Components, Tools and Techniques of GIS Fa in the context of geography in chapter 1.In chapters and e evolution of GIS d stated that it not only strengthens GIS but also draws jescribed thi dwelt upon remote sensing an Wehaved 3wehave strength fr We would now give Gig. But first we will present a 1.0 DEFINITION OF GIS om it. an overview of the components, tools, and techniques associated with few rigorous definitions of GIS. iumerous attempts have been made to define GIS. Dangermond, in 1988, described GIS as consisting software, procedureand people. Maguire, in 1991, saw GiSas comprising o context: hardware, software, data and liveware. of Gls definitions. Burrough and eir function and utility: of five basic elements: Data, hardware, «four basicelements which operate nan institutional There are several other forms McDonnel (1998) have characterized the various definitions based on th (@) Tool Box-based definitions (A poswerfulset of tools fr collecting, storing retevinB at will ransformin _ spl data from the eal world” (Burrough, 1986). y (i) “A system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analy2ing and displaying data which __stespecally referenced to the Earth’ (Department of Envisonment 997, ) “Ainfrmation technology whichstores analyses 24 displays boar lata’ (Parker, 1988). gand displaying andnon-spatial eeRemote Sensing, GIS, and Wetlang , Mang 60 sy b) Database definitions — @ | sesysein ich mst ofthe data arespaily indexed and upon whe, @ “Adan sporated inorder toanswer queries about spatial entities in thedatabase isa procedures opera etal, 1987). 4 set of proce ter based set of proce i) ‘Any manual or computer bi i geographically referenced data’ (Aronoff, 1989), (0) Organization based definitions 5 ions that provides professionals with advanced capabifg, “An automated set of functions tha provid abilities ¢, @ ease retrieval, manipulation and display of geographically Iocated de (Cnn etal, 1981). _ (ii) ‘An institutional entity, reflecting on organizational structure that with a database expertise and continuing financial support over ti dures used to store and ™anipy ate t integrates techno} ime’ (Carter, 199). °8Y (ii) ‘A decision support system involving the integration of spatially reference data ina problem solving environment’ (Cowen, 1988).. GIS can also be defined as a set of integrated activities which provides us a tool to: i eceiv different sources such as ma s, charts, tabl . * Integrate geographic data received from: t sour map: tables, aera photographs, satellite Imagery, GPS (Global Positioning System) in dig ital environment, * Attach thematic/attribute information to the geographic details, Analyze results and build up queries based on spatial and /or attribu * Get the results in a desired form. The Department of the Environment (1987) ists the following capabilities thata ‘well-designed GIS’ should possess: te information @ The ability to provide quick and easy accessibili Gi) Theabilty to: lity to large volumes of data. select detail by area or theme; link or merge one data set with another; * analyse spatial characteristics of data; * search for particular characteristics or features in an area; update data quickly and cheaply;and model data and assess, alternatives. (iii) The output ca h abilities (maps, 8raphs, address lists, and other forms of: summary statistics) tailored to meet Particular needs, Insummary, it can be said that G) tobe organized and vier creation of new. decision-makin, 1S can be used to add value to spatial data by allowing data ‘wed efficiently, by integrating them with other. data, by analysis and by the 7 “pon; in turn GIS can create useful information to helpnents, F008 hh MUS of GI GIS comP' 14 meaning of the Words that Togethe if ‘The word geographic impli _ terms of geographic coordinate, ia boc Fr L B form gis tlocatioy “1 (latitudesloner ea itemsare kn, re. in A start icording © this criteria may be su; q Immari . wn, 1996): ized as haying yo 1 OF can by having the pee Information Syne lowing stem, then, Geographic: the system is concerned with characteristic ith data re ics (Martiy rel in, are the very building blocks of thes; ystem, out location, b bu Information: it is possible to i . us obtaining information about the. eae System to ask quest . * i 2 nt meaningful information frome diver one represent ne das se collectio extraction of spec specific which the data are organized int to a‘ , m of dati is ‘model ofthe real world SONY Pose way in System: this is the environment, whi . which, n Inthe most general sense, a GISneed eae a sb and questonstobe pos tomated ( ee a traditional map library), but sho (anon. , nuld bean inte; ‘automated exai ani i ‘i grated set of | ample would be manipulation and output of geographic information. Sucha: ae fortheinput, storage ismostreadily achieved automated me: wi ly by ans, and our concern here will be specifically with aut automated systems. Assuggested by the last point, the data ina G 7 ISare subj : may ftenbe extracted oF manipulated ina very diferent ee eee my ered. This idea of a GIS asa tool for transforming See pee — wr jtional view of cartography. Thus, GIS have functional capabilities aeaeemae ae manipulation, transformation, visualization, combination, query, analysis,an cdelingand cae Analog Maps vs. Digital Maps Asexplained in Chapter 1, the conventional maps drawn o information with reference to location. For example, a political or city is located where and a soil map tells us the areas where dif digital maps in GIS also handle data with reference tospacebut whereas the conv staticand two dimensional, GlSisdynamic and multifacett with reference to space but also with reference to time. And GIS manipulate,and represent data besides displayingit 2.0 COMPONENTS oF GIS nts of GIS: data and databases, hardware, software nd users (Fig-4-1)- printed on paper striveto display map tells us which country state, ferent types of sols occur. The entional mapsaze ed, lscan not only display information can also store, analyze, check, egrated componel There are four int stems, a including database management sy!ny Remote Sensing, GS, and Weng y Jeqojdyayuud 29qAap ynding saxddoyy $0 ‘YSIp PLE aoynap aBeI01g SID Jo swouedweg rp BE a8 sayqer ‘sydes8 ‘saysodwoo exep- dew ‘dew ausodwon/ajaus 40 wio} quou2913 expawoag ‘ojuideyy areMyos si9 cooom ono aargiip -oy@ seusbew! sayndwioy “yauuedg ayyjayes ‘sdew saayap andy se yons sjensia yep Bojeuy pauauny waa | eroamuay | “aTOWUO 'SS2209 SI asemyos wo-pPY nat hia Saal niComponents, Tools and Techniques of GIS 6 2.1 Data and Database The data in a GISis essentially geographic. When we say spatial data we mean information pertaining to where the objects of interest are located. This information can be about the distribution, extent, adjacency, proximity, connectivity attributes, or features. 2.2 Hardware Afully functional GIS must contain hardware to support data input, output, storage, retrieval, display, and analysis. Luckily most PCs of the present era are capable enough to support mos common and fairly capable GIS software. (a) Input Device Analog data such as maps, satellite images and photographs need to be converted to digital data, in raster format or vector format, for which a scanner or/and digitizer is required () Scanner:Itis an electronic optical device that converts analog data such as maps drawn on a paper into the ‘raster’ format. A rasteris a type of computerized picture logically made-up. of a two-dimensional array of cells, like spreadsheets. We have explained the raster format in more detail later in the chapter. Acrial photographs and satellite imagery are common types of raster data used in GIS. Some of the most familiar raster formats are TIF (Tagged Image File). BMP (Bitmap), and GIF (Graphics Interchange Format). A composite color raster uses a color table to map each raster cell value to a discrete display colour. (ii) Digitizer: \ de ice that enables converting any conventional paper map into such an electronic form that has specific position (in the form of coordinates) associated with each bit of the image. The digitizer consists of a table (or tablet) onto which a paper map is attached. ‘The map is than traced by moving a hand—held, mouse-like deviceknown as a cursor (also known as puck /transducer), across the surface. This results in the conversion of bits of the map into corresponding electronic version with coordinates associated with each bit. [A Véctoris a co-ordinate based data structure commonly used to represent map features as line and polyline. Each object is represented with reference to xand y co-ordinates. Some of thenewer GIS software- Mapinfoand CeoMediaamong others contain modules with which scanned images can be digitized onscreen without the digitizer hardware. As the onscreen digit provides features that are much more powerful and cost effective than the hardware- digitizer, the later is becoming increasingly redundant ing ed (b) Computer Computer forms the core hardware which stores and processes all information. Aside GIS software, a computer can also house statistical, graphical, and animation software which, depending on the user-friendliness of the GIS software, can be interfaced with the latter. The output can accordingly be enhanced in terms of quantity as well as quality. (c) Storage Devices ‘The maps and/or databases developed by the computer (with the help of GIS and other software) can be stored on digital media such as Compact Disc (CD), and floppy disc.ing, GIS, ant Wetland Nt lang “ Devices (a) Output Fvintereanad pattersennatitate to sntpuraloyieess Ey a black-and-white dot mate pig, ranator a eat maps fom its etectranie (oT 194 Paper hut to achieve distinct representatnn dear features inva may with adespuate tonal quality anal contiast = colour inhjet/Laser jy Sot varionts foatantess 4 18 ay printers al 1200 dpi or better resohtion a seeded 2.9 Software sme ot the most popular Gls MIDS Bach of these software atte tiser fo perfarny an assessment of the GE nathware, The presently availabe sottiware are de , Maplnfo, GeoMedia and ty: in the interest of the cs fs Purehase of the Gs aottware are Arclite, A sditterent levels of functionality, I requirements prior to com sscvibod in Chapter 5 2.4 Users, Talay, GIS is used by very dive commercial pizza dealer! Among the diseiptin dnd social science GIES has become as a indispensable tool as word processing, and spread sheet software such as MS Excel professionals from an aceredited cartographer to a of geology, hydrology, environmental seie the user however need to be well versed in aspects such as map tial analysis, computer cartography, computer science, Ty make the most ofa GI reading, database manage programniing, and basie geography. 3.0 TECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF A DIGITAL GIS A GIS is built around a framework of five basic technical elements: (1) encoding; (2) data input; (8) data management; (4) manipulative operations; and (6) output products (F ent, 3.1 Encoding 318 mapping essentially ‘These spatial entities can be encoded by u systems: (1) grid-cell or raster coding and (2) polygon or vector coding. Grid-cell or raster coding is conceptually a matrix system superimposed over the geography such that the attribute information can be collected by asystematic array of grid squares oF cells Normally; the information category most dominant for each cell is encoded. As the cell size largely determine curacy, two methods have emerged to assist in preserving data integrity: ‘sand tially deals with three distinct spatial attributes: points, Ii ing two different types of position indexing (a) decreasing cell size; and (b) _ listing the relative amounts of each data type falling within a cell Grid cells are functionally identical to the picture elements, or pixels, that compose a digital image. sno tor coding, points, lines, and polygons are represented with coordinates is digitally encoded and stored. One type of polygon indexing is topological coding, whereby areas are formed ystems have by connecting polygons, and polygons are formed by connecting ares. The encoding | been described in some detail in Section 4.0. : :Components, Tools and Techniques of GIS Mapping ¥ software & hardware Analog / digital Encoding p ia digitization: mane semi- Remote sensing data: ecieatifeiacoeic sirphotos & satellite imagery ¥ Computer |__,{ Polygon Attribute data ¥. political Data Management demography upload data: mama / sell Qual. ete peels + ‘Scaling, rotating, Encoding, data update conversion: _—____¥ —___ Manipulate operations Statistical analysis, ‘measurements, overlay and modeling Fig. 4.2: Various Output products steps involved in a tyPi Combine, search and store new values Photo or flim recorder output ical GISRemote Sensing, GIS, and Wetland snste, Components, Tools and Techniques of Gis 93.2 Data Input + sion og naps ape scones ote di canes ons an ene coment oF IS ‘0 eNcoonG oF sx ‘digitization: man mi eemautomaticand automatic. ; “As we have been emphasi ATAL DATA, _ nn vercagagttie fan ant natin aig nd otter acnsoe sch as puck/ wanes. Somos digiicationiavelves ge cae re anne, Gis software and the mouse of the e analog map 8alter scanning tinge aoe ee fgitred using the GIS software. Once thesescanned maps areregistred rarer jr an seo several ler sch ven settlements ete. The ‘automatic digitizing involves hardw: ae of data structures: scanned maps or the raster images can beautomatically 1. Geo-locational information in vector or raster; and Stone go Later, the user would have to sieve the vari paste into various layers ‘Data already inthe digital form (eg, satelite images) usually have to be reformatted ang scaled to match the geometry ofthe GIS reference map projection. 3.3 Data Management ‘Data management is extremely important for successful and available these day ications. Data management consists of series of computer forage-retrieval and maintenance tasks (Fig. 42) Inmost GIS software both locational and attbute informatics are simultaneously patil data (in the vector raster formats) For example if we select surface or overlay analysis procedi distinctive map layers, the various features of the map stored insuch a way the layers of his choice. 15 Output Products. [AGIS can retrieve and display data in graphic (as maps, bar form, or both. Most systems are capable of producing hardcopy chi or tabular information for segments of a data base or multiple data base can be i represents interactive analysis because the retrieval and display of data are in near real and Berline 1992). .ground locations of geographic controlled by the achieve in many si! ‘which do not have a smooth geomet.Pee ae aad i Ms im rgments, and polygons in typical vectors cmp Yt 8 Ti IS ganaster 038 cea oeca aera ce ee soe iar ect tet eafincarpuciatterterrenneteneh mamas Sivas a So an eee venarane cee ee gn fe emt ei ne nn et rer ta eon eseenrtacn fata teced peices naainaeacs Set nearer Trp of tines tad nd pat, i conned cnsuent oF ne erincebetwon he CMAN an he apes of he vem toro sp isco chan matt ee hep ein ta scr a > Nee stiabictote alse rae ole fener eae afl i dig Soe a ae Bae at oe en chs pcan = ee anor per * neater dep tnes ay appear gg vot igh enough, Dal we rec ac ai ny nies eo cea ata sgm oa lemigy ncaa nto Sense a mt sransficcatetetesmiecamy ore —emt Sed Weta Ng ‘Ran Length Econo Rastrinage Cares, ‘Dismethodrequts espace sorte data anismorecl nthe Aescrbed above tae ah eh ta sh ep eg SEALER es cet sre aaa ams cy cullwih Uatvaloe PO svalac and anact Be Caing eck ding ten he auppetans insect cf i orgin or cate and yr neh alae Fah un of pin enn a Thslonnsaninporr improvement sts eal or Quen pes eat hth dang veh prevodi oes ht dt iy RSet sett nema cn rovers pads ah seas iten support ange cle nts meth he cil rene ago ae sve in our el uae She pena seam lech cts nda ms ther present or absent within the ound oe eopapinel anaes a 44 Creating Vector Dat Structures Sepa don te en earning ‘xplinsthegeomety of pons nc sopmentcand pangs meant icc ie ew ers sh. ye amano i ines Seti tence ice do pate Westnet a poh ed seicteooper ie ie lpr nt wi ‘Melstcomponent ach veo signed stun iden mus whe nk the geographies coordinates toon or more lute insane,4 spe Re sem i 8 ang ‘om om mo} Pest stint or cardia scat Dat Ste ia HPAES HPHOb uae lg. 4: Bcaig om eat 44.3 Point Storage © Consider suchas hap orstestnd kerr ase, The ston thereon bested par afesndy cordate Aspe ate canbe gee forse tis pen ob), (i) Treaecanbestoroton ecompetrinan sels iin Tae dase (ity Usig he cordiateinrmaton neste wecan ea ane veroncfurmap ha ‘ch pint Mom the map con stl comput th serena 0 POR gadpen ne Sanayi en ea tun cv sp Be cords of 08 AP Mey no creo, tnt ea a ascetic cai ess at he tort norma, bat oe buts ng i aos ete is eh tet er ers ante nn ie pri Serer Shermer — eee eet | “eter ct teria | acres Seeburg teri, a (fxm nating lieth sey mop ‘Scuirgeneaaearoctalng cine Tope corms (0 Mellman. hex Yeni hn amb sored insspenhet Spebseraoce However thin camberemei weston ebeneinearmates Eticwetaie ze (altho esse lool str dt ao ore TEN Tetra edn astnddtaanepaclone eiieioenee Seance sie star The cispacape Avnet eee Sitkisin tinder NO alone eh (0 Dehep ten atta jorge Hh Stren rhpentang loon ee ag ey IL pga trae adi arstorage. 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The ten 2000.00 7 comparison ratios out of such things. For example, here is ri eee has twice the population of another city (B) that ha wg, 21010 2:1. Other examples of ratio data include the size of a land area, the lengt " or the quantity of river water. aot incorporates all these four primary scales of geographic da but with ee ordinal (ranked, relative sizes), interval (mec Pin aloe tbitary starting point), and ratio (measured in increments wi ig for ratio comparisons). ta measurement—nominal ‘measured by increments, than absolute starting