session – 2019-22

BRANCH- CS&IT
SEMESTER- III
SUBJECT – RDBMS WITH ORACLE

NAME – AMIT KUMAR VERMA

ROLL NO. – R19CA1CA0004
COURSE CODE – 3IBCA 304

RDBMS WITH ORACLE

 DATA :-

◦ Data means known facts that can be recorded and that have

implicit meaning .

◦ In simple words Data is collection of information.

 DATABASE :-

The database is collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve , insert and
delete the data efficiently. It is also use to organize the data in the form of a table ,
schema, views, and reports, etc.

 DBMS :-

The software which fascinates to manage the database.

For e.g. :- My SQL, Oracle , DB2 etc .

DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database

creation , storing data in it, updating data , creating a table in the database and a
lot more.
It provide protection and security to the database . In the case of multiusers, it
also maintain data consistency.

  DATABASE MODELS :-
Database model is a logical structure of database. It describes the design of
database to reflect entities, attributes, relationship among data, constraints etc.

TYPES OF DATA MODELS :-

(i) Object based logical model :-

Entity Relationship Model :- This model captures the relationships

between real-world entities much like the network model, but it isn’t as
directly tied to the physical structures of the database. Instead, it’s often
used for designing a database conceptually.
 A common form of the ER diagram is the star schema, in which a central
fact table connects to multiple dimensional tables.

(ii) Record based logical model :-

 Hierarchical data model :- The hierarchical model organizes data into
tree-like structure, where each record has a single parent or root. Sibling
records are sorted into a particular order. That order is used as the
physical order for storing the database. This model is good for describing
many real-world relationships.

 Network data model :- The network database model allows each

child to have multiple parents. It helps you to address the need to model
more complex relationships like as the orders/ parts many-to-many
relationship. In this model, entities are organized in a graph which can be
accessed through several paths.

 Relational data model :- Relational DBMS is the most widely used

DBMS model because it is one of the easiest. This model is based on
normalizing data in the rows and columns of the tables . Relational model
stored in fixed structures and manipulated using SQL.

 Structure of DBMS :-
Database Management System (DBMS) is a software that allows access to data stored in
a database and provides an easy and effective method of – 
 
 Defining the information.
 Storing the information.
 Manipulating the information.
 Protecting the information from system crashes or data theft.
 Differentiating access permissions for different users.
The database system is divided into three components: Query Processor, Storage
Manager, and Disk Storage. These are explained as following below. 
1. Query Processor : 
It interprets the requests (queries) received from end user via an application program into
instructions. It also executes the user request which is received from the DML compiler. 
Query Processor contains the following components – 
 

 DML Compiler – 
It processes the DML statements into low level instruction (machine language),
so that they can be executed. 
 
 DDL Interpreter – 
It processes the DDL statements into a set of table containing meta data (data
about data). 
 
  Embedded DML Pre-compiler – 
It processes DML statements embedded in an application program into
procedural calls. 
 
 Query Optimizer – 
It executes the instruction generated by DML Compiler. 
 
2. Storage Manager : 
Storage Manager is a program that provides an interface between the data stored in the
database and the queries received. It is also known as Database Control System. It
maintains the consistency and integrity of the database by applying the constraints and
executes the DCL statements. It is responsible for updating, storing, deleting, and
retrieving data in the database. 
It contains the following components – 
 
 Authorization Manager – 
It ensures role-based access control, i.e,. checks whether the particular person
is privileged to perform the requested operation or not. 
 
 Integrity Manager – 
It checks the integrity constraints when the database is modified. 
 
 Transaction Manager – 
It controls concurrent access by performing the operations in a scheduled way
that it receives the transaction. Thus, it ensures that the database remains in the
consistent state before and after the execution of a transaction. 
 
 File Manager – 
It manages the file space and the data structure used to represent information in
the database. 
 
 Buffer Manager – 
It is responsible for cache memory and the transfer of data between the
secondary storage and main memory. 
 
3. Disk Storage : 
It contains the following components – 
 
 Data Files – 
It stores the data. 
 
 Data Dictionary – 
It contains the information about the structure of any database object. It is the
 repository of information that governs the metadata. 
 
 Indices – 
It provides faster retrieval of data item. 
 

RDBMS :-

 A relational database refers to a database that stores data in a

structured format using rows and columns.

 This makes it easier to locate and access specific values within

the database.

 It is “relational” because the value within each table are related

to each other . Tables may also be related to other tables.

 The relational structure makes it possible to run quires across

multiple table at once.

Cod’s law for RDBMS :-

Dr Edgar F. Codd, after his extensive research on the Relational Model
of database systems, came up with twelve rules of his own, which
according to him, a database must obey in order to be regarded as a true
relational database.
These rules can be applied on any database system that manages stored
data using only its relational capabilities. This is a foundation rule,
which acts as a base for all the other rules.

Cod’s twelve rule :-

 Rule 0 :- The Foundation Rule
Rule 1 :- Information Rule
Rule 2 :- Guaranteed Access Rule
Rule 3 :- Systematic Treatment of Null Value
Rule 4 :- Active/Dynamic Online Catalog based on the relational model
Rule 5 :- Comprehensive Data Sub Language Rule
Rule 6 :- View Updating Rule
Rule 7 :- Relational Level Operation Rule
Rule 8 :- Physical Data Independence Rule
Rule 9 :- Logical Data Independence Rule
Rule 10 :- Integrity Independence Rule
Rule 11 :- Distribution Independence Rule
Rule 12 :- Non Subversion Rule

Rule 0 :-
This rule states that for a system to qualify as an RDBMS , it must be able to
manage database entirely through the relational capabilities.

Rule 1: Information Rule

The data stored in a database, may it be user data or metadata, must be a value of
some table cell. Everything in a database must be stored in a table format.

Rule 2: Guaranteed Access Rule

Every single data element (value) is guaranteed to be accessible logically with a
combination of table-name, primary-key (row value), and attribute-name (column
value). No other means, such as pointers, can be used to access data.

Rule 3: Systematic Treatment of NULL Values

The NULL values in a database must be given a systematic and uniform treatment.
This is a very important rule because a NULL can be interpreted as one the following −
data is missing, data is not known, or data is not applicable.

Rule 4: Active/Dynamic Online Catalog based on the relational model

The structure description of the entire database must be stored in an online catalog,
known as data dictionary, which can be accessed by authorized users. Users can use
the same query language to access the catalog which they use to access the database
itself.

Rule 5: Comprehensive Data Sub-Language Rule

A database can only be accessed using a language having linear syntax that supports
data definition, data manipulation, and transaction management operations. This
language can be used directly or by means of some application. If the database allows
access to data without any help of this language, then it is considered as a violation.

Rule 6: View Updating Rule

All the views of a database, which can theoretically be updated, must also be
updatable by the system.

Rule 7: High-Level Insert, Update, and Delete Rule

A database must support high-level insertion, updation, and deletion. This must not be
limited to a single row, that is, it must also support union, intersection and minus
operations to yield sets of data records.

Rule 8: Physical Data Independence

The data stored in a database must be independent of the applications that access the
database. Any change in the physical structure of a database must not have any
impact on how the data is being accessed by external applications.

Rule 9: Logical Data Independence

The logical data in a database must be independent of its user’s view (application). Any
change in logical data must not affect the applications using it. For example, if two
tables are merged or one is split into two different tables, there should be no impact or
change on the user application. This is one of the most difficult rule to apply.

Rule 10: Integrity Independence

A database must be independent of the application that uses it. All its integrity
constraints can be independently modified without the need of any change in the
application. This rule makes a database independent of the front-end application and
its interface.
Rule 11: Distribution Independence
The end-user must not be able to see that the data is distributed over various locations.
Users should always get the impression that the data is located at one site only. This
rule has been regarded as the foundation of distributed database systems.

Rule 12: Non-Subversion Rule

If a system has an interface that provides access to low-level records, then the
interface must not be able to subvert the system and bypass security and integrity
constraints.

 Data Dictionary :-

 Data Dictionary is heart of DBMS.

 Data Dictionary is also known as catalog.
 Data Dictionary is centralized of meta-data and Metadata is used to by
developers to develop the programs, queries, controls and procedures to
manage and manipulate the data.
 Data Dictionary is integral part of database and hold the information about
database that is stored in it.
 Through Data Dictionary, System analyst define or look up information
about entities, attributes, relationships, records etc.

 | INFORMATION PROVIDED BY DATA DICTIONARY

Names and details of Tables present in database
 Indexes, Columns, procedures, description of database
 Contains information about constraints like primary key.
 Contains the information about the views of the database
 Relationships to other variables and Variables format.
 Contains the physical information of the table like about their storage, about
their alternation, etc.
 Data Dictionary describe logical structure of database, contains record types
and data item
 Last accessed and updated information of the object
Eg :- Data dictionary can be personal details of student

Roll_No | Name | Class | Section

 TYPES OF DATA DICTIONARY

1. Integrated or Active Data Dictionary :-

 Built in data dictionary or system catalog that is frequently accessed and updated
throughout life of DBMS
 Managed automatically by the DBMS with every database access, thereby keeping its
access information up-to-date.
 Consistent with the current structure and definition of the database.

2  Passive or Stand alone Data Dictionary :-

 A passive data dictionary is not updated automatically

 Not used in day to day database processing
 Available without a particular DBMS
 Managed by the users and is modified manually when the database structure change
 Whatever the data dictionary’s format, its existence provides database designer and end
users with a much improved ability to communicate.

Kernel :-
It is a computer program that is core of OS with computer control over everything in
system.
RDBMS KERNEL :-
 Two important pieces of RDBMS architecture are the kernel, which is the software , and
the data dictionary , which consists of the system-level data structures used by the kernel
to manage the database You might think of an RDBMS as an operating system (or set of
subsystems), designed specifically for controlling data access; its primary functions are
storing, reteriving, and securing data. An RDBMS maintains its own list of authorized
users and their associated privilages; manages memeory cash.

 Introduction to Oracle RDBMS and Client/Server Computing –

CLIENT/SERVER COMPUTING Client/Server is a term used to describe a computing model for the
development of computerized systems. This model is based on the distribution of functions between
two types of independent and autonomous processors: servers and clients. A client is any process that
requests specific services from server processes. A server is a process that provides requested services
for clients. Client and server processes can reside in the same computer or in different computers
connected by a network.

Forces Server that drive the Client/Server

The general forces that drive the move to client/server computing are:
• The changing business environment.
• The growing need for enterprise data access.
• The demand for end user productivity gains based on the efficient use for data resources.
• Technological advances that have made client/server computing practical.
• Growing cost/performance advantages of PC-based platforms.
** Introduction to Oracle :-
Oracle database is a relational database management system. It is known as Oracle
database, OracleDB or simply Oracle. It is produced and marketed by Oracle
Corporation.

Oracle database is the first database designed for enterprise grid computing. The
enterprise grid computing provides the most flexible and cost effective way to manage
information and applications.

Different editions of Oracle database

Following are the four editions of the Oracle database.

o Enterprise Edition: It is the most robust and secure edition. It offers all features,
including superior performance and security.
o Standard Edition: It provides the base functionality for users that do not require
Enterprise Edition's robust package.
o Express Edition (XE): It is the lightweight, free and limited Windows and Linux
edition.
o Oracle Lite: It is designed for mobile devices.

Or

Currently, its database comes in five different editions based on the features

available.

 Standard Edition One: It is suitable for single-server or highly branched

business applications with limited features.

 Standard Edition: It delivers all facilities provided in Standard Edition

One. In addition, it provides larger machine support and Oracle Real

Application clustering service.

  Enterprise Edition: This edition is packed with features like security,

performance, scalability, and availability, required for highly-critical

applications in which online transaction processing is involved.

 Express Edition: It is an entry-level edition that is free to download,

install, manage, develop and deploy.

 Personal Edition: It comes with the same features of Enterprise edition

except Oracle Real Application Clustering.

Features of Oracle
An Oracle database offers the following features to meet the requirements of

powerful database management:

 Scalability and Performance: Features like Real Application Clustering

and Portability make an Oracle database scalable according to the

usage. In a multiuser database, it is required to control data consistency

and concurrency which are contemplated by Oracle.

 Availability: Real-time applications require high data availability. High

performing computing environments are configured to provide all-time

data availability. Data is available during the time of planned or

unplanned downtimes and failures.

 Backup and Recovery: Its layout complete recovery features to recover

data from almost all kinds of failures. In case of failure, the database
 needs to be recovered within no time for high availability. Unaffected

parts of data are available while the affected ones are getting recovered.

 Security: Securing the data is always the top priority. Oracle provides

mechanisms to control data access and usage. Implementing

authorization and editing user actions can prevent unauthorized access

and allow distinct access to the users.

NOTE :-
Cluster :- It is