FIRST SEMESTER 2021/2022

Dares Salaam Maritime Institute

SMU 07327: Development Studies Perspective I (BMME2)

Course Outline

BY DR MBEBA: COURSE INSTRUCTOR

Module1: THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: Lecture 1

What is a theory? Is a statement or a group of statement established by reason, argument, based on non

facts intended to explain a particular fact or event. OR is a .kind of working assumption to facilitate

understanding of a particular social phenomenon.eg local beliefs of certain tribe like kurya of their cruel

shortest of pare.

What is Development?

Development is multidisciplinary and multidimensional concepts. It is multidisciplinary in nature because it

borrows knowledge from other disciplines eg education, psychology, geography, political science, etc , and

it is multi-dimensional concept, because it includes all dimensions political, social and economic.

There are three perspectives which try to define the term development

1. Economic dimension (economists)

 Look at indicators of development such as economic growth of a particular nation like

increasing of gross national product (GDP)

 Increasing of foreign investments such mining, industries, infrastructure, banking etc

 High level of technology

 Increasing income among the households

2. Political dimension (politicians)

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  Availability of democracy, free and fair election, freedom of movement, speech,

assemble, worship, choosing leaders, opinions etc

 Availability of human rights eg right to work, marry, to education, rightect to an adequate

standard of living like food, shelter, water medical care

 Low level of corruption

3. Social dimension

 Availability of social services eg electricity, houses, food, education health, infrastructure

etc

 Increasing of life expectancy eg in developed countries people die with80 years, but

developing countries die with below 45 years

 Lack of diseases and low mortality rate e.g. infants

But do you think that development can be defined in a single dimension? The answer is no. Development

can be explained by all dimensions

VARIOUS PHILOSOPHERS VIEWS ON DEVELOPMENT

1. RODNEY, W

Viewed development as many sided process, and that it implies at level of individual differs from

what it implies at the level of social groups.

Individual level: Development implies as increased of skills and capacity, greater freedom,

creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-beings

Social group level: It implies as an increasing capacity to regulate both internal and external

relations. He goes further by saying that the term development is often used in exclusive economic

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 sense. In this sense, he says that a society develops economically when its members increase

jointly their capacity for dealing with environment.

2. Goran Hyden: Development is a process of bringing about fundamental and substantial changes of

the society. Development involves not only accumulation of capital or economic growth but also the

country should have adequate enough food and jobs availability to reduce social inequalities of the

society.

3. Nyerere, JK: Development is anything which gives a person a greater freedom although that thing

cannot increase to him /her health or famine, he goes further that development has to be “ people

centered development” , and when this happens to the society then it will lead sustainable

development because people will round development and not development will round people.

BUT, during the past general election in Tanzania 2020, one of the presidential opposition political

party was claiming that president Magufuli is concentrating more on “infrastructure centered

development and he is ignoring people centered development.

Critical question here is that, how can you justify that a particular society has people centered

development if you ignore infrastructure centered development ? infrastructure centered development is

there to justify people centered development. IF the construction of big national projects like Nyerere

Electricity dam, flyovers road ways, water ways air ways Universities (DODOMA) are revealing the

people centered development. The two phenomena cannot be separated, they go parallel. What is

needed here is the issue of priority.

How Eurocentric views try to explain underdevelopment of Third world Countries:

1. Underdevelopment of third world countries is ordained by God

2. European countries are more developed than the rest of the world because their

people are more superior than Africans

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 3. The economic backwardness of Africa lies in the generic backwardness of the race

of black Africans.

This comes from the wrong interpretation of the Bible from Genesis 9:18-27 which states as “the sons of

Noah who came from the ark were Shem, Ham and Japheth. When Noah drank some of its wine, he

became drunk and lay uncovered inside of his tent. Ham the father of Canaan saw his father’s nakedness

and told his two brothers outside. But Shem and Japhet took a garment and covered him while their faces

were turned on the other way without looking at the nakedness of their father . When Noah woke from his

wine and found out what his youngest son had done to him he said, cursed be Canaan, the lowest slave

and will be the slave of your brother and blessed the Lord the God of Shem and Japheth will live in the

tents of Shem.”

HUMAN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:

To understand human social development a number of scholars have attempted to discuss theories/

processes of social human development. There are two main theories which critically discuss the

processes of human social development. These are

1. Bourgeoisie/ modernization theories

2. Materialistic/ political theories.

BOURGEOISIE/ MODERNIZATION THEORIES

-The modernization theories emerged after the second world war trying to answer the question why Europe

is more developed or advanced than third World? Why today there is a wide gap among these continents?

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What contributes to these differences?. We shall concentrate two main theories namely Professor Rostow

with five stages of Human development and Professor Nukse with vicious circle of poverty.

1. Rostow’s with five stages of human Development

-Professor Rostow looks at development as something which ca not be achieved easily by the society.

Development for him is like a distant dream which comes slowly and not abruptly and should depend on

five stages.

-he views development as a linear path theory which starts from low to highby following five stages of

development

-Each stage of human development should be fulfilled clearly in order to allow the society to undergo to the

next stage of human development.

-Therefore he develops the following five stages of human development;

1. Traditional stage: The society here is characterized by the following:

-Agriculture sector is dominant in the society

-Low productivity because of poor methods of farming

-Low level of technology, depending on outside technology

-high mortality rate e.g. infants from age 0-5 years

-high fertility rate

-extended family e.gThomas Malthus when he relates population growth with resources he argues that high

population growth distorts human development. He asserts that “population is growing in arithmetic ratio

while the population is growing in geometric ratio, therefore the bigger the population the lower the

development.

-Little social mobility- no moving

-poor political organization characterized by conflict and no consensus, eg Somalia, Congo DRC,

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-Availability of diseases, local beliefs eg killings albino, witch craft –popo-bawa in a local term who believed

to sodomize men and women at Mbagala during the night

2. Transitional Stage

-expansion of trade both international and national level

-Increase of external influence

-introduction of modern methods of production both agriculture and industries

National investments should be raised to 5% of the national income to sustain economic growth

-willingness of people to change their valueseg rent money for investments

-high level of entrepreneurs and being innovative and creative

-level of science and technology should be raised in order to bring innovation

3. Take off stage

-National investments level should rise to 10%

-increasing productivity in Agriculture, industries, mining and fishing

-strong political organization- high level of democracy, there is a consensus and shaking hand wherever the

one wins the election and not fighting.

-Agriculture sector is mechanized

-science and technology is higher

4. Drive to Maturity Stage

-Emergence of industrialized society

-Transportation and communication are more complex

-science and technology is at higher stage

-the old industries are now replaced by new ones eg USA, French, UK

High political organization, high level of democracy, free and fair elections, good governance and human

rights

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5. High Mass consumption

-The society here is too matured all aspects of human life politically, socially, economically and culturally.

-strong and political organization, high level of democracy, free and fair elections, good governance and

human rights

-transportation and communication are more complex

-science and technology is at higher stage

-Good allocation of resources to her people; e.g. the specialist ones are taking authority in organizing

society the. Appointment of a particular person depends on his or her qualifications not who knows you.

CRITICISMS

1. If human development depends on stages, why did European countries managed to jumpfrom

stage one to another stage of human developmentif not intensive exploitationdone In Africa? So

Rostov failed to explain how did they manage to jump so that we Africans we may follow that linear

path.

2. Rostow’s argument on development of the society is a linear pathand should be gradually not

abruptly has been criticized by political economists that he is wrong, because development of the

society is not homogeneous rather it is heterogeneity and in a zigzag way of life. Every society

develops for one way or another to a lesser or a greater extent depending on environment of the

society.

PROFESSOR NUKSE WITH VICIOUS CIRCLE OF POVERTY: Lecture 2

-His main argument is that ‘if a society is poor that society will continue to be poor and poor forever ‘We are

poor because we are poor and therefore we shall continue to be poor all the time.

Why will poverty still persist in Africa?

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-The answer is because third world countries are still staying/ living in the circle of poverty. He says that in

the circle of poverty where Africa survives there are a lot of problems generated themselves every day.

-He draws the circle of poverty showing the persistence of poverty in Africa is:

LOW CAPITAL……….LOW INCOME……LOW SAVING……LOW LEVEL OF INVESTMENT………..LACK

OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION………………LOW PRODUCTIVITY

-Nukse summarizes that if third world countries need development then there are supposed to receive

external push (big push) from outside. These are financial institutions and other social assistances.

Is true that external push is a solution to African development? Or is it true that globalism is a solution to

African poverty?

The answer is yes and no. globalization through SAPs has a lot conditionalities which are bided to these

assistances egdevaluation of local currency, removal subsidize in agriculture sector, cost sharing, minimize

government expenditure, privatization, free markets and multi-party system etc. Their assistances always in

order to complement our development and not to give us real development because have a lot of strings.

Egdependant one to somebody.

CRITICISMS OF THE THEORY

1.Nurse’s theory is wrong because he fails to tell us the root causes of underdevelopment of third World

Countries rather he is telling us the outcomes of underdevelopment of Africa which normally was resulted

by rise of capitalism in Europe.

2. He fails to show how did European countries managed to break the circle of poverty if formerly all

countries were lived in the same circle of poverty.

POLITICAL ECONOMY THEORY: KARL MARX: Lecture 3

Historical background:

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-Marx lived during the time of Industrial revolution in Europe where majority of people were too poor to

sustain their daily life. The time where there was mass poverty within the society

-The time where there two antagonistic classes among the society, the class of have not (proletariats) and

the class of rich (bourgeoisie).

- This process occurred in England and Germany where people had to move from rural to urban areas in

order to loom for better lives.

-So Marx wanted to study what contributed to such disparities among the societies and look for solutions

for those changes.

- By doing so he had the following main arguments;

 Class struggle: for him argues that within the societies y the class struggle is very necessary in

making positive change. For him believed that in order the society to develop it must emerge the

class of struggle.

 Class conflict: development in the society normally depend on class conflict, so he views class

conflict in positive manner rather than negative one

Therefore to understand the process of class struggle and class conflict in the societies, he identified five

stages of human development as follows;

1. Primitive accumulation

-This was initial stage of human development

-productive forces were very poor egsticks and stones

- Ownership of the means of production was communal

-Relations of production was collectively

-There was no antagonistic class (exploitation of man by man)

2. Feudalism

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-there was some improvement of productive forces

-There was antagonistic classes, the class of serfs and landlords

-Serfs were largely exploited by land lords in terms of rent in kind/ money

-This led to class conflict which made the mode to fall and come another mode

3. Capitalism

-There was antagonistic classes, the class of bourgeoisie and proletariat

-The major means of production were primarily controlled by bourgeoisie

-The bourgeoisie paid more the proletariats through a little wage which did not sustain

to live.

-Look now under globalization and examine how employees have been paid by their employers at their

places of work, are they paid healthily or not

-Due to class conflict in the society led to change the mode to another one

4. Socialism

-According to Marx, this was the higher stage of development had no antagonistic classes.

-The working class (proletariats) was controlling the major means of production

5. Communalism

-This is the highest sage of social development

-There was no exploitations of man by man

-The level of investments and production were primarily determined by national plans

CRICISMS OF THE THEORY

1. -Bourgeoisie criticizes Marx that his arguments of class struggle and class conflict are too

ideological which have no implementation in the society The society can never develop out of the

exploitation. Eg East Germany, Russia, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia their level of development failed

because they did not allow exploitation.

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 2. Marx believed on working classas an instrument of leading real revolution in the society, but this is

not true because real revolution should comeafter the collaboration of workers and peasants.

Workers alone can never bring real revolution in the society

3. Marx believed on class conflict as important aspect for development but he is contradicting himself

because in socialism and communalism had no class conflict so the question comes, how

socialism did and communalism emerged as the highest stage of human development while they

had no any exploitation of man by many so he is cheating us.

DEPENDENCE THEORIES (Neo-Marxist Theory

-These were people who wrote after Marx. They borrowed some arguments of Marx and mix with their

arguments.

-The dependence school of thought was advocated by The Latin America’s school of thought called

Dependence School.

-It was developed during the 1950’s to early 1960’s

- It was a response of the failure of the Bourgeoisie’s theory who failed to answer some questions

-The school assumes that development in the society can be understood in the connection of the world

political economic system.

Therefore, they used concepts of :

 Center and periphery relationship

 Developed and developing

 Metro pole and Satellite

 Rich and poor countries

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-People like Ander Gunder Frank, Samin Amir, Walter Rodney, Emanuel Wallerstain, J K Nyerere to

mention the few.

-They argued tat underdevelopment of third World Countries is a result of intensive exploitation which

existed between the two continents (Europe and Africa)

-This underdevelopment began many years ago particularly during the time of Mercantilism where the two

continents Europe and Africa were almost the same level I technology eg as noted by Rodney that “

around 15th c the level of Europe and Africa was almost the same, but after the contact between these two

continents underdevelopment Africa began to set in Africa”

-It continued to colonialism era, where markets, cheap labor force, areas of investments and raw materials

were exploited largely from Africa

-After independence; Africa continue to sing the song of underdevelopment because colonialist planted the

seed of underdevelopment

E.G talk a little bite about the roles of InfoWorld Bank, through their structural adjustment programs SAPS

-SAPs Conditions are

 Removal subsidies in agriculture sector

 Devaluation of local currency\

 Free market economy

 Privatization

 Minimizing government expenditures

 Cost sharing in social services. These all are creating underdevelopment of Africa

Emmanuel Waller stain theory believes that the world is divided into three parts, the core, semi-periphery

and periphery

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-The Core countries are likely to exploit the semi-periphery and periphery at all levels of economic life

-but never the periphery countries move to semi-periphery or core,

The relationships `exists among is through exploitative in nature through financial institutions.

Their solutions to these problems

a) Socialism: The dependence school provides the solution of the underdevelopment of Africa is that

socialism should be adopted by all African states. Is it true that socialism provides a chance of

development or African states? In Tanzania since Independence we adopted socialism, did we

developed?

b) Zonal economic integration : eg ECOWAS, SADCC, PTA, COMESA, East African States. But is it

true to develop?

c) To cut off the existing relationship with the core

-Is it possible to cut off relationship to somebody who is financing you? Egboy friend with girl friend, Loan

board with students,

d)The bourgeoisie criticizes the dependency school that they have spent a lot of time to blame external

factors as the causes of underdevelopment and forget to explain internal factors as the causes of

underdevelopment such as

- Corruption

- Misallocation of human resources, somebody has not qualified and is appointed to higher

position

- Poor policies formulated among the African states while aren’t implemented

- Tribalism, regionalism, religionism, low technology

GLOBALIZATION AND AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT

1. SCEPTIC SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

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Defines globalization as a big myth which conceals/ hides the reality of International economy. There is
nothing more under Globalization rather than searching the maximum profit through international
economy.

Hyper Globalizer

Globalization as new stage history of human history in which the states become powerlessness to control
their political and economic issues

2. IS A GLOBALIZATION A NEW PHENOMENON?

-No globalization isn’t a new phenomenon, it s was there many years ago and it was changed its name time
to time according to the economic environment
Eg the Time of mercantilism- transatlantic slave trade (triangular slave trade) where the entire world was
connected by European nations searching slaves and other value goods like gold, silver etc
- This led to the formulation of primitive accumulation of capital which assisted as the engine of
industrial revolution
- Then it came under the umbrella of Neo-colonialism after Independence and then
Globalization in the year of 1980’s

3. DRIVERS OF GLOBALIZATION
-IMF, WB (Britton wood institutions) started in 1945 by USA as the means of exploiting the independent
ones through in the form of neo-colonialism
- WTO, GATT, USa, European Unions, Third World countries, & Multilateral Institutions like FAO, WHO,
UNESCO, UNICEF, Coca-Cola
-Development of Technology

IMF AND WB: These are financial institutions always using Structural Adjustment Program ( SAPs) to
exploit the third world countries.

SAPS are economic policies which countries must follow in order to qualify to get loans and aid from IMF
and WB, and help them to make debts repayments
These economic policies are:
 Removal subsidy in agriculture sector
 Trade liberalization( free market economy)
 Privatization policy
 Cost sharing in user fees( social services to minimize the government expenditure
 Multiparty politics (in Tanzania multiparty began in 190’s and in 1992 MzeeRuksa
appointed Hon judge Nyarari to collect the Tanzanians opinions of whether they like
multiparty. The results showed that 80% didn’t like multiparty while 20% liked it
PROS/OPPORTUNITIS OF GLOBALIZATION
 Increasing of international relation due to trade
 Easiest and fastest communication

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  Availability of mass media egtv, radios, news paperetc
 Freedom of speech due to human rigts and good governance
 Availability of social services and goods
 Efficiency of work
 Employment opportunities
 Politically, through development of technology, it has improved national security and other
detecting weapons

CONS/ CHALLENNGES
 Availability of diseases due to movement of people and goods
 Deterioration of standard of living
 Reduced access to public services eg now people are able to get health services and
education and they are sold as commodity
 Economic dependence of African due to strong condition of SAPS
 Increasing of famine due to of removal of government subsidy
 Devastated environments eg mining extraction
 Loss of national sovereignty- loss of freedom/ power
 Unemployment
 High level of social inequalities- rich and poor ( haves and have not)
 Rise of African Moral decay- homosexuality ( Massachasut –USA, Malawi, South
parliament
 High rate of divorce-which accelerated by modern technology
 Dying of African local industries

ALTENATIVES WAYS AGAINST GLOBALIZATION

 Zonal economic integration SADC, PTA, ECOWAS,EAST AFRICAN
COMMUNITY< NEPAD, NEPAD, COMESA
No they can’t fight against globalization
 Most African; leaders are power mongers and corrupt, civil war

MODULE 2: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT: LECTURE 4

It is better to understand the following gender concepts;

 Gender gap: This is a gap between men and woman

 Gender balance: equal treatment between man and woman

 Gender relations: Relations which exists between man and woman, teachers, parents etc

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  Gender roles: These are different roles/ function performed among men, women

 Gender inequality: Unequal treatment between men and women

What is genderand sex? There is difference between gender and sex. Gender is referred to different roles

between men and women and these roles are socially constructed. It is socially constructed because it is

the society itself which assigns those roles or functions that men and women are supposed to perform

these roles, and normally begins during the childhood where a child boy is given a toy car while a child girl

is given a toy baby.

But sex: Is a biological difference between man and woman.

FEMINIST THEORIES OF GENDER INQUALITIES

1. Liberal Feminism

all people are created equal

faith in rationality

education is means to change

oppression of women is not a structural feature of capitalist economic system

look to state to bring about women's liberation through legislative measures - equality through law

professional and middle-class women

2. Socialist Feminism

women's oppression caused by their economic dependence

integrate issues of gender and class, i.e. unite concepts of patriarchy and capitalism

inferior position of women linked to class-based capitalistic system and family structure within this
system

abolition of gender and class are goals where socialism will only occur with the liberation of women and
women's liberation will only occur under socialism

sexuality is to feminism what work is to Marxism

working class women

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3. Radical feminism

women's oppression is the fundamental oppression at the root of other "isms"

sexism is at the core of patriarchy especially in the family

male domination is the problem

create institutions for women only

extreme view would call for severing relationships with men, i.e. end heterosexual relationships

total restructuring of society

violence against women (rape, sexual harassment, incest, pornography and domestic violence) are
focus issues

4. Postmodern Feminism

 All women are different

 Can never generalize

 A feminist theory is not possible

5. Multicultural/Global Feminism

Recognizing all other differences not just gender

Focuses on inclusion of oppressions based on gender, class, ethnicity, sexuality, able-bloodedness and
age

Intersection of gender with race, class and issues of colonization and exploitation of women in
developing world

CAUSES OF GENDER INEQUALITY

In order to understand the causes of gender inequality, we need to understand the social institutions

because gender inequalities are existing within the social institutions.

 Family institution: within the family institution there is gender inequality perpetuated by traditional

beliefs from our tribes. EgKurya tribe a woman cannot talk in front of man and a woman must take

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 care of cattle in the grazing; Jita tribe a man must be respected., if a woman brings water she kneel

down; Zaramo woman must stay at home waiting her husband etc. The traditional values from our

tribes are producing by so called Patriarchy ideology among people which this undermines or

contributing to gender inequalities. For instance the Theory of politics in production of knowledge

which this comes from patriarchy ideology asks the following two questions that;

A) Who is the power and producer of knowledge between man and woman?

B) Who powerlessness between man and woman? The theory argues that the one who is power and

producer of knowledge is man because the man is the one who produces sperms while the woman is the

one who receives sperms, therefore the one who produce sperms is the power and the producer of

knowledge.

 Religions (Christians and Islam) are contributing to gender inequality if believers are interpreting

their doctrines wrongly of what it is intended to say egthe bible says that the man is the head of the

house if the man is the head then the woman is the tail of the house.;Eg the Bible in Genesis 2:21-

23 says that “so the Lord caused the man to fall into a deep sleep; and while he was sleeping, he

took on of the man’s ribs and closed up the place with flesh. Islam during the burial ceremonies

women aren’t allowed to attend to the graves, worshiping women are sitting a side of men, property

distribution in cas man dies is not equal

 Schools: curriculums, science subjects are for men and not for women

 Laws and Regulations ie marriage ACT 1971

 Parliament: women representatives are not equal with men

What can be done (solutions) taking Tanzania as a case study

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  There is a special ministry dealing with gender is known as Ministry o community Development and

gender

 The amendment of some sections in Marriage Act 1971 which formerly undermined women,

women now have rights to inherent the properties f her husband in case the husbands dies. BUT

still this Marriage Act has some weaknesses for example it gives a room a girl having 15 years

hold to be married, and expenses of taking care for a child who is staying behind of the father is

not more than ten thousand per month.

 The introduction of sexual offence Act 1998 which prohibits all humanity action against women

egrapping, abusing where more than thirty years for jail.

 Formation of various NGOs egTAMA, TGNP which are fighting against genital manutilation.

 Increasing of special seats in the parliament

 Increasing of female enrolment in primary, secondary and University level

THE CONCEPT OF WID AND GAD: LECTURE 5

WID: is an approach which states that women are enough to bring socio-economic development in the

societies. GAD believes that in order a society to achieve areal development then both men and women n

should be incorporated together.

MODULE 3: CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION PROCESS IN TANZANIA

The term centralizationmeans concentration of authority at the top of the administrative system. On the one
hand, and, decentralization means dispersal of authority among the lower levels of the administrative
system.

According to Henry Fayol’sCentralization and Decentralization Principles

 Centralization means that top managementretains most of the decision-making authority.

 Decentralizationmeans that decision-making is distributed among all levels of the organization.This
means that information is shared from the top of managementdownwards.

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  Centralizationis said to be a process where the concentration of decision making is in a few hands .
All subjects and actions at the lower level are subject to the approval of top management.
According to Allen, “Centralization” is the systematic and consistent reservation of authority at
central points in the organization. The implication of centralization can be :-

1. Reservation of decision making power at top level.

2. Reservation of operating authority with the middle level managers.

3. Reservation of operation at lower level at the directions of the top level.

Under centralization, the important and key decisions are taken by the top management and the other
levels are into implementations as per the directions of top level. For example, in a business concern, the
father & son being the owners decide about the important matters and all the rest of functions like product,
finance, marketing, personnel, are carried out by the department heads and they have to act as per
instruction and orders of the two people. Therefore in this case, decision making power remain in the hands
of father & son.

The degree of centralization and decentralization will depend upon the amount of authority delegated to the
lowest level. According to Allen, “Decentralization refers to the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest
level of authority except that which can be controlled and exercised at central points.

Decentralization is not the same as delegation. In fact, decentralization is all extension of delegation.
Decentralization pattern is wider is scope and the authorities are diffused to the lowest most level of
management. Delegation of authority is a complete process and takes place from one person to another.
While decentralization is complete only when fullest possible delegation has taken place. For example, the
general manager of a company is responsible for receiving the leave application for the whole of the
concern. The general manager delegates this work to the personnel manager who is now responsible for
receiving the leave applicants. In this situation delegation of authority has taken place. On the other hand,
on the request of the personnel manager, if the general manager delegates this power to all the
departmental heads at all level, in this situation decentralization has taken place. There is a saying that
“Everything that increasing the role of subordinates is decentralization and that decreases the role is
centralization”. Decentralization is wider in scope and the subordinate’s responsibility increase in this case.
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On the other hand, in delegation the managers remain answerable even for the acts of subordinates to their
superiors.

Implications of Decentralization

1. There are fewer burdens on the Chief Executive as in the case of centralization.
2. In decentralization, the subordinates get a chance to decide and act independently which develops
skills and capabilities. This way the organization is able to process reserve of talents in it.

3. In decentralization, diversification and horizontal can be easily implanted.

4. In decentralization, concern diversification of activities can place effectively since there is more
scope for creating new departments. Therefore, diversification growth is of a degree.

5. In decentralization structure, operations can be coordinated at divisional level which is not possible
in the centralization set up.

6. In the case of decentralization structure, there is greater motivation and morale of the employees
since they get more independence to act and decide.

7. In a decentralization structure, co-ordination to some extent is difficult to maintain as there are lot
many department divisions and authority is delegated to maximum possible extent, i.e., to the
bottom most level delegation reaches. Centralization and decentralization are the categories by
which the pattern of authority relationships became clear. The degree of centralization and de-
centralization can be affected by many factors like nature of operation, volume of profits, number of
departments, size of a concern, etc. The larger the size of a concern, a decentralization set up is
suitable in it.

Types of Government
Mogella . (2002) said “Consequently, central government control over the local government authorities is
manifested more clearly in the use of finance resource”. Few examples arising from Acts Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10
indicate that the relationship between the Central government and Local Government Authority has been a
command driven, i.e. while the Central government has a wide tax –base the Local Government is a

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narrow, the Central Government has a right to audit and monitor LGA finances and issue binding financial
procedures and regulations to LGA

Advantages of the centralization of the authority:

1- Minimizing cost and expenses.

2- Responsibilities and duties are well defined.

3- Depends largely on the general consensus.

4- Decision making is very direct and clear.

Disadvantages of the centralization of the authority.

1-Decisions may be misled while passing on and lower position departments don't have the decision-
making power, therefore it requires efficient and well-organized top department.

2- Attentions and support on each department or cities may not be balanced.

3- Delay of work information may result in inefficiency of the government.

4-Discrepancies in economy and information resources between centre and other places are significant.

The decentralization processes is argued to improve governance in public service provision in at least three
ways: by improving the efficiency of resource allocation; by promoting accountability and reducing
corruption within government; and by improving cost recovery.

MODULE 4: DEMOCRACY , GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT

GOVERNANCE, DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT: LECTURE 8

World Bank (1992) defines governance as the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a

country’s and resources for development. Governance represents how things get done. Ngware (1999)

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good governance is the manner in which the problem-solving, decision-making and efficient management

of public resources are done democratically and participatory ways from the grass root to the top.

He adds that good governance should include the following;

- The rule of law

- Democratic values

- Administrative and political accountability and transparent

- Absence of corruption

- Respect for constitution

- Free and fair election

- Maintain human rights

Again, World Bank (1989) points out that good governance must ensure the presence of human rights, it

mist check corruption, and it must promote democratization, accountability and transparent of leaders. But

the UDP( 1994) also argues that good governance must ensure sustainable development and people’s

centrality. Therefore the UDP comprises the following features;

- Freedom of association and expression

- Accountability of public offices

- Availability of valid and reliable information effective and efficient of public sector management.

- Cooperation between government and civil society organizations ( political parties, religions

NGOS

- The rule of laws

So good governance is more than administrative, mechanistic, multi-partism, and democracy because it

must deal with development, qualitative issues such as equity and empowerment of people. Good

governance must be able to design and coordinate the policies, strategies and programs that are effective

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in improving the standard of the people and to be able to follow up the implementation. When these are

done effectively then the UDP says that development is woven round the people and not people around

development

HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights and good governance are closely connected and always go hand in hand. Professor

MwesigaBaregu (1999) in preventive Diplomacy and Peace-Building in Southern Africa defines human

rights as the rights that belong to each person on the basis of his or her inherent dignity s human beings.

These are rights that belong to all people by virtue of their being human beings, irrespective of nationality,

race, color, age, political beliefs wealth etc.

Some of the basic human rights and fundamental freedom are;

- The right to life, liberty, and security of a person

- The right not to be subjected to slavery, torture, cruel,

- the right not to be subjected to arbitrary arrests, dentations or exile

- The right to be recognized as a person before the law

- The right to freedom of movement

- The right to own property, work, to free choice of employment

- The right to freedom of opinions and expression, thought and religion

- The right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association

- The right to take part in the government of one’s country, to equal access to public services

- The right to adequate standards of living eg food, shelter, water, medical care

- The right to education

- The right to marry and to found family

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CORRUPTION: LECTURE

Good governance and human rights cannot survive in the sphere of rampant corruption. Wherever there is

corruption there is no good governance and human rights. Corruption has a long history in our life because

it started many years ago and it has an origin from the bible. If you read the Bible Exodus 23:8 the Bible

says that “don’t accept the bribe, for a bribe blinds those who see and twists the words of the righteous”

What is corruption?

Is a behavior which deviates the formal duties of the society for private benefit. Corruption is for private

benefit rather than public benefit.

There are two theories of corruption

 Political economy theory. This is related to poverty .The more the corruption the higher the

poverty becomes in the society. So corruption has been seen as a negative aspect in the society

 Structural functionalist theory. Corruption here is viewed as positive role in the society. The more

the corruption the higher the development in the society because people will become

entrepreneurs.

There are two forms / types of corruption

 Petty corruption; is a type of corruption which is received by low civil servants in order to sustain

their daily needs. These are people like teachers, nurses, policemen,etc

 Grand corruption;This I normally received by high civil servants. They receive a large amount of

money through signing various contracts and get ten percent. Professor chachage coined it as

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 white collar corruption related by some one who is educated sitting in the office wearing a white

shirt and tie.

ACTORS OF CORRUPTION;

Bureaucrats, politicians, civil servants etc

CAUSES OF CORRUPTION;

Why do people receive corruption?Brownsherger (1989) did a research in Nigeria looking at what factors

contribute to corruption in the society. He came out with the following main causes:

i)Altitude/behavior of the society towards corruption

- It is the altitudes or behavior of the society which reinforces people to receive corruption. It is the customs

of people to thank somebody who is rich because of corruption and ignore the one who is poor because of

his / her obedient

-people are always roughing to those people who retire while they have nothing in their pockets

-even if wife, children, will rough the father

ii) Poverty; the more the poverty the higher corruption. If a person comes from poor family she is likely to

receive more corruption in order to gain material things

iii)-political elections/ campaign;

-During the election campaign it is claimed that candidates are spending a lot of money by bribing the

voters.

iv) Tribalism is highly associated by corruption This means that there are certain tribes which are too

corrupt in the society eg in Nigeria the IBO,

Again WaryobaSindeJoeseph in 1999 was appointed by President Mkapa to find out the root causes of

corruption and the way forward. He came out with the following reasons;

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V) Liberalization of internal trade policy puts business to be friend leaders in order to deviate the legal

systems

vi) Lack of transparency of the economy

vii) Appointment of corrupt leaders

Hosea (1999) Essays Combating Corruption analyses the following causes of corruption as follows;

ix) Concentration of power to be under individual person

x) Non-democratic government

xi) Cumbersome bureaucracy

xii) Underpaid civil servants

xiii) Weak judiciary set up eg courts; examples, sugar scandal, radar, fish scandal, Richmond, Epa,

( Tanzania), in Kenya ( Golden burgh scandal, Anglolism scandal

What can we do?

 Committed leaders egNyerere, SokoinneKawawaetc

 Civic education. People should be taught the disadvantages of corruption through mass media

 Corruption should be taught at all levels of education,

 Independent legal institutions dealing with corruption. The existing today independent

institutions such as the director general PCCB, Chair person of National Electoral Committee

and Judge of high court are presidential appointees therefore they can not fight corruption to

the top leadership of the government

Module 5: STATE AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

POLITICAL IDEAS IN AFRICA: LECTURE 6

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Did we have political ideas in Africa before colonialism? In order to answer this question we need to

visit the following two views looking at their relevance.

 Euro centric view

 Afro centric view

Euro centric view: This is Europeans’ view which opposes the existing of African political ideas before

coming the Europeans. The view has the following arguments;

1. African was dark and civilized continent before coming the Europeans; therefore they ask a question

that how is it possible to have political ideas in Africa while their people were underdeveloped?

2. Underdevelopment of Africa is ordained by God and economic backwardness of Africa are generic

backwardness of the race of black Africans due to the story of Noah from the Bible of Genesis 9:18-27

which states as “the sons of Noah who came from the ark were Shem, Ham and Japheth. When Noah

drank some of its wine, he became drunk and lay uncovered inside of his tent. Ham the father of

Canaan saw his father’s nakedness and told his two brothers outside. But Shem and Japhet took a

garment and covered him while their faces were turned on the other way without looking at the

nakedness of their father. When Noah woke from his wine and found out what his youngest son had

done to him he said, cursed be Canaan, the lowest slave and will be the slave of your brother and

blessed the Lord the God of Shem and Japheth will live in the tents of Shem.”

Afro centric View: The view rejects the Eurocentric view that Africa had no political ideas during pre-

colonial era. During this period Africans had their own political ideas which enabled them to develop

socially and economically. Professor Mazrui from Kenya argues that during this period some parts of

Africa had already having social formation and social formation emerged as feudal states. These feudal

states had strong political organization eg West Africa the rise of Ghana Empire, Mali and Songhai

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 Empire,Monomotapa Empire in Zimbabwe and the Baganda kingdom in interlacustrine regions are

good examples of how Africans were very rich in political ideas.

What about colonialism era

During the period of colonialism in Africa, the people of Africa had a little political idea because the

colonialists distorted totally the African political ideas by planting the seeds of inferiority complex. In this

period Europeans were seen as more superior than Africans. It was through inferiority which made Africans

to demands their rights against them people like Nyerere, Nkurumah, Obotte, Kenyatta, Fanon, Amicably

Cabral etc

1. Nkrumah-

-was born in 1909 I the colony of gold Coast (Ghana), it was British colony

-He graduated as a teacher at Achnotar teachers’ college

-He graduated M.A (Education) at Licon University, M.A (philosophy) Filvania University

-ideas: he believed on traditional African society based on equality and dignity

-African socialism

-African unity (continental unity

-Democracy but one political party

2. Nyerere

-Was born in 1922 at Butiama- Musoma in Tanzania

-His father was a chief of Zanaki

-in 1949 he went in Edinburgh University London and studied M.A (History, Economic and Philosophy)

-In 1954 he became the founder of TANU

Ideas:

-He believed as Nkrumah on traditional African society based an equality and dignity

-African socialism

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-African unity but he advocated on regional organizations first to be strong and later forming continental

unity.

-Democracy should belong to all people and not minority in number.

3. Senkotore:

-He lived in Guinea

-He believed that African unity should be the fifth stage (last stage) of all success and he arranged as

follows (a) pre-colonial society

(b) Colonial conquest

(c) Colonial period

(d) Anti-colonial struggle to achieve independence

(e)African unity

-He believed on Democracy but it should come from stronger political party which will have the will of the

party egccm believes

- He believed on socialism which will come after revolution, this socialism will nd up the conflict of the

individuals.

4. Leoapard Senghor (Negritude) ideas against segregation

-He lived in Senegal

-He came with a theory of negritude that Africa is for black and black people must rule themselves

-The priorities for Africans should be given themselves and therefore the development of his theory based

on two levels;

(a) Negritude in continental level-African should be ruled themselves

(b) Negritude outside of Africa- Africa should accommodate others who are out of African continent.

-He said that the war of Africa is the war of Africa wherever they are, so black America should assist their

fellow Africans.

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5. Fanon (violence)

- He was a philosopher and not a leader

-He believed on violence because the colonialists took our continent by violence, so violence is the means

of getting our independence.

6. Obotte (common man charter)

-He was a freedom fighter in Uganda

-he had two enemies to fight (a) to fight against British colonialist

(b) to liberate people from feudalism this was under kulaks.

-He formulated common man charter; he believed on socialism that nothing is possible without eliminating

feudalism

7. Amical Cabral (Portuguese colony Guinea Bissau)

-He came up with a theory of Cultural Revolution. That is meant that independence can be succeeded once

we shall change the culture of the people

-By doing so people may join to the guerrilla war (eg Mozambique).

8. Kaunda (Humanity)

-He lived in Zambia

-He was non-violence

-He demanded freedom without blood-shed

-He was a follower of MatmaGandh

-He believed that you have a love and tolerance to your enemy

9. Kenyatta

-He lived in Kenya

-He believed on democratic principles of one political party

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-He believed a lot of political parties are a symbol of conflicts in the society.

10. Prof AbrahamanBabu

-He came from Zanzibar

-He believed on African socialism

--He came from Zanzibar

-He believed on African socialism

AFRICAN NATIONALISM: LECTURE 7

Brace (1953) refers to nationalism as justifying ideology of national state, is a system of symbols of

justification for acts of a state; others define nationalism as a group of consciousness, a sense of unity or

community that identifies the individual with an existing political state, it is a state of mind, a feeling, as

common sympathies, as a corporate sentiment prevalent among groups of human beings; others say

nationalism was a desire of Africans to get their own independence from the colonialists.

African nationalism began early especially during the 1 st World war and after the Second World War African

nationalism gained more momentum. There were two main factors which gave birth the rise of nationalism,

these were, external and internal factors.

EXTERNAL FACTORS

1. Emergence of UNO 1945

UNO stimulated independence for Africans for a number of ways.

-in 1940’s UNO provided a charter of decolonization for Africans and the charter stated that “ to respect the

right of all people and to make them to choose the form of government under which people like themselves”

2. The role played by American president and British prime Minister

-The American president sir Roosevelt and British prime minister sir William Churchill signed a charter for

decolonization of Africa.

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3. The rise of Pan-Africanism

-It contributed due to its conferences which conducted outside and inside of Africa. Eg Manchester

conference which was attended by African elites such as Kenyatta of Kenya, Nkruma, MatmaGandh where

they discussed on man one vote

The Bandung conference in Indonesia in 1955 which was Afro-Asians conferences, Cairo 1957, Accra

1958,

4. The rise of two antagonistic camps (USSR and USA)

-After the Second World War they emerged two antagonistic camps such as USA and USSR both having

different political ideologies, eg USSR had socialism ideology therefore she advocated African nationalism

because she was feeling by so called proletariat internationalism; thus was why her foreign minister sir

V.M. Motolov when he was addressing the UNO conference at San Francisco I in 1945 he said “ first of all

we must see to it that all dependant territories are enabled to get the path of independence as soon as

possible”.

-At the same time USA was a capitalist country she supported because she had no any colony in the world

so she wanted decolonization of Africa in order to exploit the new independent ones through in the form of

neo-colonialism, thus was why after 1945 America formed Breton wood institutions IMF and World Bank as

capitalist tool of exploitation.

5. The Italo-Ethiopian conflict

-The failure of Italy to invade Ethiopia in 1896 and in 1935 ordered by Mussolini was a big lesson to learn

among the Africans that African can resist their nations against invaders. This was used as a moral

encouragement among the African fighters.

6. The role of returned –e-soldiers from the war

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These soldiers brought political awareness to their fellow Africans by telling them what had happened in the

war after looking at the European askaris running a way from the war. These African askaris realized

themselves that Europeans and Africans are the same human beings.

6. The rise of dialectical law

This was a scientific law which gained more momentum after the Second World War and it stated that

“wherever there is resistance in a particular area there is also a oppression and wherever there is

oppression there is also there is also resistance.” This law was quoted by African elites wherever they

wanted to address their grievances against Europeans exploitation.

INTERNAL FACTORS

1. Intensive colonial exploitation

After the Second World War the colonial powers were running back and therefore they failed to raise their

colonial economy. In order to compensate their economy the colonialists used harsh rules in plantation,

settler plantation and in peasant economy. Some of the harsh rules were; forced labor, taxation, land

alienation for Shona and Ndebele for Zimbabwe and Kenya for Kikuyu.

2. Cooperative unions and Trade unions

These incorporated by political parties in order to demand their independence eg in Tanzania, the Tanzania

Federation of Labor incorporated by TANU to oppose colonialism, while Kenya the Luo trading union

incorporated by KANU to oppose colonialism.

3. Welfare associations

The Africans formed various associations which encouraged them in political awareness wherever they met

together eg games, clubs social activities

4.Colonial education

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The content of colonial education was not designed to serve the African interests rather it was designed to

serve Europeans interests. Bout their aim came vice-versa after the few who received such education

acted as ant-colonialists such as Nyerere, Kaunda, Obote, Nkrumah, Kenyatta

-But why some African countries applied the barrel of the gun and not peaceful means?

1.Types of colonialism

Those countries which had settler dominated economy and plantation applied the barrel of the gun because

the colonialists had a lot of investments. But peasant agriculture economy applied peaceful means because

the colonial economy was left on the hands of peasants so it was easy to resist.

2.The position of colonizing power within the capitalist system

The richest colonial powers were easier to surrender the independence than poor colonial powers eg

British and Portuguese respectively.

3. The strong creation of puppet regime

The creation puppet regime within the African states for a large extent delayed the African independence.

Egfalse independence of Zimbabwe in 1965 to Abel Mzolewa as appointed by Ian Smith of South Africa by

so called Unilateral declaration of Independence (UDI)

POLITICAL CONFLICT IN AFRICAT:

-The term conflict has many definitions; is misunderstanding of ideas between the two groups of people.

This misunderstanding of ideas can be in socio-economic or political matters.

Why do we have political conflict in Africa? African continent is characterized by a numbers of political

conflict eg Zimbabwe, Somalia, Kenya, Rwanda, Congo DRC Sudan south and north etc.

i) Scarcity of land: Some African countries have large areas of land while others have small areas; those

which have small areas of land are trying to intervene the others eg Uganda and Tanzania in 1978,

ii) Tribalism/ ethnics; Uganda with Baganda, Rwanda with Hutu and Tutsi, Somalia etc

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iii) Lack of employment among the youths: There is a strong correlation between unemployment and

political strife/ conflict. Unemployed people are likely more to engage in political conflict than employed

people they have nothing to loose. Eg in Libya demonstration 2011, in Kenya at Kibira street, etc

IV) Religion factor: Both Christians and Islam are contributing to political conflict if not handled carefully eg

in Sudan northern part is controlled by Islam while southern part is controlled by Christians, Nigeria etc

Vi) Political ideologies of the states: This normally is happened when a radical reader is against the

westerners in exploiting the African resources then the coup d’état may happen, eg CONGO DRC Kabila

father

vii) Monopolization of power for a long time: Some African leaders are not staying on power for long time

and not willing to surrender their power through constitution methods, egUganda Museven, Togo, Ivory

coast (Laurent Bagbovswatara), Senegal (Wade) etc

viii) Lack of good governance: The absence of good governance and human rights in certain may

contribute to political conflict. People may lose hope to their leaders.

IMPACT OF POLITICAL CONFLICT IN AFRICA

1. The rise of economic instability: When there is a war the economy becomes unstable because people

cannot concentrate fully in economic activities rather they will run away to escape dying.

2. Availability of diseases: HIV, and other communicable diseases

3. Depopulation: Loss of people, egRwand genocide at Kimbari in 1994 it was estimated more than 2.im

lost their lives, Congo DRC 1.5 m, Somalia 1.m

4. Destruction of infrastructure: Roads, schools, hospitals bridges may be bombed and destructed

5. Violation of human rights egtorture, rapping, robbery, human skinning business, in Sudan the Khartoum

government used Janjawid to kill black Africans

6. Availability of environmental degradation: When people are fighting normally environment is destroyed at

large.

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7 Creation of refugees: people may run away to escape the war and become as refugees

What can be done?

1. Diplomatic method: This includes negotiation of the two parts and discuss together on the table, eg

Somalia, Kenya ODM and PNU, SUDAN, etc

2. Military intervention: This is international army which may be sent to a particular nation in order to keep

peace. This can be done as a last stage if negotiation is failing away.

3. Imposition of sanctions: The international bodies eg Security Council and big powers may impose

economic embargo to between the fighters, egIran, Syria, Eritrea etc

4. The provision of civic education and military techniques among people, e Tanzania during

MwalimuNyerere regime it was compulsory a student to attend national service before getting employment.

MODULE 6: ETHICS AND DEVELOPMENT

Introduction:
The term Ethics can be defined as the study of, moral values of human behavior. Etymologically the word
ethics comes from a Latin word Ethos which means customs, practices, laws or usages.Ethicscomes
human person history that looked at themselves and is looking at their own and tries to ask the following
questions:
 Who are we
 How best can we live our lives
 Is this right way of living?
 Is there no better way of living like this? These questions were asked many years ago among the
Greece Philosophers such as Plato, Socrates and Aristotle.
 Ethics is one of the branches of Philosophy which shows right conduct and good life. In Ethics we
expect the society to have good life through moral conduct a person will make right and fair to
another person.
WHY DO WE STUDY ETHICS

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  To help us to understand where we are now, what are doing now and what do we
expect to do in future
 To make people to distinguish the right from wrong (rightness) from wrong
( wrongness)
SPHERES OF ETHICS
The sphere of ethics always changes time to time according to the changes facing the society. The society
is not static rather it is dynamic and ethics also changes according to the needs of society at that time.
The spheres of ethics are in social, political, economic and environment etc. Within these spheres the main
spheres we get as what is known as professionalism ethics such as teaching ethics, medical ethics, legal
ethics, business ethics etc.
FAMILY INSTITUTIONS
Family is one of the institutions in the society which is expected to have goodness lifeby avoidingevils.The
family constitutes of father mother and children who are expected to live a goodness life acting as human
dignity by trying to maintain the moral values of the society. But in the real sense families do not have
goodness life because the moral values of the society have been eroded away. Some examples of eroded
moral values within the society are;
 Rapping; today there high level of rapping in our society. People are rapping both young children
and adultseg rapping to a child aged three years old. But most amazingly some of the rappers are
religious leaders both Islam and Christians. So what do you expect in the society when the
rappers are religious leaders? Will you expect goodness life to that society? The answer is no
 Drug abuse: There is also high level of drug abuse which is nicked by local term mateja
 Domestic violence: wife beating, children etc
 Homosexuality behavior: This is a very critical problem and it worldwide problem. Today most of
the African countries there is high level of homosexuality compared to the previous time. We are
always witnessing people having the same sex conducting their marriages publicity.
In USA the Massachussetprovince is legalized the rights of same marriage; In England it was believed
that the Anglican Bishop at that time was homosexuality. The former prime minister of England at that
time sir David Cameroon announce that there will be no any African countries which will be able to
qualify to receive grants and loans from IMF and World bank if they will not practice homosexuality.
That ides was also supported by the former America president Obama.

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 InAfrica particular, South Africa and Malawi are also legalized homosexuality, also in Tanzania the
number of body sellers is also increasing day to day and they called with nick name as dada
poaegmanzese, Buguruni, ohio street etc in dar.
 Corruption: is a result of erosion in the society. Today corruption is rampant for every ectc in
Tanzania. It has affected negatively the professionalism ethics of many of the people like
medical ethics, teaching ethics legal ethics etc
According to Ethical Conduct, leaders are not allowed to receive corruption or to misbehave. Leaders are
expected to obedient acting right and fair to the people endowed with high dignity. During the time of
MwalimuNyerere’s regime, he introduced ethical leadership conduct(MiikoyaUongozi) where a person
who became a leader was responsible to follow that conduct. Likewise today , under president magufuli, he
has formulated the commission of conduct of leaders which is under judge Nsekela.

THEORIES POF ETHICS

1. Consequentialism: This is one of the ethics theories which states that moral, goodness or badness
of the society is determined by the results or consequences of a particular persons. Eg if you tell
people lies / truth then the consequences of your lies or truth will result badness or goodness to
the society.
2. Ethical-Intuitionism: (ability to know something by feeling). This that a person has ability to know
right/ wrong by making feelings. Eg if you feel bad or good then you can say this is good or bad.
Through feeling g people can make goodness life or badness life. Therefore the decision of
changing of human life depends on a person’s’ feelings
3. Ethical-Egoism: This theory argues that each person should do whatever promotes their own best
interests; this becomes the basis for moral choices.
4. Virtue Ethics: This was originated from Ancient Greece such as Plato, Socrates and Aristotle’s’
notion of virtue. They believed that the virtue ( knowledge ) is very important to a person, and
therefore Plato concluded that a society should have virtue leaders that leaders should have
knowledge. Application of this theory is based on the premises that good ethics should come from
virtues’ person ( a person who has good knowledge) not Mbumbumbu leaders. An if
apesonneeds to seek a pieces of advice then they are supposed to consult people have
knowledge. The solution of the society’s problems should be solved by educated people.

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 5. Emotivism:This ethical theory is based on a study of the type of language used in ethical sentences
and discussion. Notice, for example, how people get emotional about ethical issues. On this view
ethical pronouncements are a type of language which attempts to evoke similar emotions in the
hearer that the speaker has.
Virtue and vices in the society
Virtue is defined as a person’s behavior /attitudes of high moral standards in the society. There are two
types of virtue:
 Theological virtues ( faith, hope and love)
 Cardinal virtues ( prudence, justice, temperance, fortitude)
CARDINAL
 Prudence is the intellectual virtue which enables the intellect to judge correctly in matters
patterning to ethical order. Here a person is able to judge correctly in each individual case what
the ethical order demands of him/her. Prudence is concerned with the adaption of the proper
means required to realize the ends of human person in all his/her relationships. Prudence inquiries
into the nature of the end sought and the various means capable of realizing it. Prudence then
judges the best means under the concrete situation of the case.
 Justice:This is fair treatment of people, treating people equallywithout favoritisms equitable share
of social benefits of the society, he takes 10 percent of the money and buys an old one, is he just
to the fellow citizens?
 Temperance: the practice of controlling your behavior like not eating food which is restricted by
society or religion eg not eating pock for Islam
 Fortitude. This is another virtue whichis makes someone to suffer a lot when he/ she is in a great
obstacle and decide to use her / his patriotism spirit in order to make good decision for
development of the society.
THEOLOGICAL VIRTUE
1. Love; If you have another person you may make him to love you so much . The more the love
you show me the higher I love you too much. Lack of love in the society leads to ethical
problems like killings ( albino), rapping, robbery, etc
 Love has the following qualities

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1. Love is silent: There are times when we cannot give reason why we love. Love is for its own sake i.e.
you are my friend come what may.
2. Love is communion: It unites two lovers (I-You) without destroying any one’s identity. The two (I-You)
make an effort to make the other realize him/herself. In love the two complement each other (love is not a
fusion), love makes one grow by acquiring from the other what he/she lacks.
3. Love is presence: It is a living experience of being present for the other. And deeper implies “I” going to
penetrate the “You” and live there, and the” You” too penetrating the “I” and staying there.
4. Self-giving: Love makes the “I” a gift to the “YOU”. It is directed to the completion of the other and in the
process the “I” fulfils itself. Far from subjectivity the other to the self, love helps the “You” to become the self
in the full exercise of self directing freedom.
5. Love is creative: It is vigorous commitment towards the fulfillment of the other. It influences and helps the
other to grow.
6. Love is reciprocal: It brings the “I” and the “You” in communion and the two become “We” or “Us” of love.
7. Love is supreme value: All values fuse without losing their identity. It animates all other values i.e. a
worker who works for love accomplishes the task better and more than the worker of salary.
Family
It is generally agreed that all people accept that family is an institute basic and fundamental to human
beings. Human being is asocial being and this aspect starts here in the family institution. Our being already
presupposes a family which is well founded reality. Human sexuality inclines to a union of man and woman
in love. This union called marriage is not an accident; the union leads the two to have children who further
strengthen the union of husband and wife. On this ground marriage has been considered as a natural
institution. Today, this natural institution is widely questioned, the phenomenon of divorce alone is a proof
that people’s attitude towards marriage has vigorously changed. Traditional understanding of marriage is
between man and woman; this can be a man and many women (polygamy) or one woman and many men
(polyandry). Traditionally, there were a number of reasons for marriage:
1. To control sexual activities and relations.
2. To provide a stable setting for the generation of children and for the continuation of the society.
3. Marriage was to raise and integrate the children into the society.
4. Marriage was to nourish and develop the adults emotionally (maturity). It is believed that celibate people
are so aggressive because they miss what is in marriage and thus load it on others. It was believed that
celibates can be so uncharitable as a result of their missing marriage life.

41
5. Marriage was to furnish the settings of the economic activities. The two collaborate in the economic
activities.
6. Marriage was to assign social status to its members i.e. Mr and Mrs. Today these functions are
challenged and subjected to change. The factors that contribute to this challenge are:
1. Movement of the society: A married man from Tanzania working in South Africa is temporarily separated
from his wife.
2. Questioning of sex roles: A person is born a man and wants to become a woman or a woman wants to
become a man. A woman conceiving marriage as submission to the man.
3. Urbanization.
4. Industrialization which brings urbanization.
5. Technological advancement: contraceptives, cloning, bottle children (sperm
banks, test tube children).
TYPES OF FAMILY
1. Both parents and children are living together in the same house
2. Single adults living together without children
3. Single man living alone without a woman or children
4. Single woman living alone without a man/ children
5. Single man living with children but without woman ( divorce )
6. Single woman living with children without a man ( divorce ).
Due to the absence of love in the family is now leads to the by so called Empty –shell Marriages. These
empty –shell marriages ate categorized into three types:

1. Diverse empty shell- marriage:This is a kind of empty shell-marriage in which the husband or wife
lacks sexual interest to another couple. This kind of marriage is characterized by :
 No consideration between man and woman (no love for each other).
 marriage exists because of the external force from outside either by religious leaders/
parents or husband is worrying to divorce her because he may lose the job
 The time of sleeping each one is sleeping alone but during the day they may walk
together in the church but they aren’t compatible
2. Conflict habituated empty shell marriage:
 This is a type of marriage in which husband and wife are fighting every sun rise and sun
sets. They may fight in private or public affairs
 They tend to be compatible while not
 This type of marriage has one peculiar characteristic that although they are fighting yet
they can do sex intercourse but once they finish their action they may fight again

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 3. Passive Congenial empty shell marriage: Here the spouses make sexual intercourse in order to
feel his / her interest but they don’t have true love.
 One spouse contributes little participation to his/ her spouse
 They walk together but they aren’t fighting but their problem is to reach sexual climax

SEMINAL QUESTIONS

1. “The causes of underdevelopment in the Less Developing countries (LDCs) are internally rooted

rather than externally rooted”. Provide critical analysis of this statement

2. “Africa’s development challenges are purely internally and should be solved internally because

they have little bearing to external factors” Critically discuss the validity of this statement using

relevant examples.

3. Describe W.W. Rostow’s stages of development theory and show its limitations in explaining

development trajectories for African countries.

4. Using African countries of your choice show the relevance of dependency school of thought in

explaining the problems o underdevelopment.

5. “Development is a multidisciplinary and multidimensional concept”. Discuss this assertion as

you survey the different meanings of development in the history of human knowledge and
development.
6. “Underdevelopment of the Periphery countries can be explained historically”. How far do you
support or refute this statement
7. Outlines the main causes and indicators of gender inequalities in any country of your choice and
provide concrete proposals on how to address them.
8. “If we transform institutions, we can begin transform gender relations.” Discuss
9. Respect for Human rights is an important strategic and facilitating instrument that ensures rapid
economic growth and social development are achieved and sustained in country.” Discuss
10. “Lack of good governance is a serious challenge facing many African countries”. Discuss
11. Compare and contrast centralization type of leadership from decentralization, and suggest
which type of leadership plays active role to the society.
12. Discuss the differences between centralized and decentralizeddecision making, support your
argument using central and local governments in Tanzania

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13. The second world war in Africa was the watershed of African history.” Discuss this statement
with concrete examples.
14. .”Conflict, civil war and political strife pose serious obstacles to the development process in
Africa”. Make a critical analysis of the causes, consequences and possible solutions to this
15. Situation. What is ethics? By using concrete examples, discuss ethical challenges in any
society

16. What are the 10 moral values to our society

17. The growing state of poverty and unemployment in Africa has internal links. Discus this
statement by taking in consideration the ongoing process of globalization.
18. Suppose you are appointed by permanent secretary of the Ministry of Land to director of
Planning Surveyor of Temeke Municipal, what issues will you address ethically to control the
rate of corruption in your working place?
19. What is ethics and morality? Discus any moral values and show their importance to the society

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