Chapter Nine

The Academic Debate

W ITHIN the realm of academia, the debate regarding the

legends of Lemuria and Atlantis should be clear: there is
no proof; therefore, it never existed. The advancements made
within scientific academia however tell a different story.
Archaeological discoveries allude to a new historical variation
that many are at a loss to explain. For example, if
archaeologists were investigating a site and discovered
something exceeding the historical records, in other words was
―too ridiculously old,‖ it would be put aside and forgotten. But
what if collectively, there is enough of the same anomalous
data that could shed light onto a different perspective? It
would be difficult to say for sure what becomes of these pieces
of evidence that do not make it into the records. Artifacts often
end up uncatalogued in the basement of a university‘s
collection, lost within piles of boxes.
Many believe that archaeological research in a specific
location takes place over a long period of time so that nothing
can be missed. This true in that archaeologists have all the
 The Academic Debate 169

time needed to conduct proper investigations given that the

investigations are taken place in a national park or other
restricted areas of land. Many times, archaeologists working in
the field work within various Cultural Resource Management
(or CRM) groups and do not have the luxury of time. The
purpose of CRM groups is to quickly research and investigate a
given location for a client, in order to collect anything of
historical importance. For instance, a private company is
planning to build a set of structures within a given set of acres
of land. Upon digging, some workers uncover skeletal remains
alongside pottery shards. The private company then puts a halt
on all further work in the area, resulting in a great loss of
money for the company, and hires a CRM group to investigate.
A team of archaeologists are called in to find anything
important, and are limited to a strict deadline, usually ranging
from two to four weeks. In many instances, the archaeologists
are working in front of a bulldozer if the deadlines are even
more limited. If skeletal remains are found, another set of
procedures must be adhered to because of the complexity of
NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and
Repatriation Act) laws. The team usually picks out a few
locations to dig and investigate, while avoiding the rest.
Because of time constraints, they have to limit their digs to a
few locations to see if anything is found. After the
investigation is complete, the bulldozers come in and destroy
what remains. This is not limited to private companies, but
governmental agencies also use similar tactics. If the state is
building or expanding on a freeway, again the same measures
are taken and anything that is not retrieved is destroyed.
When the archaeologists conduct their investigations
they usually work with an academic frame of mind. If they
know a group of indigenous lived within a given area during a
certain time period, they correspondingly dig within those
layers of the soil. I have heard several stories of archaeologists
finding more than they were looking for. I recall a private
 The Academic Debate 170

discussion with a university archaeology professor, telling me a

story from his past. He had been working within a CRM team
located in Nevada where they were called in to investigate an
area for possible Native American remains. The team would
dig until they hit a rock-hard layer of volcanic ash. According
to historical records, they knew that the volcano had erupted
before Native Americans inhabited the land. As a result, they
understood that nothing could exist prior to the time of the
ancient volcanic eruption. As their deadline was coming to an
end, one of the archaeologists decided to randomly start
breaking through the hard layers of volcanic rock. It was an
arduous task, but eventually he broke through the layer. What
he found amazed all the other archaeologists working nearby:
he had discovered the ruins of an ancient dwelling or
civilization where none was suppose to exist. By that time,
their deadline was up, and everything was covered and
abandoned.

DNA & Skeletal Analysis

Some of the most amazing discoveries are made by

ordinary people when least expected. Some of these findings
completely change the way we look at human history as we
know it. On July 28th, 1996, two men attempted to get a closer
look at a boat race on the Columbia River in Kennewick,
Washington. They noticed something unusual protruding from
the eroded river bank and quickly notified the authorities. At
first glance, archaeologist James Chatters assumed it was a
European settler who had died during the 1800‘s. Radiocarbon
tests determined that the body was over nine thousand years
old.1 The man had a projectile point embedded in his hip,
several months prior to his death. He had apparently died in
his mid 40‘s from an infection. What was very odd about the
individual was that he did not resemble modern day Native
Americans; in fact, the skeletal remains looked like that of a
 The Academic Debate 171

―Caucasian.‖ A media frenzy ensued, referring to the skeletal

remains as Kennewick Man. Various Native American tribes,
including the Nez, Perce, and Yakama tribes claimed relation
and ownership to the skeletal remains, abiding to NAGPRA
law. Federal hearings took place to determine which of the
five tribes claiming relations should be granted the remains.
The federal judge stated that further investigations over the
remains should take place before scientists could accurately
determine the tribal descendants.
The case of Kennewick Man marks the first time that
these ―Caucasian‖ remains were fully publicized; however, it
was not the first or nor last time ancient ―Caucasian‖ remains
have been found in the United States. In 1959, archaeologists
uncovered skeletal remains of a ―Caucasian‖ man dating back
over 10,000 BCE on Santa Rosa Island, off the coast of
California. There were clear indications of stone tools in the
area dating back between 12,500 and 29,700 BP (Before
Present). 2 Another case is that of Spirit Cave mummy found in
Nevada, in 1940, dating back 9,415 +/-25 years BP.3 Similar to
Kennewick Man, the tribal affiliation of the Spirit Cave
mummy could not be determined. An investigation by the
Nevada Bureau of Land Management to determine tribal
descendants concluded the following:

While it is difficult to associate ethnicity or language

with archaeological materials, the BLM‘s review of the
available evidence indicates sufficient discontinuity
such that it is unlikely that the tribes occupying the
Spirit Cave area in historic times are from same culture
as the people who buried their dead in Spirit Cave in
the early Holocene or that they are the direct
descendants of that group.

Therefore, BLM‘s review of the available evidence

indicates that the culture history of the western Great
 The Academic Debate 172

Basin shows a pattern of changes in cultural adaptations

that does not support cultural continuity over the last
10,000 years. The level of discontinuity is sufficient to
warrant the conclusion that the remains from Spirit
Cave cannot be reasonably affiliated with any modern
tribe or individual.4

The biological data concluded that ―there is no available

biological information which clearly supports cultural
continuity with contemporary North American Indians.‖5 The
evidence clearly shows that the mummy was not related to
modern day Native Americas. ―Analysis showed the Spirit
Cave cranium closest to ‗Norse‘ and ‗Ainu.‘ It should be noted
that the probability for Norse was 0.00084, with Ainu an even
lower probability… though they are distinctive from recent
American Indian samples, it is also clear that the recent
samples most closely resembling these two specimens are
Polynesians and Australians, both populations distinguished by
their relatively narrow faces, longer crania, and more
projecting faces.‖6 Other remains found in Nevada have raised
questions as to the tribal affiliation compared to modern day
Native Americans. Wizard‘s Beach Man has an 84.45%
craniofacial phenotype similar to modern day Native
Americans; it also has a 76% probability of being related to
typical Polynesians. The rest of the ancient skeletons found in
Nevada maintain 88.5% similarity to modern day Australasians
(from Australia and Melanesia).7 Similar findings are located
North and South America and even as far north as Alaska. 8
Likewise, some skeletal remains are said to be taller than
average, and some mummified remains are said to also possess
red hair.
The search for the oldest skeleton in the Americas still
continues. Interestingly enough, other claims presenting ―the
oldest‖ skeletons are also seen as ―Caucasian.‖ In December,
2004, in Mexico City, a skull dating back over 13,000 years
 The Academic Debate 173

ago was discovered and named ―Peñon Woman III.‖ It was the
oldest skull found in the Americas, and again, the similar
characteristics of the Ainu people were noticeable, bringing up
the theory that perhaps they traveled via the coast.9 In another
article by National Geographic from 2008, researchers
recovered other ―Caucasian-like‖ remains, this time underwater
in a cave off the coast of Yucatán Peninsula. The skeletal
remains were dubbed ―Eve of of Naharo,‖ and radiocarbon
dating estimated it to be 13,600 years old. Three other
skeletons found nearby have been radiocarbon dated as being
from between 11,000 to 14,000 years ago. Sea levels were 200
feet lower around the area at the time of their existence which
was once a wide open prairie. Dramatic melting of the polar
ice caps roughly 8,000 to 9,000 years ago caused the sea levels
to rise and flood the caves. Other interesting findings within
the caves show the existence of elephants and giant sloths.10
Anthropological testing best suggests relation to the
indigenous Ainu found in Japan. Historically, the Ainu can be
traced back to the Jōmon period in prehistoric Japanese history,
dating as far back as 14,000 BCE. The Ainu are not
―Caucasian,‖ but are tall, hairy, and light-skinned. Initially,
researchers thought that a group of people from northern Asia
migrated across the Bering Strait during the Ice Age in pursuit
of large animals. Researchers now hypothesize that waves of
migration occurred not only through the ice-free corridors but
also through coastal route migrations. As mentioned
previously, recent mitochondrial DNA researchers revealed
that 95% of all modern Native American populations can be
traced back to six women who lived approximately 18,000 to
21,000 years ago. And what made the results more interesting
was that the DNA evidence suggests they did not originate
from Asia as previously thought; their DNA signatures aren‘t
found in Asia. The DNA concludes that they lived in Beringia,
the now underwater land bridge that once existed between
Alaska and eastern Serbia. 11 12
 The Academic Debate 174

Various anthropologists believe that at one point in time

there might have been waves of migration alongside the coastal
regions of the Americas. The Coastal Migration Theory is
supported by evidence discovered around the Pacific, and the
technological and cultural similarities between the Western
Americas to those around the Pacific, spanning from Japan
down into Australia. Rare isolated pockets of unique mtDNA
have been found from North America to South America. The
mtDNA of the Chumash Native Americans, which are found in
southern California, can be found in isolated prehistoric
settlements in Alaska, Mexico, among the Mapuche in southern
Chile, and in sites found in Tierra del Fuego/Patagonia.13
Coincidentally, some of the aforementioned areas are where
the early Spanish encountered ―white Indians.‖ The level of
sophistication of the Chumash raises many ideas regarding
their origins. On the Channel Islands which where once
inhabited by the Chumash, rare species of flora found nowhere
else in the world exist there.14 A study of the some of the
islanders reveals skeletal similarities between European races,
similar to other rare Native American populations found
around California. 15 Following written accounts in the
Americas that make mention of a prehistoric, already existing
population of ―white people‖ in existence, the question then
arises; are these rare populations (such as the Chumash and
Mapuche) a part of those ―white people‖ previously
mentioned? Or did the original white predecessors assimilate
with the arrival of the Native Americans?
As previously mentioned, Yurok Native American
Lucy Thompson stated that there were originally white
predecessors occupying the continent who later mixed with the
incoming Native Americans populations.16 Later, the white
people ―left this land before the world was cover with water.‖17
And when they left, they left behind the people who were still
three-quarters Indian, which is why some of the Yurok are fair-
skinned.18 Does one simply ignore the ‗myths and lore‘
 The Academic Debate 175

presented by Thompson? Or does one investigate deeper to

reveal the parallels between the stories that have long since
been ignored and the actual evidence?
The study of Native American DNA reveals four main
haplogroups, those being A, B, C and D.19 Haplogroups are
genetic markers that determine the evolutionary pattern found
within the Y-Chromosome in mitochondrial DNA (or mtDNA
for short). There is a rare X-haplogroup among Native
American populations, which is also one of the ten haplogroups
found in Europe (at a rate of 3%) and nowhere in East Asia.20

Among Native Americans, haplogroup X appears to be

essentially restricted to northern Amerindian groups,
including the Ojibwa (~25%), the Nuu-Chah-Nulth
(11%–13%), the Sioux (15%), and the Yakima (5%),
although we also observed this haplogroup in the Na-
Dene–speaking Navajo (7%).21

The study shows the prehistoric nature of the skeletons being

tested, leaving out the possibility of post-Columbian European
mixing. The results of the study concluded that there was no
relation between the native Nuu-Chah-Nulth (near Vancouver
in Canada) who have haplogroup X, with any other Native
American populations who also have haplogroup X. In other
words, the study showed that there was no normal distribution
which would occur if migration took place. The study also
concluded that the haplogroup X found in Europe was in fact
one of the earliest found among the Americas.22 As the study
suggests, could it be that there was already a preexisting group
with haplogroup X and after several waves of migration, might
be able to account for the haplogroup found among various
tribes?
If migration from Europe is suspected, then there
should be evidence of migration from Europe through eastern
Asia and Siberia. However, the uniqueness found within
 The Academic Debate 176

various studies shows that haplogroup X only appears in

isolation among western Eurasians and Native Americans.23

These findings leave unanswered the question of the

geographic source of Native American X2a in the Old
World, although our analysis provides new clues about
the time of the arrival of haplogroup X in the Americas.
Indeed, if we assume that the two complete Native
American X sequences (from one Navajo and one
Ojibwa) began to diverge while their common ancestor
was already in the Americas, we obtain a coalescence
time of 18,000 +/- 6,800 YBP [Years Before Present],
implying an arrival time not later than 11,000 YBP.24

And yet another study shows that the evidence might actually
dismiss the idea of various waves of migration entering the
Americas (based on the genetic diversity found among Native
Americans). The study determined ―the migration of two
founding lineages.‖ Furthermore, the lack of a mutation found
among people with haplogroup X, show the resemblance
between Native American and European populations.25

Europeans assigned to haplogroup X lack a mutation at

np 16213 in the HVSI that all Native Americans
exhibit. However, the larger sample size of individuals
assigned to haplogroup X in the present study reveals
that a substantial number of Native Americans in
multiple geographic regions also lack the np 16213G
mutation and therefore have haplotypes identical to
those of European and Asian members of haplogroup
X.

The present study raises doubt about interpretations of

previously reported evidence for the number of
migrations to the Americas… Many researchers have
 The Academic Debate 177

interpreted similar estimates among at least four of the

five Native American haplogroups as evidence that all
haplogroups entered the Americas at the same time. 26

Reanalyzing the evidence may reveal an already pre-

existing ancient population inhabiting the Americas prior to the
arrival of Native Americans. Some research concludes that the
population with haplogroup X might have been among the first
wave of migration into the New World, but Native American
ethnographies dismiss that theory. Many Native American
populations believe that they originated from this land, being
born unto the earth at their present location. Other Native
American stories state that they ventured from a distant
homeland later entered into the Americas. It is still unclear,
genetically speaking, as to what might have actually taken
place. The mystery of haplogroup X is still among the most
controversial topics in the study of genetics. Implications of
those claims can perpetuate ideas of racism, Eurocentrism, and
false justifications over claims to land. In support of Native
American mythology regarding a pre-existing ancient
population, research shows that the original population with
haplogroup X occupied the Americas up to 36,000 years ago,
making them among the first people to inhabit the Americas: 27

Time estimates for the arrival of X in North America

are 12,000–36,000 years ago, depending on the number
of assumed founders, thus supporting the conclusion
that the peoples harboring haplogroup X were among
the original founders of Native American populations.28

…it is possible that this mtDNA was brought to

Beringia/America by the eastward migration of an
ancestral Caucasian population, of which no trace has
so far been found in the mtDNA gene pool of modern
Siberian/eastern Asian populations.29
 The Academic Debate 178

And in comparison to Native American stories, Lucy

Thompson stated the following:
After we left the beautiful valley of Cheek-cheek-alth,
for years we wandered down a European land, always
moving toward the south, having our origin in the far
north. Over this land we wandered having our origin in
the far north. Over this land we wandered like exiles,
we know not how long, as it might have been centuries
until we reached the rolling waves of the ocean. Upon
reaching this salt water we made boats or canoes, and
paddled over the waves until we reached the opposite
shore, having crossed the straits in safety. 30
When The Indians first made their appearance on the
Klamath River it was already inhabited by a white race
of people known among us as the Wa-gas. These white
people were found to inhabit the whole continent, and
were a highly moral and civilized race. [And] after a
time there were intermarriages between the two races,
but these were never promiscuous.31

Hypotheses

The Solutrean hypothesis speculates that early

Europeans may have once crossed the Atlantic Ocean, bringing
with them their technology. This accounts for the technology
that predates the Clovis people, who are thought to be the first
migrants into the New World. Dennis Stanford, an
anthropologist at the Smithsonian Institute, was among the first
to support this theory. The early migrations, in the Solutrean
hypothesis, suggest that early Europeans in the southwestern
area around France and Spain traveled in boats to the New
World during the ending of the last Ice Age. The unique
hypothesis is based on rare Solutrean projectile points found
predating the unique Clovis points. This evidence is also
 The Academic Debate 179

supported by the rarity of haplogroup X, as well as the skeletal

evidence found (e.g. Kennewick Man).32
There has since been an argument against the Solturean
hypothesis as found in an article entitled Ice Age Atlantis?
Exploring the Solutrean-Clovis „connection.‘ 33 The article
states that researchers Dennis Stanford, along with Bruce
Bradley, jump to many conclusions, making false claims with
‗imaginative evidence‘ to support their arguments. Bradley
and Stanford later wrote a rebuttal against the article stating
that the researchers were unfounded in their arguments and
wrong in their interpretations. The evidence argued on both
sides is very detailed and scientific. But the final word on the
issue was made by Bradley and Stanford:

The bottom line is that our technological analyses

distinguish two strong clusters, nonbifacial Solutrean
Upper Palaeolithic/Beringian (including Alaska) and
Solutrean/pre-Clovis/fluted point. This is certainly not
conclusive evidence of a connection between Solutrean
and pre-Clovis/Clovis, but it does clearly indicate that
there are strong similarities, which is not the case with
Beringian and pre-Clovis/Clovis. What it comes down
to is that all technologies present in pre-Clovis/Clovis
are found in Solutrean (except fluting) while most but
not all Solutrean technologies are represented in pre-
Clovis/Clovis. The same cannot be said for the
Siberian/Beringian materials. We ask again: would we
have any doubt of the origin of pre-Clovis/Clovis if
Solutrean technologies were found in Beringia at the
LGM [Last Glacial Maximum]?34

The various hypotheses given by scholars allude to a

pre-conceived notion as the main motivation behind their
research. Perhaps, a paradigm shift needs to occur before
future analysis can be considered. Many researchers once
 The Academic Debate 180

believed that the oceans were the true borders of the world,
preventing people from moving across them. In recent times,
however, the scientific community has accepted many
proposed theories regarding the movement of sea-ferrying
people. Throughout Polynesia and the Norwegian seas, the
evidence created a paradigm shift. Though it was a gradual
process of filtering through the false assumptions and pre-
conceived beliefs that people once maintained. As today we
have new ideas speculating pre-Columbian trans-oceanic
contact, a favorite among many pseudoscience proponents, the
ideas must invariably be forced to be examined under a
different light. Though evidence does support the colonization
of the Norse in North America, there is no other evidence to
support the idea of other Europeans making their way across
the Atlantic Ocean. The Polynesian debate regarding the early
establishments in the Americas, on the other hand, is finding
more and more support through analysis of various coastal
populations (e.g. the Chumash in particular). Proponents of
early Polynesian navigators are along the lines of early Coastal
Migration theories, and so indeed, it may soon be an
established fact. The Mesa Verde site in Chile was the leading
reason why previous Clovis-first theories were disproved;
however, a new academic paper might prove the theory to be
true.
The main argument against the Solturean hypothesis is
new research based on mtDNA. Results show that there was in
fact one single pre-Clovis migration with a coastal route
(including haplogroup X). ―Our results strongly support the
hypothesis that haplogroup X, together with the other four
main mtDNA haplogroups, was part of the gene pool of a
single Native American founding population; therefore they do
not support models that propose haplogroup-independent
migrations, such as the migration from Europe, posed by the
Solutrean hypothesis.‖35 The original pre-Clovis people came
 The Academic Debate 181

over Beringia and expanded along the Pacific coastline. The

results of the research showed the following:

Under our model, three periods that may define a date

for the peopling of the Americas can be delineated: (1)
the colonization of Beringia (because about half of it
was ‗‗America‘‘ at that time) by the founding
population; (2) the movement out of Beringia—
characterized by the fast colonization of the continental
Pacific coastal plain—south of the ice sheets; and (3)
the more recent and more extensive colonization of
inland continental masses. Furthermore, the probability
of coalescence of mtDNA lineages within a population
and the chance of finding ancient archeological
evidence go in opposite directions.36

In this 2008 study, the evidence shows the existence of

a wave of migration into the New World. As with any other
evidence, it may quickly be disputed and bring into light yet
another theory. And so, the hunt for evidence supporting Pre-
Siberian human migrations still continues. Some
archaeologists proclaim that researchers are just pushing the
migration of the Clovis people further and further back to
account for much of the evidence. And the topic itself will
remain a much heated debate on both sides, accounting for
both evidence and the lack of evidence. The mystery of
haplogroup X as well, is still not at an end, in due time
certainly new evidence will emerge shedding new perspectives.

Case for the White Indians

Investigations reveal many accounts of ―white Indians‖

in existence throughout the Americas. Scholars have translated
original documents according to their own pre-conceived
notions: ―white‖ has often been translated as ―lighter-skinned,‖
 The Academic Debate 182

in many cases. The justification for doing so is that the

Spaniards were ignorant, regarding their views on other people.
Everything not black, through their eyes, was considered white,
which was incorrect. Regardless, there might have been
several instances where white was substituted for lighter-
skinned; however, in most of the cases, they were accurately
portraying their encounters. Some descriptions mention these
white Indians as having beards, while in other descriptions the
indigenous state that the other tribes of whites were as white as
the Spanish.
Documented accounts of white indigenous in the
Americas have been researched as far recently as the 1920‘s,
but most of the cases have proven false. Several academic
news outlets published the ongoing research, including Science
News-Letter, later known as Science News. There was a large
amount of scientific controversy at the time regarding white
Indians found in Darien jungles of Panama, originally
discovered by an expedition led by Richard O. Marsh. At first
they believed that they might have been a mixed race (between
indigenous and European), and later they presumed that they
might be a new race. Their skin was described as being similar
to that of the northern white Europeans with a rosy tint, while
their hair was described as golden.37 Early investigations
provided descriptive examples: ―These children have golden
hair, hazel or hazel-blue eyes and pink gums.‖38
After the publications became known, various research
scientists took interest of the white Indians of Panama. A team
of scientists decided to further investigate including Dr. Ales
Hrdlicka, anthropologist of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr.
Charles B. Davenport of the Station for Experimental
Evolution, and Dr. C. W. Stiles of the U. S. Public Health
Service. Further investigations revealed that the earliest
sighting of these natives could be traced back to 1679 to
Alexandre Exquemelin, a buccaneer for both English and
French ships. Exquemelin landed on the islands of Zambles,
 The Academic Debate 183

located west of the River Darien, where he notes that several of

the Indians were ‗fairer than the fairest of Europe‘ with ―hair as
light as flax.‖39 After several investigations, anthropologists
believed that they may in fact be a new white race, while other
anthropologists believed that they were albinos. Later,
scientific research established that in fact it was albinism that
existed at a very high rate among the Kuna tribe from Panama,
a result of inbreeding. However, the Albino children are seen
as Moon Children, high leaders among the community.40
Investigations regarding the so-called ―white‖ Native
Americans mentioned so frequently before are non-existent
today. If tribes of ―white‖ indigenous do exist, they will most
likely exist in the unknown regions of the Amazon. After the
colonization of the New World, disease and war ran rampant
and decimated a majority of the indigenous populations.
Though some of the predominant genes are attributed to
―Caucasian-like‖ features that once existed, such as with the
case of Kennewick man, phenotypically are no longer
predominant, yet alone existent. That is why it is difficult to
determine the descendants of these ancient remains. I remain
skeptical that any of the ‗white Indians‘ had survived the
conquering of various regions by the incoming Europeans. The
‗white Indians‘ lived after the attacks of so many indigenous
tribes and prior civilizations. Even if the mysterious ‗white
Indians‘ survived all the brutality that took place, they would
not be any match for the Europeans. The relocation of tribes,
along with the various factors of assimilation and warfare,
constituted a great genocide in the Americas, leaving no room
for cultural preservation.
 The Academic Debate 184

1
Swedlund, Alan & Anderson, Duane Gordon Creek Woman Meets
Kennewick Man: New Interpretations and Protocols Regarding the
Peopling of the Americas. American Antiquity. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Oct., 1999),
pp. 569-576
2
Orr, Phil C. Arlington Springs Man. Science Magazine. New Series, Vol.
135, No. 3499 (Jan., 1962), p. 219
3
Barker, Pat Ph.D., Ellis, Cynthia M.A., and Damadio, Stephanie Ph.D.
July 2006. Determination of Cultural Affiliation of Ancient Human remains
from Spirit Cave, Nevada Bureau of Land Management Report Summary
(Nevada State Office), p. 1
4
Ibid., p. 6
5
Ibid., p. 7
6
Barker, Pat Ph.D., Ellis, Cynthia M.A., and Damadio, Stephanie Ph.D.
July 2006. Determination of Cultural Affiliation of Ancient Human remains
from Spirit Cave, Nevada Bureau of Land Management Full Report
(Nevada State Office), p. 39
7
Powell, Joseph Frederick The first Americans: race, evolution, and the
origin of Native Americans, p. 200
8
List of similar skeletons found in North America: Kennewick Man ~9,500
BP (Washington), Prospect Man ~6,800 BP(Oregon), Arlington Springs
Man ~10,000 to 13,000 BP (California), Anzick Burials ~10,800 BP
(Montana), Buhl Woman ~10,800 BP (Idaho), Spirit Cave Man~9,400 BP
(Nevada), Wizard Beach Man ~9,200 to 9,500 BP (Nevada), Grimes Point
Burial Shelter ~9,740 BP (Nevada), Whitewater Draw ~8,000 to 10,000 BP
(Arizona), Wilson-Leonard ~ 9,000 to 11,000 BP (Texas), Pelican Rapids
Woman ~7,800 BP (Minnesota), Browns Valley Man ~8,900 BP
(Minnesota) , Hour Glass Cave ~7,700 to 7,900 BP (Colorado), Nebraska
Remains, Gordon Creek ~9,7000 BP (Colorado), and Horn Shelter ~9,600
BP (Texas); taken from the organization ‗Friends of America‘s Past‘
website page, ―Evidence of the Past: A Map and Status of Ancient
Remains‖ <http://www.friendsofpast.org/earliest-americans/map.html>
9
Legon, Jeordan Scientist: Oldest American skull found CNN.com News
10
Barclay, Eliza Oldest Skeleton in Americas Found in Underwater Cave?
National Geographic News September 3, 2008
11
Ritter, Malcolm Native American DNA Links to Six “Founding Mothers”
National Geographic News Associated Press March 13, 2008
12
Achilli, A.; et al. The Phylogeny of the Four Pan-American MtDNA
Haplogroups: Implications for Evolutionary and Disease Studies PLoS
One. 2008 Mar 12;3(3):e1764. ―The phylogenies of haplogroups A2, B2,
C1, and D1 reveal a large number of sub-haplogroups but suggest that the
 The Academic Debate 185

ancestral Beringian population(s) contributed only six (successful) founder

haplotypes to these haplogroups. The derived clades are overall starlike
with coalescence times ranging from 18,000 to 21,000 years.‖ This study
does not in any way imply that all Native Americans populations can be
traced back to only six women; rather, a majority of Native American
populations, genetically speaking, may be associated to a founding
population. The main criticisms for this study maintain that it does not
account for Haplogroup X, and uses a very small sample size to account for
a whole population.
13
Raab, L. Mark, Cassidy, Jim, and Yatsko, Andrew California Maritime
Archaeology: A San Clemente Island Perspective, pp. 237-8
14
Faber, Phyllis M. California's Wild Gardens: A Guide to Favorite
Botanical Sites, p. 152
15
Heizer, R.F. and Whipple, M.A. The California Indians, pp. 100-1
16
Thompson, Lucy To the American Indian: Reminiscences of a Yurok
Woman, p. 81
17
Ibid., p. 182
18
Ibid., p. 84
19
Smith DG, Malhi RS, Eshleman J, Lorenz JG, Kaestle FA. Distribution
of mtDNA haplogroup X among Native North Americans American Journal
of Physical Anthropology Volume 110 Issue 3, pp. 271 - 284
20
Ibid.
21
Brown MD, Hosseini SH, Torroni A, Bandelt HJ, Allen JC, Schurr TG,
Scozzari R, Cruciani F, Wallace DC mtDNA Haplogroup X An Ancient Link
between EuropeWestern Asia and North America? American Journal of
Human Genetics 1998 Dec;63(6):1852-61
22
Smith DG, Malhi RS, Eshleman J, Lorenz JG, Kaestle FA. Distribution
of mtDNA haplogroup X among Native North Americans American Journal
of Physical Anthropology Volume 110 Issue 3, pp. 271 - 284
23
Reidla, Maere; et al. Origin and Diffusion of mtDNA Haplogroup X
American Journal of Human Genetics 2003 November; 73(5): 1178–1190.
24
Ibid.
25
Malhi, RS; et al. The Structure of Diversity within New World
Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North
America American Journal of Human Genetics 2002 Apr;70 (4):905-19.
26
Ibid.
27
Smith DG, Malhi RS, Eshleman J, Lorenz JG, Kaestle FA. Distribution
of mtDNA haplogroup X among Native North Americans American Journal
of Physical Anthropology Volume 110 Issue 3, pp. 271 - 284
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid.
 The Academic Debate 186

30
Thompson, Lucy To the American Indian: Reminiscences of a Yurok
Woman, p. 76
31
Ibid., p.81
32
Oppenheimer, Stephen The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of
Africa, pp. 317-8
33
Straus, Lawrence Guy, Meltzer, David, Goebel, Ted. Ice Age Atlantis?
Exploring the Solutrean-Clovis „connection‟ World Archaeology, Volume
37, Number 4, December 2005 , pp. 507-532(26)
34
Bradley, Bruce and Stanford, Dennis The Solutrean-Clovis connection:
reply to Straus, Meltzer and Goebel World Archaeology, Volume 38, Issue
4 December 2006 , pp. 704 - 714
35
Fagundes, Nelson J. R.; et al. Mitochondrial Population Genomics
Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling
of the Americas The American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 82,
Issue 3, 583-592, 28 February 2008
36
Ibid.
37
Shrubsall, F. C., Haddon, A. C. and Buxton, L. H. Dudley The "White
Indians" of Panama
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Man, Vol. 24,
(Nov., 1924), pp. 162-164
38
H. L. Fairchild White Indians of Darien Science, New Series, Vol. 60,
No. 1550, (Sep. 12, 1924), pp. 235-237
39
White Indians Seen in Panama in 1679 The Science News-Letter, Vol. 9,
No. 274, (Jul. 10, 1926), pp. 9
40
Louis, Regis St. and Doggett, Scott Panama, p. 273