historical studies. The mental image of that is as real as the presentlife. The knowledge of the Social Sciences along with history was in a rudimentary, form in the beginning, With the growth of tribal life organized forms of government appeared and the civilized life of man began. The complexities of civilized life gave a new meaning to social life. The problems of livelihood disturbed his tenor of life. His struggle for survival began. Thus the political. Social, economic and psychological problems have followed man like a shadow. While studying history it is necessary to understand problems of civilized life or organized social life of man at different stages of his progress. The social and other sciences which are an integral part of his intellectual life provide substantial knowledge of the nature of the historical problems before man, Just as the social and other sciences help the study of historical life of man, history also helps them by providing them with facts of life in the past. The reconstruction of the past experience. activity and thoughts of man has helped the growth of social sciences and the natural sciences. It is because of the systematic study of history that Sociology became an autonomous science. Similarly the critical approach to ascertain facts of life in the past gave an opportunity to philosophers to have a firm grip on truth and reality of life psychologists began to interpret human life in the light of experiences of man in the past. Itwas thus a give and take between history and other social sciences. We shall now see how the auxiliary sciences extend the frontiers of historical knowledge and in tum are benefited by research in history.42 3.3 Political Science and History :— ‘A couple of centuries ago there was a common belief among elected men in Europe that history was a ‘past politics’. They argued that history was a narrative of kings and their wars, the organization of government and the benevolences they bestowed or atrocities they perpetrated on the people. Now we know that history is not only past politics but past economics, past society, past religion, past civilization, in short past everything, However common men and scholars even to-day overcome the bias in favour of political content of history. Aristotle had observed ‘Man is by nature a political animal’. History devoid of political activity could not be imagined in the by gone years. Political activities attract the attention of everyone. The highest form of his activity as a social being is expressed in his political activity. Itis therefore natural to pay more attention to government, conquests, wars, revolts and revolutions political science thus contributes much material for historical reconstruction. Everyone is interested to know how men acquired political power and how they lost it. It is interesting to know how men gained power and what efforts they made to retain it. The pursuit of powers of universal interest and political science attempts a systematic study of it Political Science benefits by studying the trends of thought in the handling of problems regarding governance of states from the study of historical facts. On the other hand political thinkers provided an ideological basis for political activity. For example the ideas of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity put forward by the French and the American thinkers of the 18th century brought about revolutions in the United States of America and France. Those ideas spread throughout the world. History traces the antecedents and the consequences of those world events. Similarly the idea of nation-state dominated the political activities in Europe in the 19th century. The political history of Europe was also influenced by the idea of colonial empires and democratic form of government. This provided a new trend in historical writings as Imperialist and Socialist historians appeared on the scene. The world organisations like League of Nations after World War | and the United Nations Organisation after World War II provided historians with a new approach to history. The politicians and political thinkers were provided with facts of ‘experience in the past. The international relations between states were put in the proper perspective by historical research. Political theories without the knowledge of the practical side as evidenced by experiences43 of the past would be only abstract ideas. Historical studies give them a conerete form. 3.4 SOCIOLOGY AND HISTOR‘ ‘Auguste Comte (1798-1857) the founder of modem Sociology used historical facts as raw material for this science. Comte wanted to look at the historical facts scientifically whereas historians took at the facts empirically. History as you know is satisfied with ascertaining and knowing the facts in the proper context. Sociology wants to establish causal relations and establish theories. As at present man had to live in a ‘society’. In the beginning it was a clan or a tribe but group life was essential for his livelihood and self- preservation. History may concentrate on individuals and individual events but cannot ignore social connection, There are certain aspects of social life which do not change perceptibly. For example certain systems, patterns, institutions and tradition continue in a slightly modified form for generations together, caste-system, family, social gradations, religious beliefs, marriage ceremonies, funeral rites and so forth. History has to take cognizance of the social habits or practices as well as the above mentioned slow changing aspects of social life when dealing with events of the past age. Social history and general history adopt different attitudes to the facts of the past. Social historian would be interested in theory general historian in the nature of the thought behind action of the people at that time. Sociologists may be interested in the mental and the moral or cultural life of the people, history also studies those features and is interested in the continuity as may be evident in different forms. History traces the relics, of the tradition or custom in concrete objects or in the language. Historians on the archaeological basis would say that the Harappan civilization was an urban civilization. Among other things they might point out that Indus Valley Civilization buried their dead. They would say that the Aryans who came later on bumed their dead. Itis left to the Sociologists to seek the causes, The study of social ife, ideas about sin, good and bad things, virtues, spiritual life and many other elements may interest the Sociologists Historians are satisfied to find that the history of the people is embedded in the language that the people speak, their system of education, their art and architecture, Music and literature, They seek that material. 3.5 Economics And History We have seen that Auguste Comte while thinking philosophically on the historical facts started the study of sociology a sort of super-history44 The science of economics had an earlier origin. In the age of Enlightenment they discussed about different things literature, art, science, philosophy and politics but avoided a systematic study of money finance and related matters, Adam Smith published his book “Wealth of Nations in 1776 and gave all economic analysis of Western Nations in the 17th and the 18th centuries. This attracted the attention of the intellectuals to the study of historical problems relating to the growth and decay of national economy. A systematic study of economic conditions was undertaken after the Industrial Revolution in England. Amold Toynbee in 1884 published ‘Industrial Revolution in England’ a remarkable economic history of England, This brought the study of history into prominence. Earlier Thomas B. Malthus (1766-1834) had published in 1798 his famous ‘Essay on Population’. He focused the attention of all on the observable relation between population and food production. Economic interpretation of history by Karl Marx in his monumental work ‘Das Capital’ opened the floodgates of knowledge for historical studies The Communist Manifesto by Kart Marx and Frederich Engles in 1848 had influenced the writers of history in the 19th century and the 20th century, Historians began to study the thought behind the establishment of colonial empires. The economic imperialism was highlighted by V.| Lenin in his book ‘Imperialism the highest form of Capitalism’. Different types of history were interested in looking at the economic factor that determined the events under review. Marx had claimed that the modes of production in material life determined the general character of the social, political and spiritual processes of lfe-. This was a sweeping statement as it did not consider man’s resourcefulness, initiative, capacity for independent thought, his artistic taste and the most important factor of religion and philosophical from the unhistorical thoughts and keep their eyes fixed on truth and reality 3.6 PSYCHOLOGY AND HISTORY Psychology is a science of the mind some identify it with the social and others with the brain. Its main aim is to study inter actions between living organism and environment. Thus human behaviour is studied with that idea in mind, These studies are useful for historical research as activities, experiences and motives are the matters that are closely studied by historians in understanding the meaning of the activities of eminent men in history. Aristotle the greek philosopher of the 4th century B.C. Wrote “De anima’ which is considered the first great psychological work. Modern psychology grew from the work of Hobbes in the 17th century. In the 19th45 century experimental psychology was developed Darvin's theory of Evolution led to the dynamic psychology as of William James. Historical studies were enriched by the work of Sigmund Freud (1856 -1939) who laid down the basis of psycho-analysis and widened the scope of psychology. Previously Plutarch's ‘Lives 5th century A.D. had given the details of the behaviour of the great leaders like Alexander the Great but the technique of psycho- analysis of sigmund Freud gave an insight into the behaviour of present day public leaders. National and universal histories are dominated by ‘outsize’ men The eccentricities and mysterious behaviour of the public leaders which many a time confounds all could be understood properly if Freudian psycho-analysis is adopted. Adolf Hitters obsession with anti Semitism appeared strange in the beginning but the mania to persecute Jews had its origin in his ancestors being of Jewish extraction. History is not much concerned with the ‘unconscious’ mind and the instincts like sex in the reconstruction of the past but they provide useful explanation to the pattern of behaviour of such leaders. The case history of such ‘patients’ shows us the policies that they pursued in the proper perspective, Freudian psycho- analysis has influenced modern thought and applied psychology is nowadays adopted in industries and commerce also, 3.7 GEOGRAPHY and HISTORY The two branches of geography are 1) physical geography and 2) cultural geography or human geography. The first branch studies the physical feature and cosmic relation of the earth. We are concerned with the second branch as it studies man in relation to his surroundings. Great Philosopher Aristotle started the study of the earth and Roman Geographer Strabo took interest in human adoption to physical setting widened the scope of geography, Ptolemy contributed much to sustain the interest in geography. In the middle Ages the Arabs carried the learning to the Muslim World. Marco Polo's travels aroused the interest of the Europeans in the study once again. Alexander Vin Humboldt and Kar! Ritter laid down the basic method of systematic study, The growth of systematic studies in physical and social sciences spurred on the geographic studies. Historical events have existence in time and place. Itis customary to date an event and usually reference to place is not clearly made. This entails confusion, Suppose we are referring to the third battle of Panipat (1761). Ittook place on 14-1-1761 at Panipat but unless we indicate the exact location of Panipat with its peculiar features and tell the reader the geopolitical significance, he would merely overlook the logistic problem. Geography studies how men adjust themselves with the geographic conditions.46 This is useful for historical studies in the same way as economic conditions influence the life of people. We have to bear in mind the physical feature of a certain region ata time about which we are discussing. When we talk about Bombay (Mumbai) as a trading centre of the East India Company of England in the 17th century we should refer to the several islands and the historical geography: of the place to understand the problems of the Company and the attitude of the local people towards the traders of that time. Historical geography is the branch of knowledge which provides description of the physical features of the place as they existed in the period of our study Preston E. James wrote “The full perspective of time ‘sequence in so far as itis related to geographic patterns and processes is essential if we are to read the study of contemporary differences correctly: (American Geographic XXVII, 1937) Historical studies of a place would be more rewarding if the correct map of the place is available. The narrative of the past events would be more intelligible and convincing if the changing landscape are brought to the notice of the readers. It would be more meaningful to study the surviving relics of the past. Itwould also be a key to understand so much of the past, that has disappeared now but once existed in its complete developed form. 3.8 ANTHROPOLOGY AND HISTOR’ ‘Anthropology is a science that studies man and his works. It is concerned with the origin, development and varieties of mankind that is, the different races of mankind. Like geography it has two branches 1) Physical Anthropology and 2) Cultural Anthropology. The latter emphasis the data from nor-lterate people. Thus archaeology forms a part of Cultural Anthropology. Cultural Anthropology is useful in the study of lost cultures. Ithelps the historical study of several races of mankind. Also the extinct cultures could be known with the help of this science. The problems posed by superior races, ruling races, and subordinate or passive races can be tackled better with ‘a -scientific knowledge of Anthropology. Itis worth noting that studies carried out under the leadership of Dr. Suresh Singh of the Anthropological Survey of India from October 2, 1985 to October 1, 1990 have brought out useful information about the composition of the Indian Society today. The problems of caste-system in the present context of socio-political hostility and the historical background can be dispassionately and critically studied now with the data than mere abstract theories. What is true about Indian Society is also true about other societies in the world,47 Check your progress: Q.1. Discuss in brief the relations between history and social sciences. 3.8.1 NATURAL SCIENCES: THEIR INFLUENCE As the natural sciences began to develop new visions were opened up for a science like history to make use of the new knowledge and improve the work of reconstruction of the past. In the 17th and the 18th centuries studies in different disciplines came under the overriding influence of these sciences. The Scientific Method which used observation, experiment and ascertainment of facts for formulating universal laws appeared to be the only way to acquire knowledge. In the nineteenth century the influence of Scientific Method was universal Historians wanted to present their narratives so as to fallin line with the scientific approach to the past events, Two schools of thought in History namely Empiricist and Positivist sciences but could not make much progress in historical thinking. History deals with things that existed in the past and which have disappeared from the view. Natural Sciences demand sensuous knowledge that is perception of the objects by sight, sound, touch etc. Science can carry on experiments and repeat them anywhere and at any time. Historians cannot revive the dead men nor can they reproduce the battles, wars and revolutions of the past age. However Natural Sciences can render great help in proving whether a solid object Which is relic of the pastis a real one or a fake one, Natural Sciences can throw much light on the physical conditions of the place of the event and the changes in the course of time. The influence of Natural Sciences stimulated research in historical process. When the researchers found that the nature of historical events was different from mere study of natural phenomenon they began to develop their own methods as they had to depend more on things which disappeared now but existed once upon a time. Those things continued to exist in the minds of men but the concrete forms perished now, Natural sciences could hardly help historians to reconstruct the things that perished long but once existed in their own way. For example the Rig Vedic fire-pit (Yajnga-Kunda) perished but its image persisted in the minds of men who know the description in the Vedas. Such images and experiences could be reconstructed with the help of Anciliary Sciences. We shall see how natural sciences strengthened the base of historical research especially while dealing with him the remote past as well as the recent past.48 3.8.2 BIOLOGY & AGROBIOLOGY Among the natural sciences Biology is intimately connected with human life. Both the branches of this science, namely Botany and Zoology have helped historians to understand the flora and fauna of a place about which we choose to know as a determinate period. The vegetation, the animals different living species including homo sapiens and the climate could be known by the special techniques devised by biologists. In the 19th century excavations revealed many unknown things. Biologists like Lamarck could reconstruct the extinct animals from the remains of the then existing animals. He boasted “give me a small bone of an animal or bird and I shall reconstruct them in their full original forms “Similarly botanists could tell us many interesting things about the plants. In Rig Veda there is a frequent reference to ‘Soma Vall’, the botanist could locate itin the mountainous regions of the north, Agro-Biology : Lamarck in the early 19th century had laid the foundation of the theory of Evolution. However Charles Darwin made great strides in the development of that theory. He published his book in 1859, with a title Origin of Species” in which he put forward the gradual evolution, of species from simple to complex organism. His theory emphasized the struggle for survival and the survival of the fittest. Darwin's theory very much influenced the historiography of the 19th century. In the 20th century the Nazis interpreted ‘Survival of the fittest’ as a hint to the elimination of the unfit i.e. the Jews with disastrous effects. Biology helped history to identify the mammoth creatures like dinosaurs, rhinoceros and big reptiles from the remains found at some places. The problems human beings had to face could be imagined by the discovery of bones, fossils and skeletons examined by scientists like Lamarck, Agro-Biology : This Science of plants, nutrition and soil has helped reconstruct the state of agriculture in the periods under study. In this regard the grains found in the Mehenjo-Daro and Harappa excavations are very interesting. The relics at Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh also suggest thick forest in the region now comparatively an arid land. 3.8.3 MEDICAL SCIENCE Medical Science has contributed significantly to historical knowledge about kings and great men in the Medieval Age. The most sensational revelation about Napoleon Bonapate's death of St. Helena. The medical science found from Napoleon's hair retained the effect of some poison administered by his British captors. Medical Science could also identify the diseases of Chhatrapati Shivaji and Peshva Madhavrao. | from symptoms described in the documents. The Medical Scientists can also49 identify the diseases and epidemics which had played havoc with lives of people. The people who believed in superstition had regarded them as scourge of God. 3.8.4 ALCHEMY - CHEMISTRY The preservation of the Egyptian mummies aroused the interest of the Chemical scientists. It was a wonder for common man and also historians how the bodies of the rulers of Ancient Egypt (pharohs) lasted in good condition. Also the mystery of the holy relics of St. X’aviers gave the scientist an opportunity to explain the treatment. This added to historical knowledge. The Alchemy which was associated with black magic got higher degree of success which tured the study into a respectable science of Chemistry by European scientists. Wohler the German Scientist started a new era in Organic Chemistry and Louis Pasteur the French Scientist exploded the myth of spontaneous generation. His more famous and commonly known work was on wine, vinegar and beer preservation which led to the process known as ‘Pasteurization’. The 20th Century Chemistry-Scientist James Dewey Watson established that the structure and function of nucleic acid (DVD) is the key substance in the transmission of hereditary characteristics. The study of man and his activities which is the main object of study of history has a new means of understanding the contemporary public leaders and their genealogy. 3.8.5 ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY The computation, storage and utilization of data can be efficiently managed with the help of advanced technology of the present century. The carbon-14 method has solved the greatest impediment of dating the remains of the past age whether they are of human being, of animals or any solid substance like nocks et. Similarly satellite pictures of inaccessible territories, now invisible course of rivers or changes in their courses as in the case of now invisible ‘Saraswati over in the Punjab -Rajasthan- Gujarat region provide better under standing of the oral history. Computer, video-films and other devices have revolutionized historical knowledge about the long past as well as the present. Check your progres: Q.1, Elucidate the relations between history and natural sciences.50 (C) ANCILLARY DISCIPLINES : Ancillary Sciences are not independent science either as Social Sciences or Natural Sciences, They supplement the work of research They should be called ancillary disciplines. Chronology, Philology, Diplomatics, Sigilliography, and Numismatics, Archaeology and Epigraphy are some of the prominent disciplines which serve history in the work of research. Louis Gottschalk has treated them as auxiliary science (see understanding history pp 126- 131) but Prof Renier calls them ancillary disciplines (see History - Its purpose and Method PP 111-118) The important ancillary disciplines of history can be described as follow (1) CHRONOLOGY: Chronologyis one eye of history and of course another eye is geography. Historians must tell us the exact place and time of the event he is describing. There is very lttle difficulty about fixing the place (unless itis a mythological account with no mention of a particular place). The fixing of exact dates of past events especially those in the Ancient and Middle Ages is difficult. In Indian history we have to deal with several eras followed by main communities and regions in India. A few comparative calendars are as under. A.D. 1998-99 = Vikram Somwvat 2054-55; Shalivan Shak 1920-21, Hijri Sai 1418-19; Shivshahi - 324-325; Kaliyuga 6000. There are other calendars current in North and South India for religious rites etc. Thus when there is a reference to ancient dynasties the Gupta, Kalchuri, Chalukya etc. the year of their accession to the throne is considered for reckoning the year. The Mughals also referred to the year of accession to the throne. In Europe Julian Calendar started by Julius Caeser in 45 B.C. was current in the Roman Empire. Pope Gregory XIll issued an edict to take October, 5 of the Christian era 1582AD as October 15, 1582 Great Britain accepted this New Calender from 1752 by an Act of Parliament and Soviet Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution which occurred on October 28,1917 but according to the New style it is November 7,1917 Researchers in history have to face the problem of computing exact years of events. They have to bear in mind the different caloulations based on Lunar and Solar years. In the Hindu Calendar ephemeris or Panchangs can help to some extent but there is again the difference of beginning the Lunar month. In the North, they compute from the full moon in the South from the new moon. There are other variations. Which can be reconciled by experts or with the help of computer. (2) PHILOLOGY: Itis the study of Languages in their present state as well as in the past. It studies, the etymology or the origin of words, the proverbs and aphorisms and common phrases. It also deals with the51 derivation from various terms and the most authentic texts especially concerning classical literature, History is indebted to this discipline for providing a sure clue to the past experiences and activities of man. in fact historical method grew out, the philological studies. G. B. Vico claimed that history as an autonomous science mainly on the basis of Philology. The words used by the author and his style of narration fixes his identity in the reader's mind, Any interpolation by another person to the narrative would be easily detected. For example Rig Veda has in all ten chapters but philologists tell us that, the first and the last are later additions. Physical Sciences cannot tell us about such interpolations and additions. Philology provided a sure instrumentto determine the internal proof of the contents of the narrative. “The study of languages shows what kind of life a people was leading while its language was coming into existence. Their stock of words shows what their stock of ideas was before the new one came into existence “Vico had showed how new words used by later generations were borrowed from agricultural vocabulary. He also showed how mythology composed in the ancient languages reflected the domestic, political and economic life of the people of ancient Greece and Rome. In India the inscription of ancient and early Medieval Period provided much material for philological studies (3) DIPLOMATICS : Diplomatics is a systematic study of official documents. It has nothing to do with diplomatic relations between states. It studies forms of official documents. It critically examines the list of formulae used and studies the approximate period when modifications were made. Diplomatics helps historians to understand the correct meaning of the documents couched in the old language and style of the time. It helps to establish authenticity of the documents usually in manuscript the true information is not only valuable for historical knowledge but also for all social sciences that utilize for their respective research work (4) PALAEOGRAPHY : This is a study of ancient modes of handwriting. This is a specialized learning which is a part of Diplomatic. The rock edicts and rare manuscripts of the remote past are difficult to decipher. Palaeographists use their skill to give the correct meaning of such writings. As already pointed out above researchers have to alert in ascertaining the exact words and their meaning In the documents before them. (5) SIGILLIOGRAPHY AND NUMISMATICS : Sigiliography is the science of the writings or inscriptions, on the seal. The seals are of different kinds, shape and material. Some have impressions on clay, wax or bricks.