with the nature » therefore expanding like a ae that is being inflated. The i nite and its edge lies at a distance of “The Origin : The Big Bang: : According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe came into a about 15-1 15 to 20 billion years ago when a ne exp! eee The Echo of this big-bang heard of microwave radio signal from ‘Space. eis a called as the 3K mi eins a te wan ‘Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson ited the Nobel_ Prize. Before the feo time, no 0 matter and : the future cosmos were Is ¥ a ae rigin, is called* 105 li ht TE chat a cae and ee ietée wil Greek le i ofthe 7th century, ¥ nm ass i cosh vn ae unchanging: this is oe ac static, i 3 reat i cx win HGS 1889-1953) OR Se mi astronomer show wed. in 1920s that the space €@ a eke asing and the © Universe is Us. #8 between | the galaxies is is ae gala xurled away from every other particle. Thus, this is IAPTER ‘ Lie, pruniverse exploded into life; and matter, space and be came into being. E spe survcture : Galaxies : alex js a fundamental unit of the Universe. It consists of eral hundred thousands of stars together with interestellar and dust. Thousands of million of galaxies stretch outto the limits of the observable Universe. They fall into four, seaegories in shape’ sprial spherical, elliptical and irregular. the nature, j jiral, containg 10! stars with a diameter of > iS calleq™ {Slight years and it is called the Milky Way. According 10 erse was’ Greek legend, the pearly band of the milky way stretching Called the cross the sky is milk split from the breast of the godess 89-1953) le nearest spiral galaxy to the milky way is the space Andromeda Galaxy>it is 2,200,000 light years away from liverse jg Us. This is our galactic neighbor along with Large magellanic ated. The Cloud which is 170,000 ligh The arms of the Stance of) spital galaxy are called th collection of galax i Ow Cale NEIGHBOR Jo Ng 3 aan 31 .Open or Closed Universe e e of thi ' . a M! The Future of the Universe : Open Univery mth p main theories © sieve that ow ft Tro aro ewo main thegnes "igus believe Ty Closed universe. 2 Other are convinced thy Qe i te prever a ¥ ‘rse will expand forever. Q ; Ms Universe will Tiniverse will stow down and finally stay as % , ‘ ae ih he Big Crash or Crunch “take hore @iracting ultimately resulting in the Big aot i : Universe, gravity wil If there is sufficient matter in the ed C the galaxies together again) _ealle¢ eventually win and begin pullin Sac Be 0 » big bang. jerc cqusing the Universe to experience g reverse of the big bang. Mi the big crunch, After this a new Universe may come into) yenus ” . > an being with totally different laws of nature sthis is the cyclic teas lis call ‘ than Me Solar System led called ¢ Solar system is a tiny part of 4 galaxy and consists of the ¢ window ae ound it It includes the Earth! the Sur along with the Satellites that travel diamete ut further includ Asteroids, - 09 Dlanetary dust and Interplaneta y ‘Sctibed in detail below: and all the objects that t nd eight other planets around most of the, em, Meteoroids, Com, plasm; r nets, Inter a. The planets arelosed : e of the Universe : Open or Cc ain theories of the Universe : Open Univery ° ysicists believe that oy 32 The Futur There are two mi iverse. Some ph or Closed universe. 30m isis” n Gales will expand forever. Qther are convinced tha Jnivers z expansion of our Universe will slow down eg finally stay clecte€Saracting ultimately resulting in the Big Crash or Crunch If there is sufficient matter in the Universe, gravity wil eventually win and begin pulling the galaxies together again, Causing the Universe to experience a reverse of the big bang the big crunch. After this a new Universe may come into being with totally different laws of nature this is the cyclic theory. Solar System ‘ Solar system ig a tiny part of a and all the objects that trave] around it, It j ia» Mess i ose gst! sakes gun. | calle’ Mec’ ve Tus ¢ than } called windc~ fyde ae ang It is the second smallest planet in this solar system and is elgsest to the Sun. Its mean distance’from the Sun is?0,387 astronomical units. Its equatorial diameter is 4,880°Kim. It takes 88 Earth days to complete oné revoluti Sun. Mercury looks a lot‘like thé Moon, covered with holes Of the hj, 84 called Craters. There are great soaring cliffs on the susface-ot May come Mercury, called scarps. It has no moon. ¢ in, 7 - Wenus : OT / f —— . ay VU ) “Wis called 4s Earth's Twin in Sizé-and mays!"Venuis ig hotter than Mercury. The planet is called carbon dioxide which =, ed in thick ‘clouds Of gas the Sun's heat like*the vo ed windows of a greenhouse. Venus is 0.723 A.U.-away.from Faq pthe Sun; Its revolution period is]225 5 days) Tts equatorial y 4 \ °S that trait diameter is 32,104 Km. It also hasno moon. poset 4 7a.bY\ “Astor 304 Ka Wo: [2% | \erplancigy ‘Barth : _ Itis the most wondetful planet of the Univers Tt is'OREA? U. ey from the Sun. Its equatorial diameteris.1.2,756 Seen 9 from Space,,the Earth is a beautiful ball of colours ~’blue Oceans, white clouds, and brown continents, It has a Moon.mS d helium, Jupiter : phere of hydrogen an } s om. Ithas a dense, cloudy cscs of the solar system. It larges' 43,000 Km. Jupiter 0! bits the Su ice eve; It is acwally oo Pe cilia = j diameter is 143, : iP) Ty vy) nik years. It has sixteen moons. cee i is the superb Itis the second largest planet. Its special oe * “ : ted el \ rings of Saturn which have the Sa ake _ &xtremely thin and flat circular sheet. It is io aU. ; , 2 from the Sun and its revolution period is 29.46 years. Its ; diameter is 120,000 Km. It has at least 22 moons. Uranus : Ithas mostly hydrogen and helium AU. away from the Su pecveluton Period is 84. Uranus is big and gives Neptune ; atmosphere. It is 19.18 | in. Its diameter ig 51,800 Km. Its -O1 years. It has fifteen moons. greenish glow, f Itis similar to Uranus. It is 30.06 A. Its diameter ig 49,500 . years. Neptune has © Pluto ; U. away from the Sun. - Its evolution Bx ear nly two known'moorn Beriod jg 164.8yy BS CONSTELLATIONS ZODIAC "@ group af Stara Constellations : Constellation is the configuration of stars especially at one's birth. It. consists of a collection of stars which have definite pattern resembling in shape with some of the familiar animals. Zodiac : Zodiac is an imaginary belt in the Heavens usually 18 degrees wide that encompasses the apparent paths of all the principle planets except Pluto, has the elliptic as its central line and is divided into 12 constellations or signs each taken for astrological purposes to extend 30 9 longitude. Celestial Equator : Itis projection of Earth's equator on to the celestial sphere. It isan imaginary circle titled at an angle of 23° to the plane of the Earth's orbit (the elliptic or the plane that defines the Circle of the Zodiac). The celestial equator crosses the zodiac at the equinoxes) (the points on the celestial sphere where the Sun appears to be on the first day of spring and the first day autumn) — - . Onn he inary bell 07 the. Shy Mrilad forks Trrelve agua prrts, “phe SweSIGNS OF THE ZODIAC composition SUN’ Eyjyrtne sun 5 Lor NUMBER NAME jydrogen | Fi Ma 1 “i am Aoi) este ‘ ay |. afr Taurus the Bu ; oe | oeuy 3 Gemini the Twins ae? Sinn Cancer the Crab 1 is ul a his Leo the Lion Heavy ie apd 4 saiet Augugiements | Chg Virgo the Virgin Pigs g Libra the Balance Septemb uo Scorpio the Scorpion Qsioh 1. The s ie. gle matte Std 9 Sagittarius the Archer Novem ae Ahup 10 i oaapi the Goat Decemby Most wp MW Aquarius the Water Bearer Januat conce + 9g a3 i i avi ead 12 Pisces the Fishes Bela gravit 3. Soure THE SUN This | The Sun is the central part o the solar os heliu can be studied in detail from the Earth, 742 S!m. Its surface Cony almost a million mites ACTOSS - and hop te Sun ig Very big- secon are dees ied below - “Tiny as Every watts Ss. The § Snne~37 Temperature Other Physical Constants of the Su ah cansient ‘Chromos- 15 Mass of the Sun| 2x 10 tons Million} ett fee sn ee ig C*. Diameter of 1.4 the Sun million Ki Photosphere| a” ‘The Sun is about 4.6 billion’ years old and it contains Matter in the plasma state which is the fourth physical ©» state of matter. 2. Most of the mass (99.86 %) of the solar system is ~~*concentrated: in the» Sun, which thus» exerts . the © gravitational force that holds the other objects together. Source o! Sun is due to Nucléar Fusion. This process involves the conversion of hydrogen into L million tons of hydrogen is 1 iTHE MOON The period of rotation of the Moon is equal to its wa period of revolution around the Earth. This period is 72. 29 days, 7 hours,.43 minutes and 11.47 seconds. weigh less on the Moon. Itis a poor reflector i — r (7 % reflection) as compared to 43. Tthas 1/6th gravitati r Fe eelsrecicntitot te Part, “a i Most Conspicuo : all lunar surface features, aeand most plentiful of 4. Only 59 % - 5 oa of the Moon surface ig visible di 4 oe © : te the! Iris the only natural satellite of the Earth. The Moon is ata we dre distance of 3,85,000 Km from 1 the Earth's Surface. Its wi important features are as follows : 13 a. wi39 (oo). THE EARTH s 7 4s &t, 5; js the most wonderful planet of the solar system. Itis a “See, ly iidreached planet. Special features are described below : ri. It is also about 4.6 billion years old but the life started _ {0 ig on Earth about 3.5 to 4 billion years 2 Petiog is, Its rotation period is 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 —_ “seconds and revolution period 365 |, days, 7 Objeer, The 1/4 day is added up to give one extra day ina leap year. Pared 4, The mass of the Earth is 6 X 10 2! tons and average : density is 5.52 gm/c.c. Earth, a Its equational diameter is 12,756 Km. tiful 3. The Earth has the iron core, the rocky mantle and dynamic crust. it is made up of Tectonic plates. It has an atmosphere; 78 % Nitrogen and 21 % Oxygen. oe = The atmosphere has about 3100 cubic miles of water in IS responsible for producingNG OBJECTS ie pe) ess fe" hese Aare. orbiting the Su, Asteroids) : jects T! rocky.objeels: piter. There are severg| ids are small Ju ere the,orbi . of Mars.and elt (140 million mile between. the oft vy in the asteroid be! 3 thousands of them 1)" ‘Asteroids, are also called’-as minoy ; system. can? a a a rs east ireanis ‘starlike but actually the planets’ asteroids are more planetlike than ‘starlike’. ae nee was the firstto be discovered in/801,,andiis also,the largest (680 miles across). The origin,of the asteroids is. partly connected to the remains of.a planet that fell apart. Not all the asteroids orbit the Sun in the asteroid belt. Some asteroids Wonder closet to the Sun, Sometimes passing near the Earth. These are called ‘Earth-Crosser ‘ot Apollo-asteroids. In the i ams Of these/asteroids: may have collided. with the 1 are , Meterorites:\(Extr = ‘aterrestrial Intruders) CH) Ameteotite ss atin Y Chunk of materia fl a can enter the Earth's atm< Sating in space th Con 2 mosph oe ae (Araby meteor ova "falling say pu and become: a Meteor, A in the nightsky, A, Meteor les light that — ; you can see I heating as it enters the an pot VaPorise fro) the oF Popularly referred tq ae osPhere, “4 e Pompeo they reach (potooting st41 are formed by the disintegration of a comet or are the re ers from the birth of the solar'system. “Teftov' : ) 188 ming ae ace thal Comets : teor. A ee” — {Comets are bodies made up of ice ice and dust that move around can $a the Sun, most of them in highly elliptic orbits: As a comet ae approaches the Sun, a somewhat transparent envelope and : ~ dust called the coma appears around the small compact icy . - The nucleus and coma comprise the comet's head. pomnes ayn the the astronomical units of the Sun, 7 The con et's head may be a ets circle the Sun in one olic or hyperbolic. comets, they will The origin of |Comet, named afy pot e nomer to calculate “gel - 76 years after. It é: oe ay ost8E 42 Halley's Comet * comet is Halley's Edmund Halley, the first British astro! orbit in 1705. It visits the Sun every visited the Sun in 1986 but it passed very far from the Ear, PO gest tail could not be seen with the naked ey It will retuy Oege per a very in the year 2062. ase dS The most famous LIguO Ji STRUCTURE E OF TH E EART) H Introduction ; (Ge, x : cologists have shown n Consists of a seri f 5 “UCture of th,vealed DY studying earthquakes, Earth's ma, es : seh at f erodes. chains of nds and volcanoes. © fis te jy, field ne Earth is a th : then re st = its depth no nore then 2 = or ay : stamp ‘struck on the outside of a (ogee on this, is a Mantle, which makes up more than 82 } tof the volume of the Earth. Deeper still, we come t . é 23 and very hot core. The major parts of the Banh pel vey dense a Negcussed below: are disc NO) aF61 202 4004 oy nts 9 mere ‘rigid outer P crust on which volume o the Earth, and _ shel, th 105 The crust consists of thickness of ) and it varies 2 continentalih _tackenesso 300 SOK we ; oe has the much bighen aver a ‘The mostabundan fi ye igi/ga25miles) and Va silicon and-Alaminum ite, elements of the Barth's st are (a n R oe igi Bs : pages wi 2. _The.Mantle + to noma i The Mantle extends from the base of the grist $0 a oe of comp? about 2900 Km (1800 miles) and accounts for about 5 lo, of ae com| the Earth's volume. The mantle is further divided into B at Lithosphere (70 Km deep), ‘Asthenosphere (200 Km deep ) and Mesosphere (2500 Km) depending upon’ their chemical composition and density: = 3. The Core: a. The core extends from the base ofthe mantle to the Barth Sasrigeom Or centre and accounts for about 17% of the Earth's volume, Minot The core comprises of two distinct parts. The outer core i liquid at a temperature of about 3000 °C and the inner core is, i r rat solid. The main constituent of the core is iron along. with 3 some lighter elements like sulphur, silici a sulphur, silicon, carbon hydrogen. \EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE ee blanket of gases E ea. able to sustain life on + meee nvironment of outer n of Oxygen (essential for Plant synthesis): The Planket around the_— i 45 30 ~ 4 ‘ slouds, no wind, no rain, no snow and no 0. Kao dante NOC! tc MOSt-abun gel ~ Jaminum, ay waa origin * MO.a depth about 82 Fog divided ing now widely accepted that the Earth's atmospher: as very different from its present state and thi brought about by bidlogical activity Iris originally w changes: were Composition of the Atmosphere : The components of the atmosphere may be, divided O0}Kin esp) somewhat arbitrarily into major, minor and trace elements SS 5 Component Percent by Volume Major Nitrogen 78108) A) ns) hol to the Barth [Oxygen | 20.95 s¢ th's volume, Minor, ‘Aigon 9,934 7) outer core is_-- ee ona h\ Inner Cores) Trace Net Traces n along. with Methance on hydrogen Hydrogen |b roe is was ag, OE $s & e ip yume rossi 5 ral py eee ‘The atmosphere is divided in'° BN altitudes; Troposphere spher Aes Gio Thermosphere and Lonos} here. The. temperature ma, eenhouse “rise with altitude. : Pressure of the ‘Atmosphere : ; ~The atmosphere exerts pressure and the average aimospheri’ expect som jg. This pressure years. Ani ressure. The atmospheric, pext half c aa pressure at sea level is said to be 760 m is called Atmosphere 0 pressure decreases with the increase in altitude. : from 1:5 t The Greenhouse Effect + That wou Earth's Thermostat increase ir Now ferti ‘The atmosphere of the Earth Smespiet can be compared to the glass ol agréenhouse: both allow the Sun's visibl e glass Ol Arctic pl S visible rays to enter ant ae ble warm the land, plants, water , plants, and air, yet _ heat. As radiation’s from th d air, yet retard the escape o = eee the Sun enter Earth's atmosphere, Stetia, F - directly by the ine back into space or Se cbal ete aching Earth from the oo ot the radiant ener a un, bec i | oy an use of its shorte!| ine 0 Earth’i Abies Novih Pole Gites), - 7 f £08 lay Ply B atmosppand By, is called Greenhouse Effect cor Eerie. ore is more towards the Greenhous t are mainly carbo : s SUrface dioxide, methane, Nitrous oxide an Chlorinated Fluorinated 5.5 x 1015 4, ng’ Carbons (CFC) : t also called as greenhouse pases. Humans shave di isrupted the naturz rbon cycle by burning fossil fuels for energy and by clearing forest to food 4 and house 8rowing populations, Industrial and agricultural emissions rai atmospheric carbon by about seven‘billion Mt regions of y, ; metric tons a year, Roughly half is a sorbed by the oceans here, Mesosphy and by vegetai perature may fa Global Warming : Mer reseny ot ' s. Greenhouse gases are building up in the atmosphere in such @ way as to trap the Earth's heat, gradually raising the average temperature of the planet. If this continues, we can expect some devastating shifts in climate within next fifty Re. This press years. An intensification of the greenhouse effect over the - The atmosphe next haif century could produce average world temperature tude. from 1:5 to 4.5 degree Celsius higher thai ey are today. That would induce the melting of the Polar icecap and increase in the world's sea levels from 10 inches to five feet. Now fertile regions would be scorched into deserts, and Arctic plains could become suddenly arable. Most climate odels show that in some regions - Northern Scandinavia, Caneda, for example - more rain would fall and ¢ crops grow. But in today's great mid- Tegions, warming would lead to the tructive droughts, such as that | strike more often until the Storms such as 1¢ more violent. Cal Ic Wwamounts of yzone 3S ust ae et. The als because it 1 sinfectant. N° fp the Earth unt! the Zoah's bigyy swsilizi a — = could not star e land surface 0} : Ozone layer developed. Man made, chemicals are eating aumospt at the atmosphere's Ozone layet, 4 crucial shield without which ultraviolevrays would. cause widespread: skin cancer Acid ra and dameage to much’ needed crops. to incre life, d ‘The existence of a vast Ozone’ Hole’ was. noted’ over dor othe Unied Sixes and te) PAE ‘Antafetida in 1985, of depth of Mount Everest. This antratic h h etest. This ole develops every pn year in September and October. During that period the Ozone threat the bre “contents of thé’ stratosphere over th imini ate A continuing Acie bHGGh ions a eaeodia n if ofthe Earth's Ozone ee a beings to increase ipiividid oe . fen serious skin causes. It'will als0 a i also eit cabbage, squash ant ‘the depne v @Mount, 49 r ‘manufacture of polyurethane foams and in Cleaning tiny electric components. t Acid rain means in common language the Presence of uch there ne ¢ “ere y excessive acids in rain water. It has been One of the effects curs Natural of air pollution. When we burn 1 fossil fuels for energy, they Ozone laye produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide gases which Nn Of the Sy, are highly soluble in water. During rain these oxides react iS used gg, with large quantities of water vapour of the atmosphere to tant. The hj form acids like sulphuric acid, sulphuric_acid, sulphurous rth until th acid, nitric acid and nitrous acid which then retin to the eating aw, Earth's surface, with=rain water or may remain in the ield witho, atmosphere in clouds and logs. ‘skin cane: Acid rain causes a number of adverse implications. It tends %) _ toincrease acidity in the soil, threatens human and aqualtic life, destroys forests and crops reducing agricultural noted’ ove ea, rome ‘ " Bie are productivity. Acid rain also corrodes buildings, monuments ido! a Statues and bridges, fences and railings. It creats a serious ia threat to human health also, since it contaminates not only the breathing air but also the drinking water and even food. MAP READING st all geographical ing terms and50 spquator * at imaginary ,wn on th vides it into two equal halves. This line jy Earth. The upper hal e Northern Hemisphery alled thg Souther circular line dé e surface of agre Earth which di the axis of the ui ihe perpendicular ( g towards north is called th pointin, ards south is and the one pointing tow He ‘The Poles : A imaginary line which passes through the centre of the Earth around which it rotates, 1s called the axis of the Earth, ear of the axis is called the nor h pole and the other south pole, These two poles are also called as Poles pO) poles are also called as the magnetic Latitude : misphere. Latitude is a meas measurment on a_globe or j north or south of the equator. eee ap, of location eee to both poles in degree Se measured from (0) equals 60 minutes (' -es and fractions thereof; degree » aa 60 minutes (') and minute ee fe on the glob Sen that Lahore is approximately situased equator to either pol tude of 32.9 15! 20" n ately situated earth), thus the nS e is about (1/4 Schreeee From the Aus the great udes are 90 0 reamaee Of the iffaremaarers orth ferent latitudial and 90 0 Positions, ed an 1 to the equidistant circles are plottid the other ne magnetic of location 51 through Greenwich, England, is calléd the Prime Meridian, ‘The half pointing towards west ig called western hemis, hemisphere and the one pointing towards e and_the_one hemisphere. (Longitude : Longitude is a measurement of | degrees and fractions the 5 180 ° East and 180 ° W ful together ogether maki ing the full 360 ° of the Earth, ircumfetes ence. For complete location, both latitide and longitude are neededd. For example, a point described as 409 'N, 30°W is located on the 40th parallel north of the equator and on the 30th meridian west of the prime meridian.EARTHQUAKES Introduction : The Earth's Lithosphere is divid Plated of various sizes. These p! ; molten Asthenosphere below, and it i : floating that they have the freedom to move horizontally. The theory Of plate tectonics assumes that each plate behaves a rigid unit, deforming only at a its edges. The edges, or ee i margins can diverge, converge or slide past one another. But —— there is a very little change if any in the middle of. a plate. Actually, some of the Earth's most dynamic features, such main plates. Cause of an Earthquake : The plate boundaries are the most tectonically acti the Earth - they are’ where mos itch earthquakes and volcanoes occur. Ait earthquake ae when the edges of two plates suddenly slide past —,. along a fault line! The severity of an earthquake ee = on the [RIChierSEIAS: it is logarithmic, so cach oo point Tepresents a tenfold increase in severity pacttional plate tectonics is that the surface of the Earth os ey key to of equlibrium and it Provides a global frases een many of the structural and aia ghat Sical h's surface ranging fj x fanging from Mountain led into 15 major Tectonic Jates float on the partially is bécause they are ; :ECLIPSES = a In nature, the_shadows of heavenly bodies give tise to “tonic eclipses. Eclipses are of two types; Solar eclipse and Lunar ‘tially _g¢fipse. The eclipses of the Sun and the Moon occur as z 'Y are , result of the relative positions of the Moon, the Sun and the The Earth, IVES a Solar Eclipse : gl -r “yr °S, OF Aneclipse of the Sun‘occurs when the Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun. When the Moon moves to a position plate. erween the Sun and the Earth, it throws shadow on Earth. such This shadow consists of an urhbra ind 1 a penumbra. People of of the bral on Earth who are in the unbral regi region cannot see the Sun at all. This is total eclipse of the Sun. Those in the penumbral region can see only part of the Sun, and we say that they see a partial eclipse of the Sun. A total eclipse of the Sun is one of the greatest spectacles of nature and results from one of the most fortunate coincidences of nature. In round eo se Sun’ 's diameter is Ag times that of the Moon, r. But54 -%). Lunar Eclipse * use hen the Earth comes Se oi i f the Moon ogcurs_when 17 t omes An eclipse 0! curs WI = Bios cxactl ) 30 fetween the Moon and the Sun. Whet © IGE 4» perween the Sun an 2-77 Noon. This shadow is large However, as the Moon moves out of the u the Earth's shadow, its appearance, as seen goes through a series of partial eclipses. Although lunar eclipses do not occur as often as_ eclipses, they are seen By many more peop! olar ; They occur during full Moon which is opposite the Sun and can be eon at any one instant by all of the night half of the arth.55 Barth are notin the same plane. Half of the Moon's orbit above or north of the elliptic, while the other half is below e south of it. Moreover, the equator of the Moon is inclined 6 aa Ow 0 degrees 10 the plane of its“elliptic orbit, therefore, about 59 over the whole g percent of the Moon's surface is visible at different times gon thus occurs’ from éremthe Earth. As seen from the Earth, the Moon umbral region g passes through a series of phases very 27.3 days - waxing en from the Earth from new Moon, through first quarter, to full Mgon, then ~~ waning to last quarter and new moon again (see diagram). as often Olar eople. They Occur sro Moon e Sun and can be ice e night half of the @ eee Seo ae and the whole lunar disk luminated. On the other and the rays illuminate _ the side facing the it invisible from Earth. Za NSsiined up. wilhtte| yd ed towards Rey M Jipses with the largesi, us yr eclip: q tween two total SOI’ OY tied the Saros pe The interval b a wreadon of totality (about 7 ae Sar eclipse 0 occured! Se a 8 years. The recent total solar the Sur Cycle and is 18 y ‘Hawai, Central Aen ile while | yee on July 11. 1991 and its and Braz! Brazil. A ‘total pars of the world but instead it depends upon re observer on the Earth. A total solar eclipse observed wit umbra region, and_a_partia within the penumbra region. a total solar ecl lipse passe over a a particular spot on Earth once evel The duration of the total solar eclipse speeds of rotation of the Moon and re’ The Moon moves eastward in its orbit at about 3400 Km If that speed. ed. Therefore, ' St | ‘suitable le conditions a total at = ven point near the equator for at minutes. Any solar ecliy se I ly Pp make measurements thal Ould be impossible at or inary time: DAY -NIGHT AND SEASONS 's Rotati ; on : Formation of Days and : an57 Earth makes two kinds of take place mulataneously: Rotation and ly at the time of the un are lined dup, with Dey ighside tured tye —~any or spinning of th eclipses with t F he lay West to East as the other he: es) is called the sg, lipse oc, Jawai, Central Amen, YO be seen from while the other half is in total dar If the Earth's axis oe lates was not titled to one side, every place would have IZ hours any of daylight and 12 ho kness. We know, however, and a partial eclipg that this is not so except for places on or fear the equator lar eclipse passes ove because the Earth's axis is inclined and hence the distribution 60 years on average, of day time and night time in a day is uneven. Any place . se depends upon te along the equator has nearly 12 hours of each day and night, ¥ wvolution of the Earth, “Meaborelisianiexample), whereas away from the Equator, bit at about 3400 ky lengths of day and night vary according to latitude and rotates eastward at ie the prevailing seasons. eed. Therefore, unds At places north and south of the equator, day and night are ar eclipse can can gan last alt ; unequal in length except d during the equinoxes when all parts Pout seven and hal of the Earth have equal days and nights. The Sun remains Overhead at the Equator on the spring and autumn equinox 4nd therefore days and nights are equal in length all over the Earth's surface at this time of the year. After spring equinox os places north of the equator begin to have longer’/+** shorter night. In the southern hemisphere, the - = takes place, and the days get shorter and the 5’ ./7- 5 und June 21st when the midday Sun is iss ic of Cancer, places north of the equator Uji ros, ights. The length of the daylight yee at the Arctive Circle (66 '/. N° a . is no night and daylight last for are usually referred as to reeIn winter, the 58 as the conditions ar see the midnight The Earth's Revolution idnight Sun. #7 S Naieretore, it is possible t d Antractic circles, "Lands of the ¢ exactly reverse? ¢ Sun within the Arctic an : Formation of Seasons : ference between, AS ; years. This is SYP In places near the I Equator the temperatures al dif! er ase because the Sun shine s bat f ore, do not really ee r fra; , autumn and winter - ve the four seasons; spring summer cI while places away from the equator as England and New Zealand experience. On June 21st, the position of the Earth in its orbit is such that the North pole is titled towards the TY Sun and the noonday Sun shines vertically overhead at the Vik topic of Cancer (23 '/ °N). At the same time, the southern fre Ralf ofthe Earth is titled away fromt he Sun. This condition ma is Summer Solstics, In the southern hemisphere, the * sm Opposite takes place. It is mid-winter - rt ae i. mid-winter and the days and ert travelled half Mm vo! Te Rowe at” wurde, Pree Tae ques, Sain cy pel ‘ere | bod Z1 ferme v's : S —— ® ——__ = theo. occ," .POSSibIe t ; VOLCANOES Se 4Sons ; gatroduction : i sve eat HS where Magma erupts, Magma is the molten ‘is jg superhot material present inside or beneath a volcano. At the Imost so, time of volcanic gas. The lava can explode if the gas bursts Not really out, hurling blocks of rock out of the crater and the clouds of d winter. fragments billow out or flow away. Lava comes out of the and Ney crater and from cracks in the volcano and it flows downhill, the Earth following valleys, spreading out as it reaches flat land. wards the Types of Volcanoes : ad at the ‘Southem frequency of volcanic eruptions. Volcanoes with runny ion magma of low viscosity tend to erupt more often smaller explosions. Volcanoes with sticky, pasty magma frequently but with enormous explosive energy. or pasty magma mainly contains silica. Most of the ptions can be steam-assisted because volcanoes Sf ater. Gas is an important component of ly consists of steam and carbon dioxide. igma can reach upto ant of ash is also given out during the 0 of pulverised rock and lava. Viscosity or stickiness of magma determines the type and the ® is ive, Dormant or Extinct. A erupted within the last pted within the last s not erupted withinPe . ee ke Common Places of Volcanic Activity : There are about 1300 potentially active volcanoes in the world. Common places of ective volcanoes are Hawaii] Phillipine, Indonesia Mexico,Java, New Zealand, Japay and Iceland. The volcanoes of Hawaii are probably the most thoroughly studied in the world. Cause and Prediction of Volcanoes : Scientists have learned that the Earth is slowly cooling as heat escapes from the deep interior to the surface. Spreading ridges are the Earth,s greatest volcanic mountain chains, and form where the surface is splitting apart. Predicting ‘the behaviour of most volcanoes is difficult because decades or _centuries may pass between eruptions, and the buildup to an eruption may take place in only days or months, Volcanoes as Windows into the Earth : link to the insidé of the Earth. of material that normally Ji ive us a feelin for the she Earth, More than 8 percent of d by volcanic activity of onecsi UNIVERSE Haye - JS MADE UP OF THE FOLLOWING SCHEME - Greek's Concept of Matter ig ©) Pready . mG) ting ‘th we © Classical Concept of Matter| Lalli, a Mixtures pef Substances This is an Ret rn materia 7 B s This is the Purest form of Matter it consist t is rr : con: a al pa __|_F incl ‘Compounds. | Homogeneous | [ Heterogend mix nor Te Mixture mH L___ Mixture 4 Wis the purest and is the purst BY rig that mixture in It is that mag AUB simplest form of complex form of smforand can be matter and can be which the resultant which the delined as a defined as a_material consists of a material’ co substance which can substance formed by single. phase. more — than not be spit up into the combination of Solutions are also phase. Sani : two or more simple two or more homogenous water consi defi substances. TolalNo, elements in definite mixtures. Heterogene eer elements is proportions. mixture. cor Atoms {__Motecutes | Nt is the smallest It is the smallest Patticle of an element —_ particle of a Which can take Compound and can ina chemical take pant in a tt may and Feaction. It Not exist is thé combination of /- ‘Wo of more atoms Bic and it =y existsMINERALS Ee Definition : Iris a widely used general term referri ing to the nonlivi constituents of the Earth's crust in the crystalline seen stich Heter, include_naturally occuring elements, compounds, and mixtures that have a beams e rang fe ca? ot and Gypsum, Crystallinity implies that a mineral has a Hetero definite and limited range of composition, and that. the composition is expressible as a chemical formula. Almost all inorganic substances that are used by or of value to humans are derived from minerals. Ov known, and about 50 new di Classification : Minerals can be classified in terms of structure and omposition. These are classified into 13 groups, some of are described below : Name of the | Chemical Name Availability Mineral of the Mineral Hydrated Aluminum Australia, France orice |Famaica, Barazil | Magnesium Canada, U.S.A. Hydroxide ‘Sodium Chloride Pakistan Potassium Chloride U.S.A, Europe “Aluminum U.S.A, USSRonate Pakistan im Carb Limestone Calciu Carbonate Pakistan Marble ican Pakistan Carbonates Calcium-Magnesiuny ig Dolomite | arbonate — uu 3.A., Pak ps Potassium nitrate U.S.A., Pakista jis Nitrates | Nitre SAE ats porate | U.S.A, Europe 2 " Borax Sodium tetral Mexico fom 6. | Borate eee (58 um Sulphate | Pakistan dis 7. |Sulfates Gypsum ~ | Calcium SUP —i - it tate | U.S.A, Austral & | Tungstates | Woltramite | Calcium ne Bolivia, Europe —_a 9, |Chromates | Chromite | Iron Chromate ee Th mi Occurrence : th Minerals result from a sequence of complex processe: A began with chemical differentiation of the solar B form planets and that ended, in many cas Crystallization in rocks or bodies cntrolled by trivial local A tor, The occurence of minerals, therefore involves a & understanding of geochemistry, geophysics and fi well as special factors involved in the65 GLOSSARY OF.COSMOLOGY Light Year: Itisthe distance travelled by light in one year. Light t at3x10° Km per second (1,86,000 miles per second) and one light year is approximately 9461,000 million Km (§875000 million miles). This unit is distances between galaxies. ed to measure Astronomical Unit : This is the distance between the Earth and the Si million Km). This unit re di t the heavenly bodies within the solar system. Pluto ALU. away from the Earth. Black Hole : (150 €X processes i © solar system} ny cases, wif 1 by trivial log A hypothetical region of space having a gravitational pull so fore involves: 8fat that no matter or radiation, not even light, can escape from it. Such regions are believed to form when a massive “star Collapses, having uséd up all its nuclear fuél. Black hole «Usually ties ar the centre ofa galany. Groups c of about thirty known galaxies including the (Supernova 1987 A) sas vey gral eon baaghliness aaron ws *ass=Axi’ OPE S o— OE avi I ; ee wil tons 10 wake ae . highly compressed OY Fe ‘Wifapoe. its clectrons combine Se eaatarons +h, neutrons, and the collapse halts when the ne! rc 7 7 packed together. Pulsar : e It isa rotating neutron star that emits short Ie; gular pulses of radiation (x-rays and _-rays) that apear as flashes of light V Pulsars arc like lighthouses in the sky. C7 Nebula = i$ A: A region of dust and gas in a gal; i galaxy. It is ususally a —— i of a supernova. The Crab Nebula was ; ofa supernova seen in 1054 A.D. Stars ar > formes within lon of dust and gas called Nebula. ‘67 EXERCISE ; What is a shooting star ? A shooting star is a meteor that comes from space, burning out in the Earth's upper atmosphere. : About how many stars can you see on a realy clear night with the naked eye ? The total number of stars visible with the naked eye cannot be more than 6000 - but it is seldom possible to see more than 2500) at any one time, since faint stars near the horizon are bound to be lost. How is twinkling of Stars explained ? Stars twinkle for two main reasons. The intensity of brightness of the stars decrea id increases because of line-of-sight effect. Moreover, there are disturbance in the gases of the atmosphere around the Earth. Different layers of gases also have different temperatures which bring visual changes. What is Orion Nebula? away. theQ: A: janet? = 4 & is self-luminous heayenly. body while planets A a in non Juminous body. Planets. however refleg ocky non-luminoys en on light. Riucinens 6 200 | nude, “@: What are aurora? Reece: sky Q y Pedr wage shits, WHC Sad A: These are northern polar tig elecitified particles sentout by the Sun. These charg sarth’s particles from the Sun cascade down into the 4 ‘apper’air. Being'charged. they are attracted to: the magnetic poles, which is why ‘auroras are best seen eet ate k at cncsplin Gop Gitamers ¥ alten com eotes. hare caused by “Q : ed ‘ from higher latitudes. 'They are particularly common ; soni ed of pe arte eycle This ia i ccurs ‘in ‘the ‘thermosphere | a 5 ‘ i miles above seattevel. oil * Q: Why does a total So ‘oe Nar Eclipse’ can “he anlyvat the time of the new: Moon? appen Age E any69 YS _ Q: Name some craters on the Mercury. 2 m A: Beethoven, Chopin, Goethe and Tbsen ir Ang “on the mercury. 4.9e What is the average temerature Variation on are’ the Craters a ny “the surface of the Moon? “Ct ref A:,, The average temperature on the surlace of ede i ranges from - 180°C to T10 06 The: * , temperatures appear because the: no atmosphere tece ‘around the Moon, Cal ch Is the Earth closer to the Sun in’ January or in Lguly? : he any ted tot Aj, The Earth is about three million miles closer.to.the Sun bést seq in January - but the seasons are duc to the. tilt. o£ the axis, the center of the Earth's rotations, and not to our changing distance from the Sun h month of the calendar year can lack a Moon? 1s. is 29, 1/2 days and there are only, 28 days in 29,in leap year - so there. might not be a SON via jour of the sky yeml 01) 16M) if viewed to omit 2Mie? aos a e Sky- ae the blue colur of the Sky si . ky - DULiLis the ble + js no colour of the Sky - 7 # a Sun in which gels scattered) A* oe nthe atmosphere This is sa galled the Tyne" YQ: act the, ‘Tyndal Effect. t Q ear as at the es the Sun appt »~ Q: Why do or sunset? time of sunrise A: At sul greater if es colours of the spectrum are range are lo be s around us us_and | therefore u A: we Re i Q: What is a Rainbow and how it is formed ? A: A -rainbow is the appearance of the band of seyery colour spectrum'on the horizon, Although the Sunlight Y71 Name the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust. and"Silicon, are the two most abundant elements present in the Earth's crust. Which day of the year is the longest in the Northern Hemisphere? Itis the 21st of June of every year - it is the time of Summer Solatic Which countries can experience 6 - months day and 6 - months Night? The Sun rises at the north pole on the 21st of March << yey and_this pol mains in light till the 2 of —2-'% September. We can see the Sun even at night for some fr U2302) Se months at places near north pole like Norway, Greeland and Northem Russia. Name some calendars which have been used by different peoples of the world from time to time. Gregorian, Chinese, Jewish and Muslim2 seiablished in 1884 The| measure time zones for pi arr into.23 full ume 7ONe, # half- zone is 15 © Jongitude que Ha ia wide and cach g cach half zone 1S” ngitude wide e the ve nt common in -the What Volcanoes at world? A: The Vole: of Hawaii are > probably the most common and and th Pe dehly stu in the V world. They are inderstanding ‘Of how helping scient sts to gel a and on. other plane volcan\ Q: Name some famous Meteor Craters on the) Ae Th Hu surface of the Earth. 3 A: One of the most famous andthe freshest impact crater Q v , Or Qne of the most a on Earth is the Arizona's (U.S.A). cor Crater. 7 About fifty thousand years ago, a°300, ),000 ton Piece of Mi nickel-iron punched a hole, three quarters of a mile | 7 Q: A i Arizona-Colarado Plateau. One of the largest oldest craters lies on the West side of Ungava in Northem Qubec (Canada). it is 2 miles in and 1,200 feet deep...4 2 : Give the Latitude, Longitude and Al @ Lagi ately titude of Bee 3. 2M Longitude 40 (E). Altitude 213 metres (698 feet) @; Give the Latitude and Longitude of Pakistan. mth) A: Laiwie, == 3080) Longitude 67 °, 30(E) 1 “4: What is the dead Sea? oa A; The.Dead Sea is the World lowest sea. Its surface is ; 400 metres below the Mediterranean. : Name the four main Mountain Ranges of the World. nm the A: The four main Mountain Ranges of the wWorld are; Himalyan (Asia), Alpine (Western Europe), Rocky Alpine (W OE) (U.S.A.) and Andes (South America). Q: Name some Top Resorts of the Caribbean Ai; Virgin, Antigua, Barbados, Grenad, Dominican and Peter Islands is Golden Triangle? border area in Southeast Asia touching Myanmar where warlords fight for Triangle? toa wangul area. of theMQ: How many eo plates make the Earth's ji rust: Ac Pe ae main tectonic Plates which make the * gynamic crust of the Earth. San Adreas Fault appears along the length of California where North American and Pacific plastes mect. Continental drift is now & explained in terms of plate tectonics. YQ: What is an Epicenter? ‘A: Itisa term used in the im igation of Earthquaki f the emergence of quake. hat is meant by the Richter Scale? The severity of an Earthquake is mi casured by a scale : iy F ured by a scale © What is Atmospheri pea, Am pheric Pressure? Give its Itmay be defined as pace the: a of the Earth aE ae aos arth ela meas ity means of an instrument ee ml Ansirument_ known as — ‘ome! Evangelista Tori sta Torricilli. Its different where altitud becaushe RS ‘ : 75 Q: Explain the variation h Make ; A ! of Atmospheric TTY Pressure with Altitude and its consequences ha PP in daily life. rift « A; The pressure of the atmosphere is not constant all is around but it decreases continously as the altitude is increased, The boiling point of water is 100°C at the pressure often found at sea level. However, at higher Wakes ay altitudes the pressure is less and therefore the boiling =FRCHCE point of water is lower than 100°C. People who live S during where the atmospheric pressure is lower (at high altitudes) must boil foods langer when cooking because water boils at lower temperature. It is due to by a scak this reason that people living on mountains feel ee difficulty in cooking. The idea that pressure al boiling point can be used to cook foods quicker by increasing the pressure, special cooking pot called pressure cookers do this.as! o sd ass of air and water vapours, em? dircetidn inv the northern a ow the southern | Qe t ape Me so! eis wellidetined weather System of ab\k wind of more than, 74\miles per hour en J whi 76 cent dis circulating Mm {reir ginticloek wise hemisphere jig Uirection IF hemisphere alates in atid revers' rotary circulation at the surface E 4 1 wis iis a violently rotating column of air | emg moving cOuliter-clockwise atan timated speed of “Qe jNas e about 300 miles per hour. pobate™ Q: Name two minerals Which are exported by AD Me Pakistan. Gypsum ind commor alt. Give some commercial uses of Gypsum. ae anufacture of wall-board, cement, M6 aa fn paper, paint and soil industry. 2 w ey some Gem-minerals tsed’ in jewellry. = ‘opaz, Emerlad, Jade,’ Opal. ‘Sapphire Garnet ? Amethyst and Diamo: ferent. -mineral,,names . of . the ne. rid is rich ij in copper 9°0r “ Sof copper arelin the world of the Atalamél desert innd Water.y, Nin thd end ee . ge re we oth, Ee ee are examples of some man-made Ie Soy elements. Sout, pen _“ieQ: How many ‘elements ate“known in this world? ther-sygig, A: The total number of known elements in this world is and prong mq 109 and these elements are arranged in the Periodic Une, Table to study their properties. dont Ve: What is dry ice? hind sitig Of ai, A: Itis solid carbon dioxide at a temperature of -80.C. ated" speed (<@ z ;Name the elements.which are liquid at room ji temperature. exported by lA Mercury, Bromine, Gallium, Cesium.and Francium. +4Q+)Name four-elements which:are gases. 0A) Oxygen, Nitrogen, Helium, Hydrogen and Neon. ypsum. roard, cemenl q gartiod fod) r02 atinus 2: Bi yprone e9one1 2