S-290 Unit 5: Temperature and Relative

Humidity
Relationships
Produced by The COMET® Program

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Introduction
Temperature
Changes
Effects on Fuels
Atmospheric Moisture
Moisture Terms
Dry Bulb
Wet Bulb
Dewpoint
Relative Humidity
Review Questions
Temperature and Humidity Relationships
Diurnal Relationships
Temperature Changes
Dewpoint Changes
Calculating Relative Humidity
Psychrometric Table Tutorial
Exercises
Local Effects
Topography
Elevation
Vegetation
Cloud Cover
Wind
Other Effects of Wind
Air Masses
Classification
Effects on Fire Activity
Summary
Contributors

Introduction

This module explains how temperature and relative humidity are related as part of the Intermediate Wildland Fire
Behavior
course.

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:

Describe the relationship between dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, dewpoint
temperature, and relative
humidity.
Describe typical day and night (diurnal) variations in air temperature and relative
humidity.
Determine relative humidity, dewpoint, and wet bulb temperatures using a psychrometric
table.
 Describe the effects of topography, vegetation, clouds, and wind on air temperature and
relative humidity.
Describe the temperature and relative humidity characteristics of continental and
maritime air masses.

Temperature

Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance.

The primary driver of the Earth’s temperature is solar radiation.

On a smaller, more local scale, heat from a large fire can affect the temperature by warming
the atmosphere around the fire.

Air temperature is generally measured using a ‘dry-bulb’ thermometer calibrated to either the
Fahrenheit or Celsius/centigrade
scale. In this course, temperature will be given in degrees
Fahrenheit.

Temperature can vary with time, horizontal distance, aspect and elevation. Variations of
temperature over time can be caused by
changes in seasons, diurnal, or (day-to-night)
changes and weather systems moving through an area.

Dry bulb temperature represents the air temperature

Changes

The magnitude of seasonal and diurnal temperature changes can be large or small, depending
on:

Latitude
Elevation
Topography
Proximity to the moderating influences of nearby oceans or large lakes.
 Mean Daily Temperature Range

The example shown displays the Annual Mean Daily Temperature Range, or the diurnal range.
There is a general decrease in
diurnal temperature range as you move toward higher
latitudes. The range increases at higher elevations, and the moderating
effect of large
bodies of water is seen along the coasts of the oceans and the Great Lakes.

Download Video

Weather chart illustrates positions of contrasting air masses separated by fronts.

Abrupt changes in temperature can occur as weather systems bring colder or warmer air into a
region. Fronts, indicated by the
red and blue symbols on a weather chart, separate air
masses of different characteristics. An approaching front can cause big
changes in fire
behavior, and should alert you to potentially dangerous conditions.
Effects on Fuels

In the wildland fire environment, high temperatures and direct sunlight can preheat fuels and
bring them closer to their ignition
point. In contrast, lower temperatures have the opposite
effect.

Direct sun and high temperatures preheat fuels

Firefighters must monitor temperatures and especially temperature trends to evaluate the
potential effects on fuels.

Atmospheric Moisture

Water vapor in the atmosphere stores an immense amount of energy in the form of heat. This
energy can be released during
phase changes such as the conversion of vapor to liquid during
condensation, and the conversion of liquid to ice during freezing.
The warmer air created
when heat is released by these processes can contribute to convection, or stronger upward
motion in the
atmosphere.

Download Video

Total precipitable water shows the amount of water vapor in the air.
Moisture in the atmosphere is continually changing its physical state by:

Condensing into liquid

Freezing into ice
Melting into liquid
Evaporating into vapor
Condensing back to liquid

Download Video

Water is continually transforming into different physical states or phases.

All of these changes are related to temperature and involve an exchange of heat. Evaporation
and melting require heat, and that
heat is taken from the atmosphere, causing it to cool.
That same amount of heat is released to the atmosphere when the
opposite changes occur,
meaning condensation and freezing.

Southern California Fires in 2007 grew and spread under conditions of high temperatures
and low relative humidities.
The amount of moisture in the atmosphere affects whether fuel moisture increases or
decreases.

Relative humidity is used in fire weather to describe moisture conditions in the atmosphere
because of how it affects fuel
moisture. This term expresses how near the air is to
saturation. Lower relative humidity conditions allow fine fuels to dry more
quickly, or if
they are already dry, to remain so. Higher relative humidity conditions inhibit fine fuel
drying or moisten fuels. Drier
fuels burn more readily, whereas fuels that become too moist
will not carry fire as well.

Temperature and relative humidity conditions can act together to help promote large fire
growth. High temperatures can preheat
fuels and low relative humidity conditions can dry
fuels to increase the probability of ignition and support fire spread.

Fuels in the southeastern United States burn despite fog and 90% RH levels.

Relative humidity thresholds for critical fire behavior will vary from one part of the
country to the next and from one fuel type to
the next.

Moisture Terms

Mouse over each element to see its definition.

In this course, wet bulb temperature, dewpoint temperature, and relative humidity will be
used to describe atmospheric moisture.
These terms are examined in great detail because each
represents a different measurement of the amount of moisture in the air.
Terms used to describe atmospheric moisture

Dry Bulb - The degree of hotness or coldness of the

air.

Wet Bulb - The lowest temperature to which the air can be

cooled by evaporation.

Dewpoint - The temperature to which air must be cooled to

reach saturation without
adding water vapor. Also, the temperature
at which dew forms.

Relative Humidity - The ratio of the amount of moisture (water

vapor) in the air, to
the maximum amount of moisture that air
could contain if it were saturated.

Dry Bulb

The dry bulb temperature describes the air temperature measured by a dry
bulb thermometer. Temperature is defined as the
degree of hotness or coldness of a
substance.
 Terms used to describe atmospheric moisture

Wet Bulb

The wet bulb temperature is defined as the lowest temperature to which the
air can be cooled by evaporation. This is the same
type of cooling you feel when you come
out of a swimming pool as heat from your skin is used to evaporate water off of it.

Download Video

The wet bulb temperature lowers as air flows over the water-soaked wick.

The wet bulb temperature is read from a thermometer that has a water-soaked wick covering the
bulb. As air flows over the wick,
it cools as water evaporates from it. The amount of
moisture in the air surrounding the wick affects the amount of cooling the
thermometer
measures.
The drier the air, the more evaporative cooling can take place, resulting in a lower wet bulb
temperature, and therefore a greater
difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures.

We can measure the dry bulb and the wet bulb at the same time using a psychrometer. This
instrument has both the wet bulb
thermometer and dry bulb thermometer mounted together.

Dewpoint

The dewpoint is the temperature to which air must be cooled to reach saturation without
adding water vapor. Condensation is
observed when the air becomes saturated. For instance,
water drops form on a glass of ice water as the air surrounding the
glass is cooled to the
dewpoint.

Terms used to describe atmospheric moisture

Dewpoint is one of the most reliable methods for measuring the amount of atmospheric
moisture.

Unlike relative humidity, dewpoint does not change as the dry bulb temperature changes
unless the amount of moisture
in the air increases or decreases.

The dewpoint temperature can be found on a psychrometric chart using the dry and wet bulb
temperatures. This chart will be
introduced later in this module.

Do not confuse the wet bulb and dewpoint temperatures. Remember that the wet bulb temperature
is found by evaporating
moisture from the wet wick around the thermometer. It will always be
warmer than the dewpoint temperature when the relative
humidity is less than 100%, and the
same as the dewpoint for a relative humidity of 100%.

Relative Humidity

Relative humidity is the percent of water vapor, in the air, compared to what would be
present if it were saturated. For example, a
relative humidity value of 45% means the air
has 45% of water vapor it would have when saturated. In other words, relative
humidity
expresses how close you are to saturation, similar to a gas gauge in a car. The gauge does
not tell you how many
gallons of gas are in the tank; just how close or far it is from being
full.
Like dewpoint, relative humidity can also be found on psychrometric charts using the dry and
wet bulb temperatures.

Relative humidity is always expressed as a percentage, and a value of 100% means the air is
saturated.

Review Questions

Question 1

In humid, but unsaturated air, which temperature will be the highest? Choose the
best answer.

a) Dry Bulb
Temperature
b) Wet Bulb
Temperature
c) Dewpoint
Temperature

The correct answer is a.

As long as the air is unsaturated, meaning the relative

humidity is below 100%, the dry bulb temperature will be higher than the
wet
bulb temperature and the dewpoint.

Question 2

When the relative humidity equals 100%, the air is saturated, and which of the
following are equal? Choose all that apply.

a) Dry Bulb
Temperature
b) Wet Bulb
Temperature
c) Dewpoint
Temperature

The correct answers are a, b, and c.

When the air is saturated, it has the maximum amount of

moisture possible. Therefore, the dewpoint and the dry bulb, or air
temperature,
are equal. If you measured the wet bulb temperature under these conditions, it
would also be equal to the dry bulb
temperature because the air is saturated.

Question 3
Can the dewpoint be higher than the dry bulb temperature? Choose the
best answer.

a) Yes
b) No

The correct answer is b, No.

Once the dry bulb temperature has cooled to the dewpoint

temperature, saturation is reached. The only way for the temperature
to continue
to decrease, is for the dewpoint temperature to decrease, which can occur if
moisture is taken out of the air through
precipitation or dew, or if drier air
moves into the area, or mixes down to the surface from higher in the atmosphere.

Question 4

In which situation is there more moisture in the air? Choose the

best answer.

a) Dewpoint of 20°F
b) Dewpoint of
65°F

The correct answer is b.

Dewpoint is one of the best measurements of the amount of

moisture in the air. The higher the dewpoint, the more water vapor is
in the
air. So, the correct answer is dewpoint of 65°F.

Question 5

Why is relative humidity as a measure of moisture in the atmosphere of particular

interest in fire weather? Choose all that apply.

a) Relative humidity
tells us how close the air is to saturation.
b) The amount of
moisture that fuels can absorb from or release to the air depends
largely on relative humidity.
c) Firefighters can
usually feel small changes in relative humidity.

The correct answers are a and b.

Relative humidity tells us how close the air is to

saturation, which has a direct effect on fuels. Light fuels, such as grass, gain
and
lose moisture quickly with changes in relative humidity. Heavy fuels respond
to humidity changes much more slowly.

Changes in fuel moistures affect a fire’s level of activity.

Regular monitoring of relative humidity throughout the day helps firefighters

judge likely trends in fire activity and assess the
chances for dangerous fire
behavior.

Question 6

Relative humidity thresholds for extreme fire behavior vary over time and space and
are different for different fuel types. Choose
the best answer.

a) True
b) False

The correct answer is a, True.

Critical thresholds are determined by location based both on

typical conditions and fuel types for the area. For example, fuels in
the
southeast part of the United States typically burn at considerably higher
relative humidity conditions than fuels in the western
U.S.

Temperature and Humidity Relationships

The previous section covered atmospheric moisture and the different ways to measure it,
including wet bulb temperature,
dewpoint, and relative humidity.

This section focuses on how temperature, dewpoint, and relative humidity are related.
Let’s start by looking at a situation where the amount of moisture in the air does not change
over time, meaning the dewpoint
temperature remains constant.

Download Video

The blue spheres represent water vapor molecules in three samples of air with the same
dewpoint but different temperatures. Note the
decrease in relative humidity as the
temperature increases. The speed of the molecules in the samples increases as the
temperature
increases.

This situation allows us to isolate the relationship between temperature and relative
humidity. For the same dewpoint:

If temperature increases, relative humidity decreases.

If temperature decreases, relative humidity increases.

A more general statement is that temperature and relative humidity have an inverse
relationship for a given dewpoint.

As temperature increases, the amount of water vapor in the air required to reach saturation,
or 100% relative humidity, also
increases. Remember that when the relative humidity reaches
100%, the temperature and dewpoint are equal.

Question 1

You are working a fire on a warm afternoon, when the temperature is 85°F, and the
dewpoint is 45°F, resulting in an RH of 25%.
As the sun goes down, the temperature
drops to 65°F while the dewpoint remains the same. What would you expect to happen
to the relative humidity? Choose the best answer.

a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remain the
same

The correct answer is a.

Because temperature and relative humidity have an inverse
relationship, a decrease in temperature will result in an increase in
relative
humidity. In this case, the relative humidity would increase to 48% when the
temperature drops to 65 °F. Relative
humidity has a direct effect on fuel
moisture, with an increase in relative humidity resulting in less active fire
behavior. You have
probably observed that greater progress in controlling a fire
is often made overnight when temperatures are cooler and relative
humidity is
higher.

Keep in mind that if the dewpoint were also to increase, the increase in relative
humidity would be even greater.

Question 2

Later that same night, the temperature has continued to cool from 65 to 45°F, while
the dewpoint has remained constant. What
has happened to the relative humidity?
Choose the best answer.

a) Continued to
increase
b) Began to
decrease
c) Remained the
same

The correct answer is a.

During the night, the temperature has cooled, and the

relative humidity has continued to increase. In fact, cooling continued until
the temperature reached the dewpoint temperature. At this point, the air became
saturated and the relative humidity increased to
100%.

Diurnal Relationships

Diurnal relationships between temperature and relative humidity can be observed on a

hygrothermograph, which shows a trace
of temperature and humidity values measured over a
period of time.

Hygrothermograph trace of temperature and relative humidity over a 24-hr period

As the temperature increases after sunrise, the relative humidity decreases, reaching its
lowest point when the maximum
temperature is realized, assuming the dewpoint has not
changed.

The relative humidity normally reaches its highest value early in the morning when the
temperature cools to its minimum. This
assumes the dewpoint has not changed overnight.

In this example, the direct correlation between temperature and relative humidity can be
observed because the dewpoint
remained relatively constant. In general, the diurnal change
in temperature is more pronounced than changes in dewpoint.

Temperature Changes

A sudden weather change, such as an increase in cloud cover, development of thunderstorm

outflow, passage of a cold front, or
a downslope wind event, can result in abrupt changes in
temperature and dewpoint, and therefore, relative humidity.

Thunderstorm outflow can increase relative humidity by adding moisture and cooling the
air

Question

Review the following table that shows the dry bulb, dewpoint and resulting relative
humidity. Notice that the dewpoint does not
change, but the dry bulb temperature
does. Which of the following statements are true? Choose all that
apply.

a) Each 20°F
increase in air temperature, decreases the relative humidity by about
half.
b) The total amount
of moisture in the air has not changed.
c) The relative
humidity steadily increases and the temperature warms.
d) When the dry bulb
and dewpoint are equal, the relative humidity is 100%.
e) When the
temperature reaches 90°F, the air is critically dry.

The correct answers are a, b, and d.

This example shows that in general, for a constant dewpoint, each 20°F increase
in air temperature decreases the relative
humidity by about half. Also, since
the dewpoint does not change, the amount of moisture in the air does not change,
although
the relative humidity does, resulting in changes in fuel moisture.
When the dry bulb temperature cools to the dewpoint, the relative humidity
reaches 100% and the air is considered saturated.

Critical values of relative humidity are defined for each location. A value of
25% may be a critical value for Florida, but not
California. You should be
familiar with the critical values for your location.

Dewpoint Changes

In reality, dewpoint temperatures often fluctuate. Fluctuations in dewpoint may be a result

of several factors.

Question

What is the resulting dewpoint due to the following? Chose whether you would expect
an increase or a decrease in dewpoint.

a) The passing of showers

and thunderstorms.  
--
Increased
Dewpoint
b) A breakup or dissipation
of an inversion.  
--
Decreased
Dewpoint
c) Wind flow off a body of
water, such as a lake or ocean.  
--
Increased
Dewpoint
d) Solar heating resulting in
strong vertical mixing of the lower atmosphere.  
--
Decreased
Dewpoint
e) Evaporation of surface
water or the melting of snow and ice.  
--
Increased
Dewpoint

Mechanisms that increase the amount of moisture in the air,

such as showers moving over the area, or wind moving over a lake
or ocean, or
evaporation into the air, will cause the dewpoint to rise.

Showers can increase moisture in the lower portions of the atmosphere.

Wind moving over a lake or ocean can collect moisture through evaporation
from the surface.
 Evaporation from the surface causes the dewpoint to rise.

Mixing associated with the erosion of an inversion can greatly increase fire
behavior.

Conversely, mixing of drier air higher in the atmosphere to the surface due to
solar heating or the breakup of an inversion will
cause the dewpoint to
decrease.

A sharp rise and/or fall in dewpoint may also indicate that a more significant change in
weather is occurring. A common and
dangerous situation along the California Coastal Range
occurs when very dry air from high levels in the atmosphere descends
as offshore flow
develops on the Coastal Range AT NIGHT. A drop in relative humidity from typical overnight
values of 70% to
values in the teens has occurred many times along the ridgetops after
midnight. This type of event once resulted in 50 shelter
deployments along the California
Coastal Range and has been documented on many other California Coastal Range fires.

Remember that relative humidity is affected by both changes in the dewpoint, or the amount of
atmospheric moisture and the dry
bulb temperature.

When looking at each influence separately:

A rise in dewpoint indicates that atmospheric moisture is increasing and the relative
humidity could increase.
A steady fall in dewpoint indicates that atmospheric moisture is decreasing and the
relative humidity could decrease.
A rise in temperature would result in a fall in relative humidity.
A fall in temperature would result in a rise in relative humidity.

However, both temperature and dewpoint can fluctuate, so be aware of the combined effects on
the resulting relative humidity.

Calculating Relative Humidity

In this section, measurements of dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are used to determine
relative humidity with a
psychrometric table.
 Psychrometric table related dry bulb, wet bulb, dewpoint, and relative humidity

A sling psychrometer is a reliable and accurate instrument used to measure dry bulb and wet
bulb temperatures. The
psychrometer is spun to allow air to flow over the bulbs of the
thermometers. The temperatures obtained by ventilating both
bulbs at the same time provide
the most valid comparison.
 A sling psychrometer consists of wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers mounted together and
attached to a leash that is used to spin the
psychrometer.

After the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are determined, a psychrometric table is used to
find the corresponding dewpoint
temperature and relative humidity for the measured
conditions.

Psychrometric Table Tutorial

Psychrometric tables are provided in belt weather kits. You must use the chart for the
elevation at which you are taking the
observation because relative humidity and dewpoint
change with atmospheric pressure, which varies with elevation.
 Psychrometric table related dry bulb, wet bulb, dewpoint, and relative humidity.

The numbers located on the top row of the psychrometric table are the wet bulb
temperatures.
The numbers located in the far left column of the table are the dry bulb temperatures.
The dewpoint temperatures and relative humidity values are read by finding the
intersection of the wet bulb temperature
column and the dry bulb temperature row that
correspond to the measured values.
Within each box, the dewpoint is the top number and relative humidity is the bottom
number.

Exercises

Use the psychrometric table below to answer Question 1.

Question 1

While working the Cascade Complex in Idaho overnight in August 2007, you take a
measurement with a sling psychrometer
along an 8000 ft ridgeline. You find a dry
bulb temperature of 45°F and a wet bulb temperature of 39°F. What are the dewpoint
and relative humidity?

Correct answers: Dewpoint=33°F, Relative Humidity=62%

Use the psychrometric table below to answer Question 2.

Question 2

The next day, near noon, you take another observation from the same location. While
the dewpoint only slightly increased to
34°F, the temperature has warmed to 65°F.
What is the current relative humidity?

Correct answer: Relative Humidity=31%. From the table,

matching the 65°F air temperature with the 34°F dewpoint temperature
indicates a
relative humidity of 31%. Note that the temperature increased by 20°F with only
a slight increase in dewpoint, and the
relative humidity dropped by half.

Use the psychrometric table below to answer Questions 3 and 4.

Question 3

Later in the afternoon, winds pick up and become gusty, and dry air mixes down from
higher levels of the atmosphere. You take
another observation from the same location
and find that the wet bulb temperature is 54°F while afternoon heating has brought
the dry bulb temperature to 86°F. What has happened to the relative humidity?

Correct answer: Relative Humidity=12%. Note that the dry air

that mixed down lowered the dewpoint from 34°F to 24°F, but the
wet bulb
temperature actually increased from 48°F to 54°F because of the increase in
temperature.

Question 4

At a higher elevation (8500 ft), the temperature is slightly lower at 80°F and the
wet bulb now reads 52°F. How would this affect
the relative humidity? Choose the
best answer.

a) The RH would be
slightly higher
b) The RH would be
slightly lower

The correct answer is a.

The relative humidity would be higher at the higher elevation, which has a lower
temperature. In this example, the dewpoint was
only slightly lower.

Local Effects

This section explores local effects of topography, vegetation, cloud cover, and wind on
temperature and relative humidity.

Topography

Fuel and weather conditions in complex terrain are influenced by both the slope aspect and
elevation.

Slope angle and aspect help determine fuel and weather conditions in complex terrain.

The intensity of sunlight in complex terrain varies significantly from slope to slope,
depending on slope angle and aspect. The
amount of sunlight on a slope affects local
temperature and relative humidity, which in turn influence the type and amount of
vegetation. These conditions are important for firefighters to evaluate when assessing
potential fire behavior.
Question

In the northern hemisphere, south facing slopes have greater exposure to sunlight.
How does sun exposure affect local
temperature and relative humidity on each aspect?
Choose all that apply.

a) South facing
slopes are typically much warmer, with lower relative humidity and lower
soil moisture content.
b) North facing
slopes typically experience the coolest temperatures and highest
relative humidity.
c) East facing
slopes warm earlier in the day and thus reach their warmest temperature
and lowest humidity later than
west facing slopes.
d) West facing
slopes warm later in the day and thus reach their warmest temperature
and lowest humidity later in the
day than east facing slopes.

The correct answers are a, b, and d.

Heating of the ground and the air near the surface follows
the sun. South slopes are warmest and have the lowest humidity,
while North
slopes are coolest and have the highest humidity. As the sun rises, east slopes
are first to warm while west slopes
are the last to be exposed to sunlight.

When fire moves onto a slope with a different aspect, changes

in temperature, relative humidity, and resultant fuel moisture
content, affect
the fire’s intensity and rate of spread.

Near ridge tops, mixing of air by winds results in more

uniform conditions on each of the aspects.

Be aware of the aspect of the slope where you are working and
the influence on temperature and relative humidity.

Elevation

Elevation significantly affects temperature and relative humidity, which in turn influence
fire activity.

Temperature typically decreases with an increase in elevation. Therefore, daytime mixing of

the atmosphere near the ground will
yield a uniform amount of moisture, and the decrease in
temperature with elevation will yield an increase in relative humidity.

The increase in relative humidity with elevation increases the moisture content of dead fuels
at higher elevations.
However, when colder air drains and pools into valleys at night, cooler temperatures and
higher relative humidities occur at these
lower elevations.

Vegetation

Vegetation has insulating effects and moderates temperature and relative humidity changes
near the ground by intercepting
incoming sunlight during the day and outgoing radiation at
night. Below a forest canopy, winds are lighter, and mixing of air is
reduced.

In addition, because of different processes going on in green foliage, including respiration,

photosynthesis, and
evapotranspiration, vegetated areas tend to be cooler than those areas
composed mainly of bare ground or surface organic litter.

Effects of low or sparse vegetation coverage on the temperature of the underlying surface are
much less than areas that have
tall, dense vegetation.

Question 1

Apply what you know about how temperature and relative humidity are affected by dense
vegetation to create true statements.
Choose the terms that best
complete these statements.
 During the day, the
--
temperatures and
--
relative humidity are found around the tree tops. The
--
temperatures and
--
relative humidity are found beneath the canopy in the shade.
Warmest,
lowest, coolest, highest

During the day, the warmest temperatures and

lowest relative humidity are found around the tree tops. The
coolest
temperatures and highest relative
humidity are found beneath the canopy in the shade. The moderating effect of
vegetation on
the conditions near the surface results in cooler temperatures and
higher relative humidity than would otherwise be observed.
The warmest
temperatures and lowest relative humidity conditions instead occur near the top
of the vegetation.

Question 2

Choose the terms that best complete these statements.

At night, the
--
temperatures and
--
relative humidity are found around the tree tops. The
--
temperatures and
--
relative humidity are found beneath the canopy.
Coolest,
highest, warmest, lowest

The opposite is true at night. The coolest

temperatures and highest relative humidity are found near tree
top. The warmest
temperatures and lowest
relative humidity are found beneath the canopy. At night, the moderating
influence of vegetation has
the opposite effect as seen during the day.
Conditions near the surface are warmer with lower relative humidity. The coolest
temperatures and highest relative humidity conditions instead occur near the top
of the vegetation.
Cloud Cover

Cloud cover affects temperature and relative humidity by reflecting incoming sunlight during
the day, and intercepting outgoing
long-wave, terrestrial radiation at night.

For questions 1 and 2, refer to the following animation showing cloud cover's effect on heat
transfer in daytime and at night.
Download Video

Question 1

Choose the terms that best complete the following statements. In

this case we assume the amount of moisture in the air is not
varying, so that
changes in relative humidity are due to changes in temperature.

During the day, cloud cover reflects and

absorbs incoming solar radiation,
--
the amount of sunlight
reaching the ground resulting in
--
conditions with
--
relative humidity.
Decreasing,
cooler, higher

During the day, cloud cover reflects and absorbs incoming

solar radiation, decreasing the amount of sunlight reaching the
ground resulting in cooler conditions with
higher relative humidity. Cloud cover can lower daytime
temperatures by several
degrees and increase relative humidity, thus decreasing
fire activity.

Question 2

Choose the terms that best complete the following statements.

At night, heat lost at the surface is

--
by cloud cover resulting in
--
conditions with
--
relative humidity.
Inhibited,
warmer, lower

At night, heat lost at the surface is

inhibited by cloud cover resulting in warmer
conditions with lower relative humidity. Higher
nighttime
temperatures and lower relative humidity result under cloud cover at night.
Thus, fires may be more active than
normally anticipated overnight.

Wind

Wind has a moderating effect on air temperature and relative humidity as it mixes air near
the ground with air aloft.
 Wind effects on temperature and relative humidity near the ground.

Question 1

Choose the terms that best complete the following statement. In this
case we assume the amount of moisture in the air is not
varying, so that changes in
relative humidity are due to changes in temperature.

During the day, wind tends to

--
air temperature and
--
relative humidity near the ground.
Lower, raise

During the day, wind tends to lower air

temperature and raise relative humidity near the ground. During
the day, as the sun
heats the ground, wind effectively mixes cooler air aloft
down to the ground keeping surface air temperatures lower than on calm
or light
wind days. With a uniform amount of moisture in the well mixed atmosphere, the
relative humidity will rise as the air is
cooled. However, keep in mind that air
mixed from higher levels in the atmosphere may be drier, which may counteract
the
cooling effects and actually lower relative humidity.

Question 2

Choose the terms that best complete the following statement.

At night, wind tends to

--
air temperature and
--
relative humidity near the ground.
Raise, lower

At night, wind tends to raise air

temperature and lower relative humidity near the ground. On a
clear, calm night, extensive
radiational cooling of the ground results in cooler
temperatures and higher relative humidities. Wind disrupts and minimizes
radiational cooling at the surface and effectively mixes warmer, drier air aloft
with air near the ground, resulting in warmer
temperatures and lower relative
humidity than on calm or light wind nights.

As with the effects of wind on daytime temperatures, the effects of nighttime

wind also can depend on the source of the air. For
example, nighttime
down-canyon winds off a glacier or snowfield could bring a cooling effect at
night rather than a warming
effect.

Other Effects of Wind

Local winds can cause changes in temperature and relative humidity beyond just mixing air
aloft to the ground. For example:

Wind caused by air being forced down a mountain side will cause a warming of the air
which will lower the relative
humidity

Winds coming off a large body of water may dramatically increase relative humidity and
lower the temperature

Outflow winds from rain showers or thunderstorms can suddenly cool and moisten the air.

Air Masses

An air mass is a large body of air with “homogeneous” or similar temperature and moisture
characteristics. This section presents
a classification scheme for air masses and the
typical characteristics of each type of air mass.
Classification

Air masses are identified by their locations of origin.

Air mass source regions for North America

To describe the moisture characteristics of the air mass, the term maritime is used for air
masses originating over water and
continental is used for those originating over land.
Temperature characteristics are categorized by tropical, polar or arctic
locations.

Tropical air masses form in high pressure areas in warm, tropical regions. When tropical air
masses form over oceans, they are
warm and moist, while tropical air masses that form over
land, are hot and dry.

Polar air masses form in high pressure areas in the polar and sub polar regions. A polar air
mass that forms over water is cool
and moist, while a polar air mass that forms over land is
cold and dry.

Arctic air masses form near the poles and are very cold and dry.

Question

For each Air Mass Characteristic, choose the corresponding Air Mass
Type.

a) Cold and moist:  

--
Maritime Polar
(mP)
b) Warm and moist:  
--
Maritime
Tropical (mT)
c) Extremely cold and dry:
 
--
Continental
Arctic (cA)
d) Cold and dry:  
--
Continental
Polar (cP)
e) Warm and dry:  
--
Continental
Tropical (cT)

The correct answers are shown above.

Effects on Fire Activity

Air mass source regions for North America.

Depending on its characteristics, a changing air mass can either increase or decrease fire
activity.

Large fire growth, which is sometimes referred to as a blowup, is typically

associated with warm, dry, continental air mass
conditions that are often
seen as a trough or cold front approaches.
Conversely, decreasing fire activity is typically associated with a cooler and more moist
maritime polar air mass, such as found
behind cold fronts moving onto the
West Coast from the Pacific Ocean.

Fronts separate air masses of different characteristics. Knowing the typical characteristics
of the air mass behind a front can help
you anticipate changes in temperature, relative
humidity and potential fire behavior. Also, knowledge of air mass characteristics
can help
you predict conditions at locations across the country.

Question

For each Source Region, choose the corresponding Air Mass Type.

Recall that:

Maritime Polar (mP) air originates from over cold oceanic regions;
Maritime Tropical (mT) air originates from over warm oceanic regions;
Continental Polar (cP) air originates from over large, often cold and dry
continental land areas;
Continental Tropical (cT) air originates from over large, often warm and dry
continental land areas; and
Continental Arctic (cA) air originates in the arctic regions.

a) Central America (Mexico):

 
--
Continental
Tropical (cT)
b) Central Atlantic:  
--
Maritime
Tropical (mT)
c) Central Pacific:  
--
Maritime
Tropical (mT)
d) Gulf of Alaska:  
--
Maritime Polar
(mP)
e) Gulf of California:  
--
Maritime
Tropical (mT)
f) Gulf of Mexico:  
--
Maritime
Tropical (mT)
g) North Atlantic:  
--
Maritime Polar
(mP)
h) North Pacific:  
--
Maritime Polar
(mP)
i) Northern portions of
North America (Canada):  
--
Continental
Polar (cP)
j) Southwest United States:
 
--
Continental
Tropical (cT)
k) Northern Alaska  
--
Continental
Arctic (cA)

The correct answers are shown above.

Summary
Download Video

The blue spheres represent water vapor molecules in three samples of air with the same
dewpoint but different temperatures. Note the
decrease in relative humidity as the
temperature increases. The speed of the molecules in the samples increases as the
temperature
increases.

This module focused on the relationship between temperature and relative humidity.

An inverse relationship exists between temperature and relative humidity. When the amount of
moisture in the atmosphere does
not change,

If temperature increases, relative humidity decreases.

If temperature decreases, relative humidity increases.
 Terms used to describe atmospheric moisture

Several terms are used to describe the temperature and moisture characteristics of the
atmosphere including:

Dry bulb temperature

Wet bulb temperature
Dewpoint temperature
Relative humidity

When the relative humidity is 100%, the atmosphere is saturated and the dry bulb, wet bulb
and dewpoint are equal.

Hygrothermograph trace of temperature and relative humidity over a 24-hr period

Diurnal variations in temperature and relative humidity show some basic patterns:
 The highest values of relative humidity are typically seen in the early morning when the
lowest temperature occurs.
The lowest values of relative humidity are typically seen in the late afternoon when the
highest temperature occurs.

Remember, a sudden weather change can result in abrupt changes in temperature and dewpoint,
and therefore, relative
humidity.

In general, for a constant dewpoint, each 20°F increase in air temperature decreases the
relative humidity by about half.
However, this rule of thumb does not replace the need to
take actual measurements to determine relative humidity.

Psychrometric table related dry bulb, wet bulb, dewpoint, and relative humidity

A psychrometric table can be used to determine relative humidity, dewpoint, and wet bulb
temperatures. Be sure to use the
appropriate table for the elevation of the observation
site.

Local effects on air temperature and relative humidity are caused by characteristics of the
site such as topography and
vegetation, and current weather conditions such as clouds and
wind.
 Air mass source regions for North America

Temperature and relative humidity usually depend on the type of air mass. Air masses are
classified based on their origin, using
maritime and continental to describe the moisture
characteristics and tropical, polar and arctic to describe temperature
characteristics.
Changes in air masses bring very different weather conditions to a region.

A good understanding of how temperature and relative humidity are related is necessary to
evaluate effects on potential fire
behavior.

Contributors

COMET Sponsors

The COMET® Program is sponsored by NOAA's National Weather Service (NWS) with
additional funding by:

Air Force Weather (AFW)

Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM)
European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT)
Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC)
National Environmental Education Foundation (NEEF)
National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS)
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS)
Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command (NMOC)

Project Contributors

Principal Science Advisors

Brenda Belongie — U.S. Forest Service Predictive Services

Edward Delgado — Bureau of Land Management Predictive Services
Mike Smith — NOAA/NWS
Tami Parkinson — U.S. Forest Service
Brent Wachter — NOAA/NWS

Additional Science Contributors

John Saltenberger — Bureau of Land Management

Larry Van Bussum — NOAA/NWS
Original S-290 Course Authors

Michael Baker — NOAA/NWS

Jim Bishop — California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (retired)
Noble Dunn — National Wildfire Coordinating Group Fire Training
Brian Finley — USDA Forest Service
Larry Hood — USDA Forest Service
Risa Lange-Navarro — Fire Behavior Committee Liaison
Timothy Mathewson — Bureau of Land Management
Deana Parrish — National Wildfire Coordinating Group Fire Training
Rose Secakuku — National Wildfire Coordinating Group Fire Training
Rick Vollick — U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Don Whittemore — State of Colorado, Boulder County, Cherryvale F.D.

Project Lead

Dr. Elizabeth Mulvihill Page— UCAR/COMET

Technical Contributor

Amy Stevermer — UCAR/COMET

Instructional Design

Dwight Owens - Alphapure Design Studio

Computer Graphics/Interface Design

Steve Deyo — UCAR/COMET

Brannan McGill — UCAR/COMET

Multimedia Authoring

Dan Riter — UCAR/COMET

Carl Whitehurst — UCAR/COMET

Audio Editing/Production

Seth Lamos — UCAR/COMET

Audio Narration

Hildy Kane — UCAR/COMET

COMET HTML Integration Team 2020

Tim Alberta — Project Manager

Dolores Kiessling — Project Lead
Steve Deyo — Graphic Artist
Gary Pacheco — Lead Web Developer
David Russi — Translations
Gretchen Throop Williams — Web Developer
Tyler Winstead — Web Developer

COMET Staff - November 2008

Director

Dr. Timothy Spangler

Deputy Director

Dr. Joe Lamos

Administration

Elizabeth Lessard, Administration and Business Manager

Lorrie Alberta
 Michelle Harrison
Hildy Kane

Hardware/Software Support and Programming

Tim Alberta, Group Manager

Bob Bubon
James Hamm
Ken Kim
Mark Mulholland
Wade Pentz, Student
Malte Winkler

Instructional Designers

Dr. Patrick Parrish, Senior Project Manager

Dr. Alan Bol
Lon Goldstein
Bryan Guarente
Dr. Vickie Johnson
Tsvetomir Ross-Lazarov
Marianne Weingroff

Media Production Group

Bruce Muller, Group Manager

Steve Deyo
Seth Lamos
Brannan McGill
Dan Riter
Carl Whitehurst

Meteorologists/Scientists

Dr. Greg Byrd, Senior Project Manager

Wendy Schreiber-Abshire, Senior Project Manager
Dr. William Bua
Patrick Dills
Dr. Stephen Jascourt
Matthew Kelsch
Dolores Kiessling
Dr. Arlene Laing
Dr. Elizabeth Mulvihill Page
Amy Stevermer
Warren Rodie
Dr. Doug Wesley

Science Writer

Jennifer Frazer

Spanish Translations

David Russi

NOAA/National Weather Service - Forecast Decision Training Branch

Anthony Mostek, Branch Chief

Dr. Richard Koehler, Hydrology Training Lead
Brian Motta, IFPS Training
Dr. Robert Rozumalski, SOO Science and Training Resource (SOO/STRC) Coordinator
Ross Van Til, Meteorologist
Shannon White, AWIPS Training

Meteorological Service of Canada Visiting Meteorologists

Phil Chadwick
Jim Murtha
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