classical myth jender and interpretation of th Sy Bes 4B OEE a Be g go 33.2 g Azsscee 7 S23 258 : 2 = $ 253226 zg ex a < Gonder systems 1 chose to begin with the myth of Demeter because the varity of existing versions makes especially clear the complex relationships Ea 1. Myth and Gendr Systems Detween mythe and aystems of gender relationships in both the tneient and the medem world, Hard at we may’ we ean never fempletely divorce ourselves from the nexus of gendered meanigs tnd practies in our own world, which for convesience I wil ell oor “gender aystem’" In their modern, adapted veesion, the ca myths are ‘nataralzed into our gender system ~ for instance, by ‘making Hades and Persephone fl nove with each ater, in Set Ancient versions, the myths reflect the ancient systems in and for ‘which they were produced — for instance, by emphasizing Zeus! attempt to arrange a marriage for hie daughter There are enough Similarities between the ancient and madern systems to make the ‘ancient versions inaligihle to us, but many of their details are poring until we place them back into their ancien contexte ‘Let me begin by outlining some ofthe most salient features ofthe Greek and Roman gender ystems and noting bth similarities and diferences Between these systems and our own, In such a Survey foversimplifeation is inevitable, since every gender system has many components whose isterelationships evelve uver tine. Keep in mind, then, that these ae only the broad outlines; some of the ‘nuances and exceptions wil be Sled in by later chapters." Because ‘this hook is concemed with myths, I omit other systems of thought ‘such as medicine and philosophy, whieh were undeniable elements ‘of these ganar systems but which have complexities of their own, ‘requiting fllr treatment than I can give them here. Myth hasan especially complex relationship torligion; the gods, tcite only one Aifculty could be understood very differently and eau play very Aitferent rles in myth ane in ele illustrat the survey by relating details of the gender systems to ‘the versions of the Demeter myti ave just osined, Same eeeen- tial elements of the gender systems have no parallels in this myth ‘bat are included in the survey because of thei intrinsic importance. Since the gods of classical myth were humans wait large, sometimes subject the imitations of human existence and sometimes esap- Sng these limite in spectacular ways, thelr stories illustrate the culture that produced them by contrast as well as by direct reflec. tion, This survey ie an introduction, then, to the dialectical 2Gender and the Interpretation of Classical Myth relatos besnoen myths and rest that males the god to ‘think with’ : penal) Our view ofthe Greck gender system bas loa ben showed by the fe that a dsproparonate amount ofthe suring eden come rom te cy of Athens inte 'dasat ee Te tga ed fourth centres 8, Paradoially the at Gre cry po rote liane on its womens stiles than isomer Sistas judge he ragmencay evidence that ures ting sles Yet throughovt Gress Inthe anealed"atvhale ed ‘lia’ peros, moat women were eemmaly and lel de fendenton men who el a poe sutery ad hale se Scinomicranacon, Spat, where wane ould inher oe ty say have een an exept fo the ar Fle) Ths eaetcn is leatyretsed inthe Hymn to Demeter, produto te oath ‘ri pero 600 BCE te women of es mut cto men to satty Demeter deand that n comple be Slt hey hou, legal tana, a woman was never tested oon aul throught her she node sale nase on aay ‘ratte guardian sual father, husband, oso, tact on Ser behalf Demeter a clesly exempt rom hit routes a catscshe ea goes nish i rtrge hen Zour whe ate fthor of he el tne her hsb - behune a en e slosehad authori overPereptone Although the dine eves Inde elemento gender era the mex power pede were thous to exeape sone ois provions Ae he noetee s Soman recived fom her ther wy that wontons fe er ‘operand ththad oh reared mbar ne ea Datghters were sometins portrayed te tives Seren tes soulinevialy eave herb fala unger with them. The Hn to Dente omta the muons tae Sev bt uta date may have bos me ii ‘shoe and ther epatre at mariage more leony eee ‘by mothers than by fathers. a Gis wee maredinthir eaten omen who were normaly atleast ten year older than they. his rected te oe AierenebeweonPersephove and Hadas nhes cae ces were married t paternal une wih sume hequoney ans ee 24 1. Myth and Gender Systems kept their dowries in the fanily) The marriage cerentony, which required no verbal conent from the bride, consisted principally of procession from the bride's house tothe grooms ae she was trans forred from her family to his. Some pictures on Greek wedding vases, in which bride and groom rde in chariot or the groom leads the bride by the wrist while her mother eavvies a tore in the proceasion, have ben interpreted a evoking details of Persophone's abduction and Demeter’ tarehlight seareh for her (most weddings took place at night ® Girls who died before marviage were referred to as brides of Hades. Although women were raised to expect this sadical transition in thieves, it must have been difficult and even traumatic for same, who may have experienced it as a rape — specially ifthe groorswere unknown to them, as was often che case, Even tho fet that eating seas hinds Persephone to Hades had an cho in the Greek wedding, sine the bride ate a quince ar seedeake {in her new home, presumably to symbolize the prospest of her frit. ‘Virtually all people, men and women, were marced for some part oftheir lives, and were expected to preduee children, epecaly sons tw inherit the father's property and perpetuate the Tamily et ie ‘the offerings made to dead members ofthe father») family: Because ‘the gods are immortal they do not need to replace themselves by reproduction, yet ecause they ae anthropomorphie they do so, with sometimes problematic consequences (see Chapter 2) Hadae and Persephone are unique among divine coupes in filing to produce a child (¢hough i some unusual versions of the myth they do). A puzzling detall ofthe Hymn is Demeter's attempt to adopt a human boy. On one level he is clearly a replacement for her last daughter, Dut the difference of eex suggests that a son, whe cannot be taken ‘away’ and who will enjoy the privileges of masculinity, im safe ‘replacement, even a potential champion for Demeter in her opposi tion to Zeus. ‘Most forms of work were gender-specific, with outdoor takes st agricultural work, commerce, warfare, and government ~ a5- figned to males and indoor tasks ~ spinning, weaving, feod preparation and storage, the care of children and the sick ~ vo Tamales. In households that could afford slaves, much of the work 25Gender an the Interpretation of Classical Myth was done by them and supervised bythe mistres of the house ~ the Wife or mother of the owner: Por slaves too, work was largely ‘ender-specife. The women of a household, siave and free, thus spent much of thei time together and spart from the men; hus bands and wives did not even dine together, atleast when guests ‘were present, This gender segregation ia reflected throughout the Hymn: Persephone is gathering Nowers with other goddesses when she is abducted; in her mortal disguise, Demeter has contact only with the femsle members ofthe household she visits; and while Zeus ‘employs the male Hermes as messenger to Hades, he sends the soddess Iris and Jater Demeter’ (and his own) mother Rhea as ‘envoys to Demeter Religious activities, lke work, were often, though not always, Segregated by gender. Although male and female deities were wor shipped ty both sexes, a lange number of cults and cult aetviies ‘were gender-specific. The Eleusinian Mysteries, whose foundation ‘is doseribed atthe end of the Hymn, were opes to women and men like and presided over by priests and priestesses who were thought to be descendants ofthe Eleusiniar families named in the Hymn Other rites of Demeter, however, including the Thesmophorta, hich have also been inkeo the Hymn, were celebrated by wornen only. At the Thesmonkoria the fertility of grain andthe fealty of women were syabolically linked. The metaphor of woman as te ‘ground! in which the man's seed is ‘planted became almost a cliche of Greek poetry ~ though the actual extent ofthe woman's contribus tion to her childs heredity was a subject of constant debate in medicine and philasophy. ‘Aa might be expected, there are important aspects ofthe gender syatem that are not reflected inthe Hymn to Demeter Since these tare reflected in other myths, I briefly sketch them hore. A double standard of sexual conduet, which permitted some kinds of extra ‘marital sex to mon but nol to women, led to the division of feo ‘women into two basic classes, those who were ‘respectable, Le, ‘arringeable, and those who were aot. Slaves, both women and ‘men, were ipso facto ineligible for legal marviage and sevuclly available to their masters. (The existance of slavery is at least alluded to in the Hymn when Demeter tells Metancira’s daughters 26 4 Myth and Gender Systems that she hae escaped from pirates who want a sll her) Sexual Feltons between males were permitted and perhaps customary in certain highly specie ereumetances - between an older erates over) and a pubescent ordenos (loved to whan he acted a8 tr tver and mentor fora lied time, Analogs relationships Between women are suggested by some lie poey® and in Plu tars Leaders (8) "The foman gener sytem was snr tothe Grek in many vay bot ad ite own ditnetive features. On the one hand, the over af the father over hi fay (patria poets) was even {rete atlas in theory: not even a sn achieved legal adulthood Sr the ight a own property fa his on name unl he was ema Date by the death of his father Al children bore the fathers name {hich was allo the family name, the nomen) ina maseline frm, for boys anda feminine form fr ie Yet nye were given indivigual first names oraenomina), while girls were not (nthe ether hang, Roman women ~ a least those ofthe Ite Republic and early Empire, when most of the mythic text I wil dlacuss were written enjoyed greater soil feedrn than was the form for Athenian women, While oct types of work were atl nderapeii and therefore segregated, women spent more time focialiing withthe men of thrown households and did ne sk 9 Teputation for unchastty by dining with or speaking to men who swore not thei Felatives. Asa renal, they coud and did lobby for political programmes ~ usually tobe nie, those oftheir husbands {or brothers On reason they even staged pul demnstaton o "support or oppote specie legislation. The unofficial power of afew inaividual women member f the ittpera amily was greatly tkanced by the change inthe Roman stem of government fom Fepuble to autcracy. Even the republic Rowever, was an ari Cra syst in which women were vale asthe Lnnsmiters of Bindings. has tren anqed hat Roman faters saw daughters Tike sone, a8 perpetuating ther persona tit and abilities and ‘bat women se valued were empowered © exerts thse abies themelves~ sometimes even in the pubic sphere ‘Some ofthese ditnetive features of the Roman system may be cefeted inte version ofthe Demeter myth tld by Ov. His Cares 2Gender andthe Interpretation of Classical Myth stil turns to other females for help initially oot upon learning her aughter's fate sho confronts Jupitardireely and appesis to his ‘patornal feelings: Tyou have na regard for the mother, at least lt ‘the datghter toch her father's hear (5. 515-16)" Surprisingly, the abduction is not arranged between Jupiter and Dis (Pluto) but instigated by Cupid st the command of his mother Venus. Her ‘motive isto extend her own power (imperium) as woddeas of desire ty bringing Dis kingdom under her yoke and preventing Proserpins from remaining a vngin ike Minerva/Athena and Diana/Artemis, Ler language is clearly meant to suggest Roman imperial smi tions, but these are presented as a female's bid for power over he? peers within taeruing elite ‘The Romans recognized two forms of mirviage that had diferent ‘mpliations for the woman invelved, If she was married ‘wits ‘manus (cur mans, hor husband became her legal guardian and ihe beeame & member of his family Ifmarried without manus (ine ‘manu, however, she remained a member of her birth family and one fof its members ~ such as her father or brother ~ served as her fzuatdian, Sine Roman worsen coud ines. property, the ehoice of 8 form of marriage dictated whose heirs they would he their ®38- band’s or their father's father who retained his authority over a ‘married daughter might seek to dissolve her marriage and arrange 2 new one to suit his own political or economic purposes, Yet @ ‘woman whose guardian was-not her husband also had more lever ‘age in disputes with the husband snd. cnuld obtain a divorce more casi Divorce among the elite heesme increasingly common is the late republiefr bth these reasons: athens using ito shift poitial allianges and wives withdraw from marriages in which they were ‘unhappy. Conservative orators railed against the spread of mar. ‘age "withaut manu’ gn the grounds that it fostered divorce and ‘moral laxity ~ whieh, by implieatian, resulted when womten were allowed greater independence from ther husbands cons) prac ‘ce, the guardian's power was also eroded over ime until inthe case ofelite women, atleast, it became largely pr forma. Although none of this background surfaces in Ovid’ version, it provides 8 context in whieh many of his details make sense. Ceres Addresses Jupiter in language that would suit a divorced wife 28 41. Myth and Gander Systems addressing her former husband: Let not your cae for (Proserpina} fe lose beeause 1 em her mother" (6516-17), Yet she sounds sel esared in ber postion and anything but apologetic In urzing him to dissolve Prosorpina’s marrige, she argues that Dis is © ‘robber! read tue morally unfit~the only grogadson whieh s Raman woman gal legally reject the groom her father proposed. Jupiter rexninds| Cores that Dis iis brother yeth ie wllingtoletherhaveher way; the outcome is determined by the fates, who rule that because she bpas eaten in the nderworld Proserpina must return to it por odically. “Another feature of Ovids version isthe emphasicon rape as seen from the woman’ perspective, The water nymph Cyne tries to block Dis’chariot onthe grounds that a woman should be wooed (or ‘asked! not raped. When Dis evades her, she literally dissolves in ‘ters so that she cannot speal when Cores comes in search of her Gaughter The uymph Aretha, who does give her the information, ‘was heraolf the vietim of attempted rape, which ke avoided only by praying to the virgin goddess Diana, who transformed her into > pring, Like rany of the rapes deseibed by Ovid this one seems ‘lesigned to appeal to atleast wo audiences: the description ofthe ‘sak beauiful, vulnerable nymph ean be read as titillaing to & ‘voyeuristic male autiense, while her deseription of her own terror “tnd her empathy with the feat of Poserpina (6.500) emphasize the ‘woman's side of the story. ‘tis sometimes assumed that Roman mythology'is merely Greek smythalogy ith Roman names: This sa sevious misunderstanding. ‘Auhough the Romans did borrow great numbers of Greek myths, they adapted them tn their own cultural situation in ways beth Gonous gad suble. They also had steres af thir own about th carly history of Rome that- whatever their connection to histor Awe define it~ served many of he functions of myth. As in the Greek ‘Hories about mortal women, there is @ tendency to classify women ‘Gharanters ab good or bad onthe basis of thelr Ioyalty or disloyalty to male kin. Yer some of the Wotnen in Roman legend are exemplary forthe public, if not polities, roles: the Snbine women venture onto the battlefield to make pence between thelr fathers and ir hus 29Gender andthe Interpretation of Classical Myth bands, while the mother of Critanus puts loyalty to Rome above Jnyaley tte on ands bl to dianvad hin from tacking hie At first glnce the contrasts Beteen these gender atoms ad ur own asem overwhelming, epeilly sine the recent shanges ‘brought about by women's movements fr ctl and soa equity A least in women in Weer Europe and Noth America hae all «vt rights and can serve in any governmental ae. Grand boy sualy attend the same schools and study the same abject ‘Women own and manage thes own property and heve gained acess to most formsf employment, including the professions that rune advanced education. AS a result women ned not be fly dependent on men. Mariage x= personal suse for beth parties Aivore and cohabitation without marrage are comman an seca, ceptable. leis even acepable for wore living slant Beas adopt children, and longterm sions beteeen tre mn er fo Wren are gining social arcenability ina een recognition ‘marrage and other long-term sexual elaonahios there eae deel ‘f iaendsip and muta desir bette the partners, Thus al te ‘modern reelingsoftheDemeter myth include sme nutral slace ment between Hades and Persephone, either pradeting the abduction or developing gradually after it. Ha i! ‘But there are discrepancies between Iegl posites andthe ‘etunl stale of afar thas in he United States nthe sear 2008, alshough woman had had the right to ote see 1920, ony ooe woman nthe history ofthe country had served as Atornty Ceseray one aa Secretary of State, and a total of 22 a members of ponder tial cabinets (459% of 487) Two had served ab Supreme Comet jes; none had been elected President ov VieePratdsns ed ‘nly one had ever been nominated for Vice Pendent bys aes Polite party. Nine out of 100 Senaters and 66 ef 6 Kore fentaives in the Congress were women Women are all disproprtionatly employed in lowes-vage jobs and ear os ance age 76 cents for every dllar earned Sy men. Thus witha heterosexual couples the womans key tobe eaming less hee te tan and tobe finely dependent on him to same extent, Wome dave sade rapid strides in the rafting eopeclly medicine sod Jaw, but aaniistratars athe highest levels are dapeportinstly 30 1. Myth and Gender Systeme male. So the gender hierarchy that prevailed in the ancient cultures ‘and that wa reflected in their myths stil lange intact. Tt makes | sense tea modern audience that Demeter and Persephone have ess tuthority than the male gods and must use subversive tactics such ts a strike or passive resistance to get their way. Paradoxically, while many modern versions omit Zeus, some of them introduce hhew male character ~ Hercules or Epicurus, in the versions de strbed above — to resolve the crisis, either by defeating Hades ina {due or by negotiating a'settlement between Demeter ant Hades: ‘Another element of the ancient gender systems that survives today is the expectation that a woman wil take primary reponst- Dility for the running ofa household and that a mother of children will provide or arrange for mes oftheir care. If asin the Unived ‘States, there is no governmental support for day care, women who ‘work outside the home must cobble togetier private solutions, most of which involve hiring ether women as caregivers. Given this ‘situation, ii surprising Uhat few modern versions ofthe Demetar myth even include the episode in which the disguised Demeter is hired to care for a human baby. This may simply be because most ‘modern versions are bared on Ovid which omits the episode. Yet to include it would be to rae in a more acute form the issue of women’s ambivalence and guilt about leaving their children with other women. The modern versions may be expressing this guilt ‘more tacitly by devoting more space than the ancient ones to the fmotional connection between mother and daughter, Demeter’s rotharing rle is even expisitly linked to he respansiility forthe growth of grain and by extension, her ‘motherly’ eare for all human- ity Modern interpreters feel obliged to explain that she was very sorry for the suffering he caused the human race and that she made itsup to them by teaching them the Mysteries and the principles of agriculture. Sometimes the sterility of the earch during Porsephono's absence is described as a sympathetic reaction to Demeter’ grief; in Geraldine MeCaughrean’ version, “the trees wept with he, shedding their leaves’ ‘Some modern versions also portray Demeteras ansious about her Aaughter even before the abduction because she is obliged to leave hr lone, This eleaey refers the working mother's concern forthe a1Gonder and the Interpretation of Classical Myth safety ofher children, a wel asthe heightened awareness of sexual Abuse and rape as real and widespread dangers, Violenee against ‘women and even sexual harrassment are legal in America at the tumof the eentury but both are sil epidemic. The desire to sheler chiles rom this reality may account fr the deserualized versions ofthe myth designed for ehidton, in which Hades plays the lonely ld uncle who needs the compan of his litle niece to cheer him wp. ‘As in the ancient cultures, women taday sre divided by elast and privilege, and the divisions eften fll along ethnic lines asin Cireece and Rome most slaves were prisoners of war or their descendants) Now as then, the stories that receive widest distribution tend to focus om characters who ste at Teast moderately privileged, and to be tad from their pent of view. Yet even in ancient Greece and Rome the perspectives of lowerclass characters were sometimes in- cluded. One not uncommon type of stary featured « god who esumed a human —even a lower-lass~ disguise totes the hospi- tality of mertals. Some intorpreters of the Demeter story have argued that her special sneorn for mora, expressed i her gift of the Mysteries that mitigated the fea af death, should be linked to her experience ofthe human condition as grieving spather and ae servant/nursemaid in hsman household. Ofcourse, a temporary ‘dentficaton with a person of lower status isnot likely to wnsetle one’s relation to the social hierarchy in any profound way and may ‘oven reinforoe iby suggesting that charity to the unfortunate’ all that is required. Yot the story of Demeter aleo suggests a commen: _surabilityof female experience acroes clas divisions, including the ‘great divide between tho elas of gods and al classes of mortals, “Tose, the most striking effect of comparing 8 range of ancient ‘and modern versions a the Demeter myth isthe revelation that the ‘oldest surviving version, tha ofthe Homeric Hymn, gives Demeter ‘the strongost role in the story's outcome and makes her anger as important as her grief Although her resiscance to Zeus may be ‘paesve by comparison to her quarrel with him ia Ovi, she demon- strates in a spectacular way that he cannot do without her and that ther approval should therefor be sought in decisions that affect her ‘The paradox that Demeter is strongest in the oldest surviving version is explained by some scholars ax efleting an actual los of 32 J. Myth and Gendar Systems status for women al some point in prehistory. (The evidence for this snllbeexemined in Chapter) Yet the same paradox should auton Us against assuring that women in what we consider oppressively patriarchal systems are unconscious oftheir oppression and unable toprotest agaist. [Asin antiquity, the stories we tell ourselves today ~ or read to ourselves, or consume’ by watching telovision or video ~ bear ‘Complicated relation to our gender system, They may sustain i by Susuring us shat i ie good, or getting better: They may hold oot ‘isions of radical or neremental change in various utopian futures, ‘Scconjure up dystopias in which the rights We enjoy ae wept away "They may reite the past, as the Xena: Warrior Princess television series blends myth with history and withthe conventions of modern Fetional genres like soap opera snd situation comedy. Already in fantiquity there was @ range of such genres ~ types of literary texts fndir performances ~ in which the myths Wore presented. Each fenre had # distinctive audience for which it was shapes, although four knowledge of these audiences is limited by the gaps in our tvidenee; sometimes oor only or primary evidence forthe makeup of fhe audionee is in the text itself. When classical myths or other traditional stories are retald or adapted to new medi, they must be ‘hanged enough to appeal to the modern audience ~as its tastes are UUnerstod by the producers ofthe media. While there is danger of| corporate cenvorehi asthe media are owned by a shrinking number Sot huge conglomerates, the internet and affordable video cameras hold ut the prospeet that artista with small means will bo able v9 reach a wide audience. ‘Niche marketing in the media as in other sector ofthe economy, targets increasingly specific groups, som of Which ae all male or al-female. Romances, tailored for women, aFe lived into multiple sub-genres according tothe ages and tastes of the targot audiences; mysteries, thrillers, and fantasy novos, which may be intended for male andor female readers, are sipilarly diversified. Like the myths in thelr ancient contests, all ofthese Fictions participate in the gender systom and sustain or challenge ‘ur individual senses of gender identity “A gender system, tye 8 both a nexus of eymbols and assump: tions = expressed, among otber ways, in stories ~ and a sot of 33Gondor ana the Interpretation of Classical Myth tlationships inthe rel worl We can lve within such a sytem without beng aware ofits a8 can speak ou ste anguager ‘ithout earning formal grmmar,o rel a sry without sale, ing its meaning. Even or tore who ate vase, ements ofthe system can emai bow the thresholé ofconcivsnece most the time, Sometimes thi nde ta perso’ social status ot lt), whichcan blind herr into wbole ren ote eyetem. But case itis the way thing re the gender system ten tober nate razed so that vent challnger act acodng ots prevepons tmuch of the tie, Ths explains why onccmusnear rising = omens sharing of emimon experience to eval oppesive a bets of the aysam = os been sucha powerful tchnigue feminist, butt alm explains why consiousere rating ano be done one and for all Itcan be especially dfeal to reatice anata ‘ap ining thatthe gender system is arf anger sol realy im which soil class, ree and membership in varus seule fet he pring nd prin every man wma. We annet assume Chat all women vil shat th some eprint a ‘mor than weean make tht sssumption boutall mes Wh lo ‘hale os wl at eal, an dent wt Demeter’ oso her daughter diferent group wl ae diferent things ner say and tay reat erent to rien more fly with Persephone Fades, orsome oie character, ‘gender system evolves overtime, Sometimes the change is rapidasithas eon no own ine Ye while some amp of os fyetomucha the expectation that moet omen Wil Wark en the home have changed adel in race year ater aopote = suchas the expectation thot mos hi cael be Sone by women haven, andcan even seem abe cat insime. Such conserve ‘lements may be shared yee hat are fr removed on each othe nine, This sone wa acount fr the cndurng appeal 4 myth ike that of Demeter and Persephone it continues tome sxe tel of th sere ho hate ban feed ery hy Un fat feminists have argued that child earing arrangements ae crucial othe eprodction the gender syton, fe tenes sion from generation to generation” Ths i aoe jst tomas 34 4. Myth and Gender Syetems mothers sre our first teachers, but because the dependent state of infants makes tho first years of life erusial to the development of ‘identity, including gender identity. Peyeholopsts believe that the ‘conditions under which thi development takes pace leave an indel- {ble imprint in the unconscious, Although psychologists end to study the unconseous af the individual as shaped inthe context of the family, heir approach ean also shed light on the unconstious imenaion of larger ecil realities such af the gender system, And ‘thay can help us probe the deep connection between the stories we tell and the identities we forge for ourselves. In fact, modern pay ‘chology beginning with Froud, has taken keen intrest in myths both as evidence for the mental processes it studies and as phenom: ena to which its theories ean be spplied. wil argue in Chapter § ‘hat there is such a thing as a peltical or ideological unconscious, ‘hich is also reflected in myths. have noted that a given gender system evolves overtime. Yet ‘even when we attempt to freeze’ the process for purposes of analy si, we find that such a view ~ealled synchronic (that is, a vow of ‘data noted at the same point i time) ~ eantains internal contradic: tions. For example, most systems contain contradictory stereotypes of each gonder. In the Homer epics, men aro portrayed as the protectors of women, yet they capture the wives and daughters of bother men and use them as slaves or concubines indeed, the posses Sion of such women is considered a marke of high honour In the “Hymm to Demeter, Ze i Pereaphone’s father and Hades her hus: ‘band, two roles that ostensibly involve guardianship and protectin. Yet Zeus permits, and Hades carries out, Persephone’ forcible bduetion, Other contradictions can be found between stereotypes nd social practices or norms. Thus both Greek and Roman women ‘were deseribed as avid for wine and sex while men were thought to Ihave greater control aver their desires; yet men enjoyed much greater licence both in their use of wine andi ther access to sexual fratiBeation™ The structuralist Claude Lévi-Strauss argued that the chief uns ‘ion of myths wast ‘mediate between contradictory elements in the ‘doology ofa culture ~ to enable people to accept the contradictions by displacing then and providing a ‘third term’ that seemed to 35Gender and the Interpretation of Classical Myth reconcile the apparent opposition. A gad such as Dionysus, who combines attributes ofboth females and males and encourages his worshippers to assume temporarily the roles of the opposite gen der might be seen as such a mediating figure in the oppesition between the sexes that runs so deep in Greek culture Agonder system, then, contains interna contradictions. At the same time, individuals and groups within a given society can dis: ‘agree and argue openly about their gender system. Such disagreement is probably louder and more widespread today than i was in ancient times, but the fymn to Demeter is clear proof that the ancient Greeks could imagine violent disagreement, with dra ‘matic implications, about at least one aspect oftheir gender system, ‘namely, the balance of power between father and mother in deci, sions about a daughter's mariage, As this example illustrates, Aiferencas of opinion are not purely idiosyncratic but often core. spond with social roles and involve power imbalances of power struggles. The Hymn is today considered a particularly precious ‘document because it emphasizes the viewpoints of & mother and daughter rather than thoe of the male figures in the story. Because nearly all the works to survive from antiquity were composed by rmen for largely male audiences, the viewpoints of male figures (characters and narrators) tendo predominate Even in the work at tale authors, however, we have evidence nf disagreements over ender arrangements, not just between male and female characters but between male and male, female and female. In tragedy female Parts were played by men Yet the tragodian Euripiies crested ‘specially vivid female characters who speak explicitly of ther hhardships as women and of their disagreements with men. The chorus of his Medea (410-30) says that if women were pocte they ‘would'sing an answer" tothe men who portray them as treacherous, ‘Yet even a work like the Hymn to Demeter, with ts vivid portrayal offeminine protest agninst a father’ unilateral decision, ends with the goddesses accepting the status quo including the rule of Zeus nd the marriage of Hades and Persephone. Does the myth eetally ‘make the status quo more palatable by providing an eseape valve" for the protest? This raises the question of whether myths, and ‘stories lke them, necessarily help ta shore up the gender systema to 36 1 Myth and Gondor Systeme which they belong, My answers thet it dopends on the version and fon the audience, since myths are never monolithic. As we have seem, they come in a variety of versions, representing @ range of authors" perspectives, At the same time, each version cap be received differ- tently by different members of ite audience, We can see this mest ‘leary in the responses of our contemporaries. Thus Euripides, who Produced some of the boldest variations on the myths, is read by riuet modern scholars as deliberately unsetling the norms of his society, inching reverence fer ite gods; but even he has been read 8 etfirming the gods goodness and benevelence.® There must have ‘been similar differences of opinion among the members of his origi nal audience, Certainly there was disagreement about the value of his plays: he was repeatedly chosen as one of ony threo tragedians whose works were staged at civie expense, yot he very seldom won first or even second prize. That his ideas, and not merely his style, were debated ean be seen from Aristophanes’ comedy Frogs, where the god Dionysos is portrayed as having to choose a playwright ~ ‘Aeschylus or Buripides ~ ta bring back from the dead. While their styles are compared in detail, the gods decision ultimataly hinges ‘onthe advice each poet has ta offer the ety He chooses Aeschyl "To summarize, then: a gender system is @ nexus o dens, mages, and practices, unetioning at @ given time and place in the ‘eal ‘worl’ People ean live within and fllow its ules whale remaining largely unconscious of it. It changes over time, but it must be reproduced from generation to generation and thus has important fonservative elements. The mage of ite repradustion within the amily helps to account for its unconscious dimension, a well a its ‘lationship tothe indviduat senso of identity. Yet itis not mono- lithe, for it eontaina intsenal eontraditions, and those who live within it can disagree abou ts apportionment of voles and power. ‘Myths have a dual function within such a system, As traditional stories, ended down from generation to generation, theY partic pate in the reproduction ofthe gender system and ean help people fo ignore or to live with its contradietions, Yet myths exist in ‘multiple versions that ean reflect the differences of perspective and the struggles for power within the system. Itis not necessary, then, fora feminist ta take a wholly pessimiste view of mythology, and 37Gender and the Interpretation of Clasical Myth will not take such a view here. I believe i is important to uncover the workings ofthe gonder system if we are to improve the lot of \wometbut thisinvolves celebrating the multiplicity of perspectives ‘within the aystere as wel as ertsiaing ita oppressive aspects. This ual approach ~both celebratory and erie ~ wil inform my bool asawhole