CHAPTER 2

A REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

As far as literature in the field of women education

is concerned, a number of studies have been conducted on
its different aspects. For the sake of convenience as
well as to indicate direction, the available related
material has been categorised and presented in the
following three broadly defined sections:

- Higher Education and Status of Women

- Socio-economic and Socio-cultural Backgrounds
- Occupational Choices and Career Organisations

Higher Education and Statue of Women

Though it is true that the general enrollment of

girls at university level is increasing each year, the
expansion is apparent more so in traditional areas. The
important questions to ask are What kind of higher
education should women have? and what good does higher
education do to them?

According to J.P.Naik (1972) "the only fundamental

right that needs to be guaranteed is the righit to work in
gainful occupations specially for the young men and women
who are forced to treat the university as though it was
some kind of 'waiting room1. True institutions of higher
education can't guarantee this right and it is also true
that their present number is none of their seeking but by
taking the line of least resistance, they have provided
opportunity for higher education to every student,
however unfit; in some institution, however poor and to
some course, however useless."l Somewhat similar view is
expressed by Shanker Narayan (1981) when he says,
"Exclusive women's colleges and women's universities have
done no better. than to reinforce and rigidify the
prevailing stereotypes and even differential treatment of
women students, curricula, text books, classification of
subjects, and unwritten code of c o n d u ~ t " . ~

Naik (1949) undertook the study to investigate into

the problem of the education of women in the province of
Bombay. He made the important conclusions in his study
that both the social status of Indian women and their
educational position were at the lowest ebb in the
beginning of the nineteenth century. Women of India have
benefited most from the liberalizing influence of modern
education and western contacts brought about through the
British rule. Social position and education of women
under fascism and communism in different countries ahow
that none of them has given perfect equality to women,
hence democracy is the best form of organisation in the

l. J.P. Naik, Access. Structure and Oualitv in Hiczher Education.

Paraarnga : University of Uysore, 1972.
2. Quoted in Uaithreyi Krishnaraj, Women and Science: Selected
Eesave. Delhi: Himalaya Publiehing House, 1991.
interest of women. The arguments of separatists were that
they cannot be educated with man in a common system. The
problems of educated women arise from the lack of harmony
between their developed individuality and aspirations on
one hand and a conservative and backward state of society
on the other. Education of women lay behind the
education of men in almost every branch of educational
activity. It is absolutely essential to educate and
emancipate the women in order to create a happier society
with a higher standard of life.'

Misra (1961) traced the history of women education

in India in the context of their status and education,
surveyed and objectively analysed the education of women
in India from 1921 to the end of the third five year plan
(1960-61) with particular reference to the factors
hindering progress the nature and extent of wastage and
stagnation, the educational facilities available to
contemporary Indian women and education. The study
revealed that there has been a rapid progress in women
education in all the spheres alongwith the existing evils
of wastage and stagnation. There is a quantitative
growth in the number of institutions for women and their
enrollment therein. To promote proper planning, a
Nbtional Committee for women Education has been appointed
with state councils in different states. Education for
. C. Naik, Education of Women i n t h e Province o f Bombav from 1918-
L94'). Ph.D. Education, Bombay U n i v e r s i t y , 1949.
women at the primary and higher stages is still an

imitation of boys education. The enrollment of girls for

vocational and special education is still not impressive.
Some facilities are being provided to educational
institutions but they are inadequate. The special
courses for women like home science, drawing, painting,

music nursing etc. still need improvement. Much emphasis

is now being laid on physical education of women. Funds
for women education are available but proper utilization
is needed.4

Ramachandran (1963) determined the views of women

students on the system of coeducation; their reasons for

taking up higher education; prospects and reasons for a

career for women; some aspects of the social system; and
life goals for Indian educated women. He found that the
role of Indian women has changed in the recent past.
Legally, women have equal rights with men. However they
are not yet fully conscious of those rights. The role of

women today, is much broader - not the traditional role

of wife and mother. Various careers are now open to
women. Along with men they can go into career life. With
education, women's role has changed. Instead of just
being a house wife and mother, she can now become a
companion to her husband and even a bread winner in the

family. Today, the roles of men and women overlap. The

4. L . Miehra, $ d u c a t i o n o f Women i n I n d i a from 1 9 2 1 t o 1 9 5 5 . Ph.D.

E d u c a t i o n , Sagar U n i v e r e i t y , 1 9 5 5 .
main reason are good facilities for higher education,
western influence, new economic opportunities and freedom
given to women, new legal status arising out of social
legislation, etc.5

Kaul (1974) opines that one of the most glaring

examples of the irrelevance of our higher education is
women's education. The waste it endangers was discussed
in the book. Here it need only be emphasized that, in
general, the reasons for irrelevance, stagnation, and
waste in higher education are generally the same both for
men and women students except that the disabilities of
women in the presentsocio-economic and cultural milieu
are greater in volume and variety. Enrolment of women
students in universities and colleges increased 15 times
(against about 8 times for men) between 1950-51 and 1970-
71. In 1970-71 there were just 22.1 percent of the total
enrollment in all higher education institutions. Figures
obtained from the University Grants Commission will give
their distribution among the various faculties in 1965-66
and 1968-69 in relation to the disposition of the total
enrolment in the faculties. During the period 1950-51 to
1965-66, more than 90 per cent of women students were in
arts, science, and commerce courses and this pattern has
remained stable right up to 1968-69. In fact from 1965-66
to 1968-69, there was a slight decrease in the proportion

=. P. Ramachandran and Others,. Women and E d u c a t i o n . Rombay: T a t a

I n s t i t u t e o f S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , 1963.
of women in science, medicine, and law courses. The

fields of study in which women could better develop their

peculiar excellence and also contribute to the social
good have limited intake capacity at present. Even if all
seats available in education and medical courses were
taken up by women enrolled in arts, science, and commerce
courses in 1968-69, it would reduce their enrolment in

academic courses only by about 100,000 students, leaving

behind a solid block of about 380,000 women in arts,
science, and commerce courses. The choice of occupations
being severely restricted at present and the social
conditions being what they are.it is no surprise that
women graduates figure so prominently on the live
registers of the employment exchanges. Even the teaching
profession, in which women could have played a really
useful and creative role seems to have reached the
saturation point.6

Neera (1978) writing on the pattern of higher

education of women raised the questions: Who takes

education? What special purpose does a women's university

serve to advance the education of women? Neera has not
given her data to substantiate the questions based on
empirical data. But she has enough data to support her
position. Referring to the SNDT women's survey she says

that a majority of students belonged to the upper castes,

6. J.N. K a u l , m e r E d u c a t i o n i n I n d i a 11951-711: Two D e c a d e s of

P l a n n e d D r a f t . S i m l a : I n d i a n I n e t i t u t e o f Advanced S t u d y , 1 9 7 4 .
that is 47 per cent, however, the proportion of the
intermediary castes was also nearly the same that is 41
per cent. On breaking up the data faculty-wise, it was
found that representation of the intermediary castes was
also nearly the same that is 41 per cent. On breaking up
the data faculty- wise, it was found that representation

of the upper castes was the greatest in home science

courses.

As regards economic background, 52 per cent of the

pre- university girls came from families with an income
bracket of Rs. 600 and below. Twenty-nine percent of the
girls belonged to Rs. 601-1000 income bracket and 16

percent to the income bracket of Rs. 1000 and above. Here

too, it was found that the arts students came from a
relatively poorer economic background, that is 53 percent
of them belonged to the lowest income bracket of Rs. 600
and below, while in the home science course only 27 per

cent belonged to this bracket. Among the graduates it was

found that more than half belonged to the income bracket
of Rs. 600 and above and most of the parents ofgirls were
in service or in business. A small proportion of the home
science girl students came from the professional
background. Concluding the social composition of girls,
Neera quotes Kamate: "A large majority of this privileged
minority studying in institutions of higher education
belong to the top layers of the social pyramid in terms
of status, affluence and all the good things of life; and
they expect to remain there by virtue of the acquisition
of higher education."

Writing on the objectives and goals of higher

education of women Neera observes that education is an
agency helping economic production. It is also said to
provide instructions in suitable skills for a general
division of labour. Thus, one of the aims of higher
education is to develop efficiency in production. On the
strength of available data, the author says that there
seems to be some sort of divergence between the view
points of parents and those of their daughters. Many
parents feel that the education they provide for their
daughters will enable them to get better husbands to some
appreciable extent, solve their marriage problem. One of
the studies indicates that highly. educated and
economically well-off parents feel that education has to
be given for personality development, while parents from
lower income in backward class feel that education
provides economic security and helps achieve a higher
status. Neera in a very subtle way maintains the goal of
education as an all-round development: "It is helpful in
case of misfortune and emergency", "It brings prestige to
girl and family", and "It enables a woman to earn a
living". As a matter of fact it appears that parents
educate their daughters to prepare them for a traditional
role. It is quite possible that even personality
development is looked upon as an indirect aid to marriage
prospects. The educationists, however, look upon
education from the point of view of academic advancement
and its job p ~ t e n t i a l . ~

Rajlaxmi (1984) examined the growth and development

of higher education of women'in the Madras Presidency
during 1921-1947. The study showed that there was a
tremendous expansion of higher education of women during
1921-47 With 180 percent increase in terms of number of
institutions. Private initiative especially of christian
missionaries was more marked than that of the government
in starting colleges for women. The ratio between
colleges for men and those for women and the ratio
between number of men and women scholars clearly showed
that there was a growing interest in the presidency in
developing higher education for women. An examination of
the economic background of women scholars revealed that
in the beginning, only high officials' daughters went in
for higher education, but towards the end of the period
petty officials' daughters also started taking college
education by availing of the co-educational concessions
of the government. They were followed by daughters of the
land-holders' but in the case of artisans and manual

7. Neera Deeai, "The Pattern of Higher Education of Women and Role

of a Women'e Univereity", Journal of Hiaher E d u c U ( V o 1 . 3,
No.1, Moneoon), 1977, pp. 5-19.
labourers, there was not much improvement. Professional
education was popular among economically, we11 - off
sectors of the society. An analysis of the duration
budgets revealed that the expenditure of higher education
of women in the all India education scheme was not an
important segment but was so in the scheme of provincial
government expenditure on education. The total cost per
female student was found to be higher than that for male
student both in arts as well as in professional colleges
throughout the periods. The cost per scholar to
government funds, beyond fees collected and finance from
other sources, showed that the percentage expenditure
from government funds was quite substantial throughout
the period. The rate of growth of overall expenditure for
scholar in arts college was less than the rate of growth
of expenditure per school in the professional colleges.
The effectiveness of the education system, determined by
the percentage of passout of students of various courses,
showed that in the intermediate examination, the pass
percentage of women was quite encouraging and always
better than that of men but in science courses men fared
better than women, and in the case of postgraduate
studies both stood on an equal footing. The system was
very effective in the case of B.Sc. (Hons.) and wastage
was negligible. In 'the field of professional colleges,
women scholars fared well with a higher percentage of
passes than among men scholars throughout the period. In
the field of research women students obtained Ph.D.
degrees as early as 1935-36. It was observed that towards

the close of the period higher education ceased t o be the

privilege of the advanced communities. Thanks to the
efforts of the pioneers in the field of education and
social reformers; girls from Muslims, depressed and
socially backward communities were able to avail of
opportunities of higher education. The educated women of
the presidency were instrumental in getting various
social legislation enacted at the central a s well as

provincial level to improve the lot of women. It was

found that in the political history of Madras Presidency,
lasting impressions were made by educated women.8

Socio-economic and Socio-cultural Backgrounds

There are good reasons to expect the social

influences on the learning environment or accesses of

women students. The social factors work through family,
home environment, style of life, belief systems, values
and attitudes etc. Similarly, there are powerful,
deeply-rooted cultural forces that obstruct the full
participation of women in education. There are also

certain long held myths on gender stereotyping. "There

are then other myths; that science and maths are 'hard'

R. Rajlaxmi, A Studv of the Social. Economic and Political

AeDecte of the Growth of Hiaher Education of Women in the nbdrae
preaidencv (1921-19471. Ph.D. Education, Jawaharlal Nehru
Univereity, 1984.
subjects, that girls are not good in science and maths,

that they have no aptitude for these subjects, that their

poor performance in these subjects is responsible for the
high rate of failure and drop out etc. etc.*Ig

R.F.Berdie (1943) undertook a project to find out

the factors associated with vocational interests of the

university students. The study revealed that no one
factor as ability, school or work experience plays a
large part in determining vocational interests. Yet all
of these factors are related to some extent. The study
indicated that family influences are among the more
effective factors determining interests and that

abilities are among the least determining factors.1°

Douglas Frayer has done his initial work on

measurement of interest. He concluded that vocational

interests of early adolescents and later adolescents are
far removed from reality and subject to enormous
fluctuations. They are impractical, when interests and

opportunities are compared. There would appear to be

less than fifty percent, who do achieve their vocational
interests; when the time comes to take a position and to
adjust to the occupational world. The reasons given by
the respondents lead to the conclusion that there is no

n o p-
9. "Women, Science and
Technology" held at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,
1988.
lo. R.F.
Berdie, "Factors Associated with Vocational Interests",
Journal and Pevcholoav. 1943.
very close correlation in the interests and fitness or
opportunity in the mind of the individual. Further, he
says vocational interest alone is of little practical
value if taken in isolation; interest should give a total
picture which would be valuable in the adjustment of the
individuals.ll According to Peter in another related
investigation, "family is greatest single agency in
determining vocational c h o i ~ e ~ ~ . ' ~ ~

Rama Devi (1962) aimed at investigating the attitude

of the Indian women towards the traditional values and to
trace the trend of change in the values, if there is any.
It was revealed from the investigation that the subjects
have more traditional value orientation with predominance
in the area of moral and spiritual values. The inter-
correlations between the different areas of values are
highly significant indicating positive relationship
between each other. The low educated group, married group
and non-working group are more traditional than their
respective counterparts. The productive orientation is
most appreciated by the sample. The working group and the
low educated, married group are more receptive than their
respective counterparts.13

ll. Quoted in P.J. Keller, m n c i ~ l e sof Vocational Guidance.Boston:

D.C. 1 Heath and company, 1948.
12. E. P. Peter, 'Factors which Contribute t o Youth' e Vocational
Choice", Journal of Applied Pavcholoav (25). 1941, pp. 286-290.
13. Rama Devi, Women's Education and Traditional Values. Ph. D.
Education, nadras University, 1962.
 Ahmed (1968) made the contention in her study that

the attitudes and behaviour patterns of the students are

functionally related to the various aspects of their
social back ground. The study revealed that while some
girls select their college and courses in terms of long-
range plans of preparation for adult life, the majority
were not deeply concerned with their future work and
career. A considerably lower proportion of qualified
young girls looked upon marriage as their ultimate
objective. Most young students did not relate the choices
which the acquisition of higher education offers them t o
alternative occupational roles which they might later
pursue. The choice of the college was also determined by
non- academic considerations, e.g. personal likes and
preferences, nearness from the residence, reputation of
.
the college, (e.g. elite) etc. Almost all students of
Mahila College view a housewife8s role as raising a
family and bearing responsibilities. They came from a
social background where the mother's role was probably
confined t o the performance of household work whereas it
is just the reverse in case in Rebecca College. The
students of these two colleges differ in their social
backgrounds- they vary in their pre-colleges educational
background, economic status and occupational levels. The
study of relationships between some elements of social
background and students8 attitudes and behaviour patterns
showed that the significance of religion is only
peripheral. Caste also does not play a very vital role
in determining students' attitudes.

Regional background and the type of school they

studied earlier were significant. The occupational and
educational levels of the family seem to enjoy the
maximum importance in the lives of the students. Students
from families of higher educational and occupational
levels reflect a broader social outlook and patterns of
behaviour and attitudes which can be identified with
'modernization'. The existence of inter- generational
differences in opinions and attitudes towards the
changing aspects of society is reflected in attitude
toward marriage and work by women. The models upon which
young people patterned future goals are their educational
preparation, their occupational choices, distribution of
energy between their studies and the other facets of
life. All those reflected their social background,their
families and society, qualities of educational
institutions into which they had access and the economic
and social forces that give context to life in Indian
society. The methodology adopted by the author is tight
enough. 14

Chitra (1971) in her study identified the section of

women who were the largest recipients of higher education

14. K. Ahmed, Soc ial BaCkaround of W m e n Underaraduatea of D e l u

University. Ph.D. Sociology, University of Delhi, 1968.
and t o determine the relationship between social origins,
inequalities in educational opportunities and social

mobility. It was identified that individual from the

upper strata of Mysore society had greater opportunities
for higher education than those from the middle and lower
strata. Among the Hindus, Brahmins had the highest
representation among students as compared with the
dominant peasant castes of other non-Brahmin castes.
Among backward classes, the upper layers had been the
beneficiaries of scholarships, free-ships, etc. In both
the college students from the higher income strata (Rs.
500 and above) enjoyed the highest representation. There
existed a strikingly wide gap' between the attitudes of
students and their parents. The students cliques were
based far more on class t h a n o n caste except among the so
called untouchables and Muslims. Those cliques influenced
not only the students' attitudes but also their
behaviour. The westernized cliques influenced the members
of more conservative values t o become 'more fashionable'
in their dress, t o approve of the freer mixing of the
sexes. 15

Baker (1973) examined the values and value conflicts

of women students in respect of their aim in life,

studies career, social life, and marriage as well a s the

15. U.N. C h i t e a , The S o c i a l Baskaround o f Some Underaraduate Women

S t u d e n t s i n Uysore C i t y . Ph.D. S o c i o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f D e l h i ,
1971.
areas of conflict with parents as perceived by them. He
made the significant conclusion of his study that three-
fourths of the fathers and nine-tenths of the mothers had
almost no college education. .Nearly seventy percent of
the subjects were either first graduate, first women of
the first generation, one of the first generation, or not
first generation but first woman graduate in the family.
Some women students came to college without any definite
aim, others came to prepare for a job. Only twelve per
cent families actively encouraged students to take up a
job after graduation. Parents placed restrictions on the
relationship and mixing of opposite sexes. This was
found to be a source of conflict. The most conservative
social group in this regard seemed to be the South Indian
Hindus. Restrictions and opposing views of parents
regarding fashion and spending much pocket money were
further areas of conflict. Western literature and films
were found to have deeply influenced the value systems of
women students. Students were found quite knowledgeable
about outstanding personalities.16

Anand (1973) made an attempt to find out if social

changes affected the value system. The study revealed

the fashion mindedness, achievement orientation and non-
conformity were significantly co-related with one

16. D.X. Baker, A Studv of Women Students' Values. Goals. and

conflict Reaardina Studiee. Caredr. Social Life and Harriaae.
Ph.D. Sociology, Bombay University, 1973.
another. Parental occupation, educational level of the

family, and urbanisation affected modernity. Fashion

mindedness was found to be related to birth order,
organisation, and parental income. Approval seekers had
more dependent orientation. The study indicated' that in
spite of the urge t o modernise many traditional values
were still operating, among coilege girls. Most of them

prefer teaching and medical professions.17

Gorwany (1974) examined the influence of self-esteem

on behaviour pattern and attitudes and investigated the
interrelationship between levels of self-esteem and role
performance, adjustment pattern, aspirations and social
change. It was found that there was a significant degree

of consequence between the self image and subjectst

perception of the response of others, high degree of
consistency existed for all the ten qualities ranging
between eighty five and ninetyfive percent. Further more
unfavourable evaluation was more likely t o encourage low

self-esteem except for the 'last childt and 'only

daughter'. There was a positive linear relationship
between parental acceptance and level of self-esteem,
parental dominance submission did not affect the self-
esteem levels, high self-esteem led to active role
performance and low self -esteem led to passive role

17. Quoted in H.H. Rehman and Biswal Kamalakanta, Education, Work

and Women: An Enauirv into Gender Bias. New Delhi: Commonwealth
Publishere, 1993.
performance. There were no significant differences among
self-esteem levels and dominant-submissive role
performance. There was a strong positive linear
association between level of self-esteem and social
adjustment, subjects with high self-esteem were poorly
adjusted. Level of self-esteem did not significantly
influence the level of aspiration, subjects with high
self-esteem were poorly adjusted and advocated free
interaction with opposite sex and were oriented to wards
choosing their partner in life themselves.le

Mehta and Raj (1982) found out the effect of socio-

economic back-ground of women on non-working science
post-graduates, identified the reasons for women science
postgraduates not working, knew their attitude to careers
and career woman and found out how they perceived the
importance of science in their lives and whether this
perception was reflected in their day to day life. The
study revealed that the M.Sc. educated women did not use
their knowledge of science at home. The possibilities of
using scientific knowledge at -home were rather limited.
The women's own perceptions of the use of science was
limited to the enhancement of material productivity and
while they did think of science as being of value, they
did not appear to perceive adequately the.role of science

18. N. Gorwany. Rol- Structure and social A -oS

Studv of Female Strr&t&s.Ph.D. Sociology, Rajasthan University,
1974.
in creating a scientific temper. Those women who actively
sought work maintained a lively interest in science and
scientific matters, read journals regularly; and some of
them even went to their colleges frequently to obtain
reading materials. They thought that science helped them
to understand the world better.lg

Desai (1984) examined change and traditionalism

among college going urban girls as well as to obtain
summary measures of the subjects, modernity orientations
and their overall modernity. He found that the college
going girls manifested relatively high mean scores on
scientific and achievement orientations, somewhat lower
mean scores on secular and civic orientations, and rather
low scores on independence and universalistic
orientations. Scores on the overall modernity scale
showed that the respondents had appreciably moved towards
modern attitudes, values and behaviour patterns. There
was no marked difference in the modernity of the girl
students coming from rural and urban background. The
level of parents' education did not provide any clue to
modernity orientations of college girls. The respondents
had positive views regarding family planning and its
scientific knowledge concerning this subject cooking as
the main role activity, and living in a joint family

l9 H.K. Raj, et. al., Survev on Non-Working Women Pwtclraduate

Science Dearee Holdera in BOmbav. Research Center for Women's
Studies, SNDT University: 1982.
after marriage, while negative views were expressed
against the dowry system. On the whole various spheres of

preferences and participation, in different types of

activities reflected changing roles presumably due to
higher education and u r b a n i z a t i ~ n . ~ ~

Occupational Choices and Career Organisation

Career choice is outlined by Hall (1976) as not just

the choice of an occupation, but any choice affecting
one's career. He claims that theories of occupational
choice fall into two basic categories; 'matching
theories', which describe what kinds of people enter what
kinds of occupation, and 'process theories', which
describe the manner in which people arrive at an

occupational choice. It is the second category i.e., the

process of occupational choice which is the main
concern.21 Strong in his study reports, that it is
futile on the basis of the existing data t o attempt any
precise estimate of how many students have really
selected a vocation in any age group. We can be sure

however, that far too many are undecided. At least a

third t o a half of college students are not free to
choose occupations as they please.22

20. U.S. Desai, .C!hrnae and Traditionalism amona Colleae Girls. ph.D.
Sociology, Gujarat Univermity, 1984.
21. D.T. Hall, careers in Oraanirations-Calif: Goodyear, 1976.
22. E.K. Strong, Jr., yocational Interests of Hen and Women.
California: Stanford University Press, 1943, p. 30.
 Kakkar (1983) investigated the impact of vocational
attitudes, interests and work values on the job
satisfaction of women employees who had entered the world
of work after initial vocational training. H e found that
women employees of the different vocations differed
significantly in their job satisfaction. Job satisfaction
and the occupational level of the employees were
positively related. Women employees of the different
vocations were found t o have different patterns of
vocational interest. Vocational interest patterns of
women employees of the different vocations did not differ
significantly from those of the vocational girl students.
They differed in their attitudes in their job
satisfaction levels. Job satisfaction of the employees
was affected both by the-type of job held by the
employees as well as by the component of work values. Job
satisfaction of the employees was significantly
influenced by the interactions of different independent
variables of the study with other variables of the study;
vis-a-vis, positive relationships were found between job
satisfaction and age, educational level, income,
vocational attitude, and work values. There was a
positive correlation between the vocational interests and
the occupational aspirations of girl students. Age and
SES had significant effects on the occupational
aspirations of the girls in vocational courses. School
achievement was negatively correlated with occupational
aspirations of girls in vocational courses.23

Bhatnagar (1983) formulated the different aims of

his study that: (i) t o find out the occupational choices
of the girls, (ii) to find out the factors which
influenced the occupational choices of girls, (iii) to
study the extent of divergence between the occupational
choices and vocational interests of girls, and (iv) t o
study the differences among d'ifferent groups of female
students in occupational choices and factors influencing
them along with their interests. He found that (i) the
girls had diversified occupational choices (ii) the
highest factor influencing occupational choices was
interest, followed by serving humanity} society, serving
poor/ back ward, serving sick/ disabled, t o see different
places, t o place oneself, t o be a model for youngsters,
economy and so on (iii) only ten percent divergence from

their vocational interests and (iv) no significant

difference was found amongst urban and semi-urban girls
in the congruence of t h e i r . occupational choice and
vocational interest.24

Suman (1986) tried to find out the educational and

vocational goals and aspirations of arts and sciences

23. Ved Kakkar, A Study. of Job Satisfaction in Relation t~

Attitudes. Job Values and Vocational Interests of Women. Ph.D.
Education, Bhopal University, 1983.
2 4 . Harimohan Bhatnagar, fi Studv of the Occu~ationalChoices o f
adolescent Girls and Factors Influencina Them. Ph.D. Education,
Himachal Pradesh University, 1983.
students and the various factors reported by them to be

responsible for their goals and the various personal and

social characteristics associated with different levels
of educational and vocational goals. He found that for
arts students, the most important educational goal was a
bachelors degree (Pass Course) followed by a simple
bachelors degree in education and a masters degree-And
for science students,the goal was a bachelors degree
(Honours Course) followed by a bachelors degree in
education. Inmedicine, a simple bachelors degree along
with a masters degree. Advice of friends, and ability
were the most important determinant of educational goal
for arts and science students, respectively. Opportunity
of recreation and getting employment were important
objectives behind educational goals for arts and science
students respectively. For arts students, a masters
degree was an important educational aspiration; teaching
was an important vocational goal; prestige was a valued
thing in life and college teaching was an important
vocational aspiration. For science students the findings
were a bachelors degree in medicine, teaching, good
salary, prestige and college teaching respectively.
Economic status, self- concept of academic ability,
ability or intelligence, academic motivation, need
achievement and extraversion had significantly positive
association with educational and vocational goals.
Father's education had a significant positive association
with educational goals. There was a good deal of

similarities between responses of arts and science

students. Arts and science students combined together had
favourable attitudes towards marriage of girls (82 per
cent)and were in favour of employment of girls (38.7 per
cent) 25.
Vijayalakshmi (1989) in her study deals with the
issues of sex roles and occupational choices of women
students. The author's main task in this study has been
to pinpoint the changes taking place in sex roles and
their impact on selection of courses at higher levels.
While viewing women's role in social, cultural and

psychological perspectives, this study discusses various

factors affecting and changing role in familial,
employment, social, economical, political and educational
spheres. An important finding of the study is that the
women students, who opt for professional and science
courses, are more liberal than those who opt for non-
professional and arts courses in their perception of sex

role. It draws the attention of women students,

researchers and policy makers to introduce reforms in
planning and implementation of educational services for
women in higher levels.26

25. S. Suman, A Socio-Pavcholoaical study of Goal Aa~irationa of

Female Studenta. Ph.D. Psychology, Hagadh University, 1986.
26. G. Vijayalakahmi, Sex Role Percrotion and Occu~ationalChoice: A
Studv of Women Student8 in Profeaaional and Non-orofeaaional
Couraea. Delhi: nittal Publicationa. 1989.
 Fernandes (1984) found out the effect of counselling
on the achievement of pre-adolescent and adolescent
underachievers, the effect of counselling of pre-

adolescent and adolescent underachievers as compared t o

that of non-counselled normal 'achievers, and the effect
of counselling on the achievement of pro-adolescent and
adolescent underachievers belonging t o families holding
white-collar and blue-collar job. He found that the
academic achievement of counselled pre-adolescent
underachievers was significantly greater than that of
non- counselled underachievers. The academic achievement
of counselled pre-adolescent under-achievers was signi-
ficantly greater than that of non-counselled pre-
adolescent normal achievers. The academic achievement of
counselled adolescent underachievers was significantly
greater than that of non- counselled adolescent normal
achievers. The academic achievement of counselled
adolescent underachievers belonging t o families holding
white collar jobs and blue collar jobs did not differ
particularly. The academic achievements of counselled
pre-adolescent underachievers belonging to families
holding white collar jobs and blue collar jobs differed

signifi~antly.~~

17. L. Fernandes, A Studv of the Effect of Guidance and Counsellinq

gn the Academic Achievement of Underachievina Preadolescent and
Adolescent Girls. Ph.D. Education, nysore University, 1984.
 A Critical Overview of the Related Literature

In the preceding pages, a survey of available

related literature pertaining to the different aspects of
the present problem in the selection and presentation of
foregoing studies was their usefulness and significance
for the present project. Some suggested the approach or
technique, while others threw up hints and ideas for the
ensuing study. Most of the previously mentioned research
centred around the following areas:

1. General surveys and historical account of the

development of women education in the pre and
post independence periods.

2. The patterns of higher education of women,

with respect to social, political, economic
and psychological backgrounds.

3. Change in traditional and societal values.

4. Occupational influences, vocational interests

and career organisations.

5. Comparative perceptions of male and female

towards different problems and prospects of
education.

6. Need for scientific guidance and academic

counselling.
 The present investigator, after a careful

observation of the findings of the previous studies could

identify unspecified gap, where survey type, empirical

study is required. The many sociological factors
influencing the women students in the selection of
subjects at a crucial stage, that marks the beginning of
the whole life-pattern, presented a viable research
project. A more comprehensive approach and a combination
of novel and significant facets were needed t o study the
complex phenomenon. In this respect, the study probably,
represents a new venture in the field of women studies o n
the one hand and vocational education on the other hand.
Thus, following the foot-prints of the past researches,
the researcher designed her proposal for the study.