ISTRATIO! PUBLIC ADM —S © DEFINING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Woodrow Wilson f Public administration is the detailed and systematic application of law. Every particular application of law is an act of administration L.D. White “Public administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or enforcement of public policy”. As per White, this definition covers a multitude of particular operations in many fields the delivery of a letter, the sale of public land, the negotiation ofa treaty, the award of compensation to an injured workman, the quarantine of a sick child, the removal of litter from a park, manufacturing uranium 235, and licensing the use of atomic energy. It includes military as well as civil affairs, much of the work of courts, and all the special fields of government aclivity-police, education, health, construction of public works, conservation, social security, and many others. The conduct of public affairs in advanced civilisations requires the employment of almost every profession and skill-engineering, law, medicine, and teaching; the crafts, the technical specialties, the office skills, and many others. Percy Mc Queen Public administration is related to the operations of government whether local or central. + Luther Gulick Public administration is that part of the science of administration, which has to do with the government; it concerns itself primarily with the executive branch where the work of the government is done; though there are obviously problems also in connection with the legislative and judicial branches. + M Pfiffner “Administration consists of getting the work of government done by coordinating the efforts of people so that they can work together to accomplish their set tasks”. ~ M. Ruthanaswami ‘When administration has to do with the affairs of a state or minor political institutions like the ‘municipal or country council (district board), it is called public administration, All the acts of the officials of a government, from the peon in a remote office to the head of a state in the capital, constitute public administration.” ‘ HLA. Simon, D.W. Smithburg and V.A. Thompson “By Public Administration is meant, in common usage, the activities of the executive branches of national, state and local governments, government corporations and certain other agencies of a specialised character. Specifically excluded are judicial and legislative agencies within the government and non-governmental administration.” Corson and Harris “Public administration ... is the action part of government, the means by which the purposes and. goals of government are realised.’ Dwight Waldo “Public administration is the art and science of management as applied to the affairs of State.” * ME, Dimock 5 a “Public Administration is concemed with ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the govel subject matter, the technical knowledge of a field, which enables the adi tasks? The ‘how’ is the technique of management, the principles according programmes are carried through to success. Each is indispensable; synthesis called administration”,Nicholas Henry “Public Administration is a broad-ranging and amorphous combination of theory and practice; its purpose is to promote a superior understanding of government and its relationship with the society, it governs, as well as to encourage public policies more responsive to social needs and to institute managerial practices attuned to effectiveness, efficiency and the deeper human requisites of the citizenry”. The traditional definitions of Public Administration, which are given above reflect the view that the Public Administration is only involved in carrying out the policies and programmes of the government. It reflect that it has no role in policy making and also locates the administration in the executive branch but today the term public administration is used in a broader sense that it is not only involved in carrying out the programmes of the goverment, but it also plays an important role in policy formulation and covers the three branches of the government. In this context, we may reflect on the definition offered by F.A. Nigro and L.G. Nigro. According to them Public Administration: + is co-operative group effort in a public setting; * covers all three branches-executive, legislative, and judicial, and their inter- relationships; + has an important role in the formulation of public policy and is thus a part of the political process; + is different in significant ways from private administration; and + is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community”. In sum, public administration: ¥ is the non-political public bureaucracy operating in a political system; Y deals with the ends of the State, the sovereign will, the public interests and laws; Y is the business side of government and as such concerned with policy execution, but it is also concerned with policy-making; ¥ covers all three branches of government, although it tends to be concentrated in the executive branch; ¥ provides regulatory and service functions to the people in order to attain good life, Y differs significantly from private administration, especially in its emphasis on the public; and ¥ is interdisciplinary in nature as it draws upon other social sciences like political science, economies and sociology. « NATURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION There are two views regarding the Nature of Public Administration, that is, Managerial. sd Sago i According to the integral view, stration’ is the sum total of all manual, clerical, managerial, ¢ h rtakenISTRATION ‘According to the managerial view of administration, the managerial activities of people who are involved in planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling constitute Public Administration. This view regards administration as getting things done and not doing things. Luther Gullick, Herbert Simon, Smithburg and Thompson are the supporters of this view. The managerial view excludes Public Administration from non-managerial activities such as manual, clerical and technical activities. The two views differs from each other in many ways. According to Prof. MP. Sharma the difference between the two views is fundamental. The integral view includes the activities of all the persons engaged in administration whereas the managerial view restricts itself only to the activities of the few persons at the top. The integral view depicts all types of activities from manual to managerial, from nontechnical to technical ‘whereas the managerial view takes into account only the managerial activities in an organisation. Furthermore, administration, according to the integral view would differ from one sphere to another depending upon the subject matter, but whereas that will not be the case according to the managerial point of view because the managerial view is identified with the managerial techniques common to all the fields of administration © SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION In the modem time Public administration have a pivotal role. There are many discussions about the scope of Public Administration, some scholars are argued that in the Neo-liberal time the scope of Public administration is very less and Private administration have growing importance. Some argues that the neo-liberal time the term Public administration has significant one because the neo liberal state has faced many problems like environmental and technological issues. The scope of Public administration deals in many ways Public Administration and People, Public Administration is an organizational effort it needed a close relation to people. In every Administrative system they have good relation between people and administrative agencies. It influenced the day to day life of the common people. Public Administration and Democracy are related in many ways. In a Democratic political system scope of public administration is related in many ways. It have close link to people and at the same time they are the watch -dog of the political system. The Modern democratic state gave ‘more important to the welfarism; in a welfare democracy the effective administration is essential. There are many other reasons also contribute the scope of Public Administration. Development of Communication and Technology ‘The Development of Neo-Liberal State ‘The concept of Participatory Development Good Governance E-Governance Environmental concems Human rights approach New Social Movements and State The growth of public admin Administration has emerged in th Woodrow Wilson contributedas the father of Public Administration, As a discipline Public Administration is not very old it is emerged during the 19th century last. During these years Public Administration has passed through several phases of development. We can broadly divide the growth of Public Administration into the following five stages. Y Period 1 1887 — 1926 v Period II 1927 - 1937 Y Period III 1938 — 1947 Y Period IV 1948-1970 Y Period V 1971 — continuing Period I (1887 — 1926) Public Administration Dichotomy: The discipline of Public Administration was bom in the USA. The credit for initiating as an academic study of Public Administration goes to Woodrow Wilson. He is regarded as the father of the discipline of Public Administration. In his article entitled “The Study of Administration”, published in 1887, he emphasized the need for studying Public Administration as a discipline apart from politics. This is known as Principle of politic administration dichotomy, ie. a separation of Politics and Administration. Wilson argued that, “Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. According to Frank J.Goodnow, politics “has to do with the expression of the state will” while administration “has to do with the execution of these policies.” In short, Goodnow posited the politics-administration dichotomy and he developed the Wilsonian theme further and greater courage and conviction. Period II (1927 - 1937) Principles of Administration: The central belief of this period was that there are certain ‘principles’ of administration and which is the task of the scholars to discover and applied to increase the efficiency and economy of Public Administration. Scientific management handled the business of administration becomes a slogan. Administrative practitioners and business school join hands to mechanistic aspect of management. They claim that Public Administration is a science. The great depression in the America contributed a lot to the development. These periods were the golden years of ‘principles’ in the history of Public Administration. This was also a period when Public Administration commanded a high degree or respectability and its product were in great demand both in government and business. Period II (1938 ~ 1947) Era of challenge: The main theme during this period was the advocacy of ‘Human Relationship Behavioural Approach’ to the study of Public Administration. The idea of administrative dichotomy was rejected, It was argued that Administration cannot be separated from politics because its political nature and role, Administration is not only concem with policy decision but it deals with the policy formulation, Similarly, the principle of Administration was challenge Period IV (1947-1970); The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics- administration dichotomy remained the center of cri . In the 1960s and 1970s, government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remainPUBLIC AD) TRATION effective. Concurrently, after World War II, the whole concept of public administration expanded to include policy-making and analysis, thus the study of ‘administrative policy making and analyses was introduced and enhanced into the government decision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor became a predominant concern and emphasis in the study of Public ‘Administration. This period witnessed the development and inclusion of other social sciences knowledge, predominantly, psychology, anthropology, and sociology, into the study of public administration, Fritz Morstein Marx with his book ‘The Elements of Public Administration’ (1946), Paul H. Appleby ‘Policy and Administration’ (1952), Frank Marini “Towards a New Public Administration’ (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors. Period V (1971) Continuing:- After the 1970s the evolution ‘of Public Administration has gained new ways. The emergence of Development Administration, ‘Comparative Public administration and New Public Administration ete were contributed to the evolution of Public Administration. The emergence of globalization further contributed to this growth. ‘THE CRISIS OF IDENTITY (1950-1970) Public administration as political science (1950-1970) In this phase, public administration was reestablished into the mother discipline, political science. But there were several issues such as- 1. Absence of comprehensive intellectual framework for public administration as a separate discipline, 2. And willing of political scientists to engulf public administration into political science So observers rightly commented that —“public administration stands in danger of ...senescence, ‘and that lusty young giant of a decade ago, may now’ ‘evaporate’ as a field." During 1960s, the American Political Science Association moved officially to rid itself of public administration. So, a scholar pointed that political science seems to have less utility in the education of public administrators. Political science educates for “jntellectualized understanding” of public administration, whereas public administration educates for “knowledgeable action”. Public administration as management (1950-1970) ‘As public administration was struggling for its identity, a few public administrationists began searching for an alternative. They found it in ‘management’, called either ‘administrative science’ or ‘generic management’ , which holds that sector, culture, institution, mission, so on and so forth have little consequence to efficient and effective administration, and that “a body of knowledge” ~ statistics, economics, accounting, operation research, and organization are often needed, and exists common to the field of administration. But it is noteworthy that “management’s focus is exclusively technical, whereas public administration’s focus is both technical and normative. Finally, it was becoming increasingly clear to public administrationists that neither political science nor management addressed their interest, nor could they. With this, a new phase began.ERARCHY IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIO! * Definition, Nature and Origin: Hierarchy means All these are prelude to the system of hierarch system of management which sug; Apart from this, he hi the same rank or perform the same duty, duties, 'y. Hence hierarchy can be defined as an idea or gests to employ a person to a post for which he is eligible in every organisation there is a chief executive to manage the whole body. Since imself cannot manage it alone he requires other people to help him. All of them do not hold There are different persons who perform different Some experts of public administration are of opinion that the concept of hierarchy is quite prevalent in theology. In church and related fields the system of hierarchy is generally found. Latham in the same article has said: “Like an article of faith in a religious creed, hierarchy is a symbol of the belief in the mythic form of administrative organisation. Like an article of religious faith it is believed in spite of the lack of evidence to support it” Some people think that in public administration the idea of religious faith is quite prevalent. The employees of the lower rank never raise the question of the system of hierarchy and they ungrudgingly obey the order of the higher officer. Latham further says; “Here is the familiar symbolism of the theology of the administration, including the mystic sign of Pyramid.” We have just now stated that the concept of hierarchy is just like religious faith. The employees of the lower rank generally do not raise question about the power or authority of their higher officer. They simply take it for granted that the higher officer has the ability and qualification as well as power to issue order and direction, Hence it is a kind of faith which may easily be compared with religious faith, The employees of the management spontaneously obey the order of the higher officer. Here is an issue of faith and loyalty. If this faith and loyalty for one reason or other are disturbed, the system of hierarchy cannot function satisfactorily. Hence loyalty to and faith in higher authority are of vital importance in the system of hierarchy, An important aspect of hierarchy is that in the organisation there shallHIERARCHY IN PUBLIC ADMI ISTRATION exist mutual faith and harmony and order shall prevail in the whole body of organisation. Latham says: “But unless the administrator sees this group as a coherent social unit, he is likely to develop not harmony and order, but disorder and discouragement.” ‘So we can say that unity and cooperation are the two most important properties of hierarchical system. Along with it there shall exist mutual belief and faith Every employee must take it for granted that an officer above his head has the right to give order and it is his duty to obey the order. This is a question of faith as well as an important issue of cooperation. James Mooney has called the hierarchy a type or form of scalar process or principle. He calls it so as in all organisations there is a highest rank and a lowest rank and in between these two there exist number of ranks. The stages are generally arranged in order of “importance”. In public administration ail the stages or all the persons of a stage are not of equal importance. Each person holds a rank and there is scope of promotion to higher rank. © Functions of Hierarchy: In the public administration systems of all moder states there exists bureaucratic structure and this is inseparable from hierarchy. Long ago the German sociologist Max Weber pointed out this and since then bureaucracy, public administration and hierarchy are well-knit concepts. In the structure of hierarchy there is a chief executive who gives orders and it is channelled through the system of hierarchy. For this reason L.D. White calls it a Channel of Command. The order of the chief executive passes through several stages and it finally reaches its destination. It is said that it is impossible for the chief executive to send his order personally to all concerned. Needless to say that here lies the crucial role of the hierarchy. Another function of hierarchy is called channel of delegation. The decision of one person or a decision taken at a particular stage is delegated or sent to another stage and in this way the public administration performs its duty. It is not feasible for the chief executive to take all decisions regarding the management of organisation. He simply formulates the general guidelines and, at subsequent stages, authorised persons or departments to take decision or make changes in the original policy In the British parliamentary and other parliamentary systems there is a very well-known concept which is called “delegated legislation”. Its meaning is-the parliament adopts the general principle of a policy and the general administration has been empowered to make minor changes. The system of hierarchy falls in this category. The third important function of hierarchy is that the modern public administration is to perform numerous and a different type of function and it is not possible for any particular department to do all the duties. There are different departments and various aspects of a decision are performed by them, In this way, public administration is run today. No one department is absolutely responsible for any decision or performance. Sometimes the reconsideration or reformulation of the original policy or decision may be required and hierarchical system does this job. L:D. White has pointed this out Still there is another function. It is said that hierarchy ensures channel of internal control. This may be called checks and balances. This system is prevalent in American ¢r Nereis RA ama a a aR i ls structure, In the structure of hierarchy no one particular section or department is fully empowered 10 take all decisions. The final form of a decision passes through a number of sections and after this it assumes final shape L.D. White has mentioned an important function of hierarchy. He says: The linkage of civilian officers in a chain of command and responsibility of the main two-way highway along which public business travels is an endless stream. The duty or responsibility of each section or person is specified and naturally there does not arise any ambiguity. Each person oF department performs specific duty and in this way the management of the organisation is run. The specification of duty is an essential aspect of this system and this feature helps running the public administration. The hierarchy introduces in an indirect way a type of division of labour. The public administration has numerous aspects and all these cannot be fruitfully performed by any single person. Naturally, the division of labour or duty is an essential part of every organisation. © Limitations and Criticisms: Peter Self does not hold favourable opinion about hierarchy. In governmental system the application of this policy or idea is not a realistic one. Let us see what he says: “A hierarchical image of government is not very realistic... This is because the procedural rules or conventions which legitimise the ultimate exercise of authority are rarely clear enough.” Hierarchy is a very well-known feature of modern administrative system. But there are several shorteomings-and one such shortcoming is conflicts frequently arise among various ranks and ffice-holders. Many employees of different ranks may refuse to cooperate with the higher officer. It is very often found that the order of the higher officer does not conform to reality and, in that case, employees of the lower rank may raise objection. ‘A very important aspect of hierarchy is cooperation, There must be cooperation among all the sections or departments of organisation. But in reality it is found that this does not exist. This; damages the function of hierarchy as well as organisation. If in any organisation there are recalcitrant employees whose leitmotif is not to cooperate with the management or to find fault with others in that situation the normal functioning of the organisation is likely to be adversely affected. Again, the management cannot be in a position fo set rid of such employees because in many states trade unionism is very powerful. The feature or special aspect of hierarchy is that all the departments or sections must cooperate with each other and must try to make the organisation a grand success. For successful functioning of hierarchy there must exist cordial relation among all sections — especially between the chief executive and his subordinates, In many cases the relation is a sour one and the inevitable consequence is that fruitful functioning of the organisation is affected. Since hierarchy is not controlled or managed by definite laws or principles conflicts become the normal feature of the organisation, ‘Another drawback of this system is authority, labour and remuneration are not always properly distributed; grievances among many are bound to crop up. This usually happens in largeHIERARCHY IN PUBLIC ADM! organisations. Some persons get higher remuneration doing less work and many others get more salary doing less job. This very often acts as potential source of conflict. since there are no fixed principles of hierarchy, the system is not uniform everywhere, The gystem works differently in different organisations. This evidently creates problem for hierarchy in public administration. It may be an idea or principle but public administration as a distinct discipline of social science, it must have a clear principle. It may be stated here that in order to be a clear and effective principle the hierarchy must have definite ideas, processes and rule and these must have —as far as possible—universality (universality not in the strict sense). Another criticism against it is that it creates a wall between the superior and his subordinates But the fact is that in an administration everyone is essential. One employee may not always be more important than others. But in the hierarchical structure the biack spot is superior and subordinate and this is likely to sour the relationship, This is undesirable—we must remember this. These shortcomings can, however, be overcome if cautious steps are adopted.UNITY OF COMMAND IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Unity of command is one of the fourteen principles of Fayol regarding the management of an organisation. For better discipline and improved management it has been suggested by Fayol that an employee will be responsible only to one master or boss and no one else. It is mainly due to the fact that if an employee is compelled to carry out the orders of more than one master, that will create confusion in mismanagement The organisation will be plunged into problem. The term unity of command does not admit of any difference of opinion in the administration. It implies that in management there shall be transparency and when the chief executive isses command or order this shall be treated as final Henri Fayol thought that for the better and efficient management it is essential that unity of command should be strictly followed. Fayol has said that there are three things in the idea of tunity of command —the person who issues command or order, the employee who carries out the command that is executes the order and, fil nally, if the organisation is being managed in accordance with the order. Fayol observed that in the French military department the principle of unity of command was strictly followed and according to Fayo! that produced good results Still today in many states (in some departments this principle is strictly followed) the existence of this principle comes to our notice. Henri Fayol was quite eager to implement this principle in the management world of France and from the history of public administration we come to know that it achieved success. In the opinion of Fayol the crucial aspects of unity of command are- there must exist an authority who has the power or right to issue order, the power to extract obedience, and there is an atmosphere of implementation. A number of objections have been raised against this principle and one such has been made by Some specialists such as Dimock and Dimock. They are of opinion that if the organisation is sinall in size the principle will have some practical importance that is it may or will be executed Even in military department the unity of command has been fruitfully implemented. But in Beneral public administration or civil administration the principle cannot be implemented. Particularly if the organisation happens to be large, there is not one person to give orders, A worker may have to serve more than one master and in that case he will carry out the orders of whom. This relates to the structure of one management. In that situation an employee cannot say that he will carry out the order of a particular boss and not other bosses. In many organisations there is a group of managers and all of them are authorised to command principle will create confusion in such an or; Fayol’s time there was no existence of large organisation, issue command. The unity of ganisation, Some people say that in There is another drawback of this principle. For better or efficient management the principle of coordination should be strietly-followed. But some critics say that in their principle the coordination has no importance, In modern organisation the division of labour or division of ‘work is sincerely followed, But many crities are of opinion that there is conflict between unity of command and division of labour or division of work, The size of the organisation is expanding day after day and in this background the utility of this prineiple is decreasing gradually. There must exist strict and effective coordination among all the departments of an organisation,UNITY OF COMMAND IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Simon in his Administrative Behaviour has vehemently criticised this principle, He does not contribute to the idea that if the principle of unity of command is sincerely followed that will result in the efficiency and better management of the organisation. The whole idea is exaggerated. Simon has said that the efficiency of a management depends on a number of factors and the unity of command is one of them. But this is not an important one. Simon has further said that the unity of command is against the well-known principle of specialisation. Let us quote him: “The real fault that must be found with this principle is that it is incompatible with the principle of specialisation”. It is said that for the better management of any modern organisation both specialisation and unity of command are indispensible and in that case both cannot co-exist, He has further observed that the unity of command is an over simplified principle. Modern organisation is too complex to apply it. Simon has said that when the specialisation and unity of command are in conflict situation the management will be complex Peter Self has criticised it from another standpoint. He says that the principle in its full form is “unworkable”. Let us see what he says: “The modified unity of command model is more often accepted in theory, but the coordinative and arbitrative power of the line supervisors is often much less than the theory suggests, Unity of command often suggest no more than the existence of procedures for settling disputes”. In conclusion we are of opinion that because of these shortcomings there is no reason to reject the principle. To speak the truth no principle of public administration is free from defects and the unity of command is no exception. Instead of saying unity of command it is better to say unity of direction,PAN OF CONTRO} ————EEE © Definition and Nature: Let us define the principle in the words of Nicholas Henry: “Span of control means that a manager can properly control only a limited number of subordinates, after a certain number is exceeded, communication of commands grows increasingly garbed and control becomes increasingly ineffective and loose”. In other words, there is a limit administration an officer cannot control unlimited number of ‘The concept was originally applied in milita school- borrowing it from the military de administrationists believed that the m: improved by increasing the number of st t to everything and in public ‘subordinates. iy department and later on the members of scientific Partment-introduced it to public administration. Some lanagement of an organisation could remarkably be uubordinates. But subsequently it was found that the idea ‘OF process was wrong. The authority could increase the number of subordinates but that failed to make any impact upon the improvement of the organisation, ‘scientific” school was that the span of direct ted that a chief executive can control at most ider his supervision that will lead to chaos or supervision should be limited” .It has been suggest. six subordinates and if more employees are put un Peter Self enumerates some factors that are relevs ‘These are: (a) The time and attention which a su In other words, a supervisor cannot only a limited number of employees, ant for this principle. pervisor can give to the control of his subordinates. have unlimited energy and power. He can supervise (b) The effectiveness of control depends upon the quality and intelligence of the workers. A supervisor cannot control large number of workers whose intelligence is miserably low. (©) Span of control, again, depends upon another factor which is nature of work. This implies that if the work is of complicated nature and requires special management skill an executive cannot control large number of employees. Moreover, the specialists are of the view that the principle of span of control has a close link with the quality and nature of control or supervision. The control may be closed or superficial. If it's of former category itis beyond the capacity of the executive to control a large number of workers, But if the executive is empowered to supervise superficially he can contra large number of employees. ‘The supporters of the span of control must take this aspect into account. It has also been said th the effectiveness of control to a large extent depends upon the internal condition or ‘management of the organisation. If the management is of high standard and there exists a good deal coordination and good relation among the employees a chief executive can easily control aSPAN OF CONTROL Ne number of workers. But if the opposite situation prevails the supervising power of the executive will face troubles. The mentality, outlook, behaviour ete. of the workers must also be brought Linder active consideration while analysing the principle of span of control, + Evaluation: Critics of the span of control do not lay great faith on this principle, Herbert Simon says, “a restricted span of control inevitably produces excessive red tape, for each contact between organisation and members must be carried upward until a common superior is found’ (Simon), Critics further say that if the principle is strictly followed that will inevitably result in red- tapeism which will harm the management and development of the organisation, If the organisation is quite large and if it is divided into a number of sections, and if there is a head in every section—it will be very difficult for the organisation to arrive at a decision. Even the management will not be able to decide anything quickly. Red-tapeism is a natural consequence of the application of the principles. Simon has suggested that for effectiveness of the principle the span of control must be extended as far as possible. But here is again a problem. If the span of control is extended liberally it may not work up to satisfaction, The organisation will face serious problems. Taking of decision will take long time, Apart from this an executive has limit to his power or capacity. It is not possible to manage a large number of employees. There will arise a problem in discipline. Is it possible for an executive to manage a large number of workers? Simon has raised the question. There are examples of effectiveness of their principle in military administration, But there is a basic difference between military administration and public administration. In any civil administration there is very little strictness of rule whereas in military administration the strictness in principle is followed. This difference puts the principle in a lot of uncertainty. The application of military rule in eivil administration is not possibleLINE AND STAPP: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Definition and Origin: Another administrative principle poplar in public adminintration i Line and Staff Some public administrationists call it a “defective tnierarchy”. In any organisation, it i said, there are penerally two types of employces—one type is called line and the other is called staff Every enterprise or organisation has certain goals and it is the funetion of the members of the fine te transiate the gonls into reality. On the other hand, the members of the staff agency help, in aif possible ways, the members of the line to achieve the objective For example, in the construction of a bridge, both line and staff are involved in the construction work. The line members are directly engaged in the construction of the bridge. But the line ‘members alone cannot complete the construction work if they are not assisted by other members ‘or employees or workers, These employees are known as staff. Their function is to supply materials, assist the line members in their work. Hence both the line and staff employees are crucial in the attainment of foal, White maintains: “They (line) are the central elements of any administrative system” From the observation of White it is quite clear that line employees are very important for the ‘management of any organisation. But equally important are staff members. As to the origin of the principle it may be observed that the line and staff concept was originally introduced in military services. Peter Self says that originally the public administration was plagued by many problems and in order to solve them some public administrationists borrowed this principle from military services and then applied it to general public administration. Peter Self writes: “They generally have used this notion of staff in arestricted sense. The staff's function is to assist the chief executive by providing information, formulating possible courses of actions, coordinating decisions and reporting on results Gulick calls these functions of staff agency as “Knowing, Thinking and Planning”. Regarding line and staff Peter Self says: “The ruling idea was that the actual decision-making is the exclusive responsibility of the chief executive, and of the line operators who work under his control, and that staff assistants. ‘exercise no power beyond the influence of their ideas upon the chief himself. In this way the mode! of a hicrarchi pyramid can be faithfully respected”, In the opinion of L.D. White, “A staff is an agency advisory to the high-ranking official, but without operating responsibilities”. In other words, the staff members are simply the assistants of the chief executive. They are very crucial for the management of the organisation, but, unfortunately, they hold no responsibility. We thus find that in the concept of line and staff there is a clear hierarchy and in the military services this hicrarchical structure prevailed. The hicrarchy is, of course, inevitable because ofLINE AND STAFF: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Relationshi (1) In the hierarchical structure generally more importance is given to line agency or members of the line and less importance to staff members. According to Nigro and Nigro the line employees ‘are important for the management of the organisation, Policy-making is the most important part of an organisation and this job is done by the line members. Particularly this happens in United States of America, But the members of the staff help the line members in numerous ways such as to furnish data, to suggest new process, to give advice. The line members never ignore these. (2) The members of the line are important officers and they are directly involved in the decision- making process. But making of decision is not all. This must be executed and generally this job is performed by the staff employees. Generally complexities arise and the staff employees solve them. In practice it has been found that on every problem the staff members cannot consult the line members. This creates an important aspect of the relationship between the two. (3) According to Nigro and Nigro in any metro there are different types of services which the ‘members of the metro receive. But some of the services are very important such as fire brigade service, law and order maintenance service, water supply, electricity service etc. These services are under the direct supervision of line. On the other hand park, transport, recreation, ete. are generally maintained by the staff department of metro administration. It is to be noted here that the two separate departments perform or provide metro services —they are not quite different from each other. Both line and staff constitute a complete whole. Name and nature of service may be different but, together, they constitute a whole. (4) The personnel of the line agency are very important and many of them hold vital position in the organisation. But it is to be remembered that these vital persons of the organisation cannot start their functions from zero. From the analysis of organisation we come to know that the staff members prepare the field from which the line members begin their activities. Remembering this Nigro and Nigro have observed: These services (personnel, materials, finance, instruments ete.) are supportive in nature or indirect in their contribution to the organisation’s objective. ‘What Nigro and Nigro have wanted to emphasise is that the towering importance and personality of a particular individual is not capable of the over-all improvement of the organisation. In many countries of the world there are public service commission’s whose function is to select right persons for the right posts. The Public Service Commission selects persons for both line and staff agencies and it also decides the eligible persons for both agencies. From this it transpires that the Public Service Commission gives due importance to both agencies. (5) Dimock and Dimock, in their Public Administration, have made the following comment on the relationship between the two agencics: “Generally spcaking, line constitutes action, staff advice, line is hierarchical, staff collateral, line is authority, staff influence, What the correct relationship should be between the two types of activity has long been a matter of debate.” The — exact relationship between the line and staff has not yet reached a stable phase and it willLINE AND. : PUBLIC ISTRATION ereiads eee eee” es eee our attention to another aspect important facta wish’ are necessary fo tho lite agency, While dolag hy woke ce arare te tathaemcppuatind ae '¢ line agency. While doing this work the members of that the members ofthe he ante the line members. In numerous instances it has been found a © “ine agency depend upon the help and service of the staff members, el : q : looney: . ‘Though all decisions must remain with the directing head, it is imperative hat these problems should come to him predigested with all the thought and research that organised staff service can bestow upon him. In the opinion of Mooney the members of the staff can be compared with the eyes, ears and hands of the line. Let me again quote Mooney: ‘The staff is an expansion of personality. It means more eyes, more ears and more hands to aid tum m forming and carrying out his plans” (7) Strictly speaking the line and staff are two sides of the same coin. The Progress of the organisation depends on the cordial relationship between the two branches of. public administration. These two divisions are hierarchically arranged but m practice they coordinate with each other. “Line and staff are coordinates oper horizontal plane.” Functions of Line Agency: ating not in hierarchical relationship but on ‘The line agency of Tan organization performs the following functions: (1) The most important function of the line agency is policy-making and decision-formulating LD. White and many other theoreticians of public administration have suggested that for the Proper management of an organisation clear- cut policy formulation is to be ensured and the chief executive along with other important members of the line agency formulate policy and take decision. White has said: The capacity to make decisions is an essential quality in the line hierarchy. Of course behind every decision there is an important role of the chief executive and other top officials and the decision is a collective product (2) In parliamentary system of government the function of line agency is different. The ministers generally provide a general outline of policy and the departmental heads keep those guidelines in mind and, in accordance with those formulate the policy. It is to be remembered that the main ‘work of policy or decision is done by the members ofthe line.” (3) After the formulation of policy the members of the line agency send it to various departments of the organisation, explain it among them and, if there is any controversy or conflict of opinion, the line agency explains and clarifies In parliamentary system some important decisions are sometimes taken by the President or Prime Minister and the responsibility of elaborating or ;plaining falls upon the members of the line agency. (4) There is a chain of function. The minister may order the line agency to collect data or material required for the formulation of policy. But the members of the line agency themselves do not do the job. The staff members also always do not do the job, itis done by subordinates, — (5) Preparation and implementation of plan falls upon the shoulder of the line agency. During last five or six decades many countries have adopted the system of plannitplanning commission or any other body. But preparation of planning (in all its forms and divisions) is, in fact done by the line agency. White has said: “There is an immense amount of planning m the field of city administration at all levels, municipal state regional and national” (6) The preparation of planning is important and more important is resource” collection. This job is done by the members of the line. In mixed ‘economy the resource collection is very difficult and the members of the line agency do this job and shoulder the trouble. (7) Planning is a comprehensive term, In it is included development of industry, agriculture and humerous other sectors of the economy. The members of the line agency take full responsibility of all these. Again, there is another related function—the distribution of the fruits of planning among all sections of society is an important matter and the line looks after it (8) Line consists of top “bureaucrats and in democracy general public have no favourabie assessment about it. Nepotism corruption etc., are levelled against it. In order to guard ‘bureaucracy against these charges the line agency adopts the principle of self-control and self- criticism. It also rectfies its own faults (9) Line agency, to meet the requirements of time and change, reorganises itself. It tries to find out how to raise the level of efficiency and to devise ways to meet the growing demands of the people. Functions of the Staff: (1) The data, materials and other ingredients essential for the determination of policy or decision © supplied by the members of the staff agency. If these are not properly furnished by the ‘members of the staff, line could not proceed at all. (2) Gulick has divided the function of staff into three categories such as knowing, thinking and planning. These are interesting and important functions. (3) Peter Self has analysed the functions of staff from another perspective. He says: “If the staff do function as extensions of their chief persona, it is clear that their tasks cannot be precisely specified. They will have to attune themselves to the chief's personal predilections and style of administration, and concer themselves with those matters which he considers most urgent” . (4) Many administrationists argue that the functions of the staff largely depend on the size of the organisation. This is correct everywhere. In large organisations the responsibilities of the members of line agency are quite large. Naturally the functions of staff cannot be fixed or stated beforehand. Let us see what Dimock and Dimock say on this issue; “In addition to the advisory function, staff departments now begin to get over the line actions including issuing order directly to persons in the linc of command. A finance department performs the staff functions of devising better methods of cost accounting, but also performs the line functions of keeping books and disallowing expense vouchers” It appears from this observation that, for the betterment of the organisation, both the line and staff agencies perform duties of each other and the classical difference of duty is temporarily withdrawn or forgotten. This is inevitable,LINE AND STAFF: PUBLIC ADMI members, staff » having these special qualities, are entrusted with the duties of the line agency. Very often this happens. Sometimes it has been found that the chief executive officer, by virtue of his higher qualification, is appointed to important post. But he lacks the abe of management; and, in that situation, the chief executive secks advice from his subordinate or an ordinary employee. ‘The study of public administration reveals that this is no exception or rare case. In this connection we can also note that an ordinary employee of the staff is politically powerful which means that he has political influence and, in such a situation the executive of the line agency may seek advice or assistance from the staff member. (6) Itis generally said that the primary duty of a member of staff agency is to tender advice or suggestion to the line agency. But the advice giving duty is sometimes vague and, naturally, for the improvement of the organisation, both line and staff work hand in hand. This is the picture of the real situation. (7) In an organisation there exists a chief executive officer. The burden of responsibility may be excessive, but he cannot avoid this, In that situation he is compelled to take any type of administrative help from his subordinate who belongs to the staff agency. The members of the staff solve many crucial problems faced by the members of the line. In this way the line and staff follow a principle of co-ordination and co-operation among themselves. Line and Staff in Cabinet System: We have so far discussed the line and staff concept in general. Peter Self believes that the concept has a different meaning and application in cabinet form of government.Let us start our analysis with his comment: “When we tum to the place of staff services in a system of cabinet government, rather different issues emerge.” His argument is that, in the cabinet form of government, the principle of line and staff is not prominent at all. In the cabinet system of United Kingdom both the executive and legislature are separate organs and their functions are separate since the functions of the executive are clearly well- demarcated. This particular principle has lost its important part of prominence. Only on definite issues the line agency and staff agency ‘work. In general, public administration or in the administrative system, line and staff idea is so much important that this cannot be ignored. ‘There is another special aspect of this issue in Britain. According to Peter Self, the lines of coordination and control are horizontal rather than vertical. In Britain the superior or powerful officers are generally not found to control or substantially dominate the subordinate staff. In other words, the chief executive does not enjoy enormous power and authority and the subordinate officers or employees are simply order-carrying and implementing persons. In administrative system there are parallel departments and each department imposes collective Under the supreme authority and guidance of the minister ¢LINE AND STAFF: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION — is ae on eae or the departmental heads have some role to play but it is the ne ree © utter the final word. This is not in consonance with the general ‘he treasury department is highly powerful and it is a cotesive branch of government, At the same time, it is a political organ because the ministers are political persons. Again, there is an administrative system consisting of bureaucrats and other officers or employees. The emergence of controversial issues is not a very common affair in cabinet system because the decision of the minister is final. The minister is committed to do something and this commitment is to the clectorate. Naturally, the bureaucracy cannot change the decision of the minister. The scope of controversy in cabinet system is not very wide and when 2 controversy arises it does not take much time to die down, In this connection Peter Self further observes: “In terms of the staff and line theory the position of the British Prime Minister has caused frequent confusions The power of the Prime Minister rests upon his right to hire and fire other ministers, his personal and political appeal as party leader and his role as the chief representative of the nation in foreign relations” In the cabinet the British Prime Minister is not an all-powerful person or a dictator, he is simply primus nitre pares. Because of all these reasons the principle of line and staff has not full implication in the British Cabinet system.CENTRALIZATION What is Centralization? Centralization refers to the process in which activities involving planning and decision-making within an organization are concentrated to a specific leader or location. In a centralized organization, the decision-making powers are retained in the head office, and all other offices receive commands from the main office. The executives and specialists who make critical decisions are based in the head office. Similarly, in a centralized government structure, the decision-making authority is concentrated at the top, and all other lower levels follow the directions coming from the top of the organization structure, Definitions The following definitions can be noted in this regard: ¥ LD. White: “The process of transfer of administrative authority from a lower to a higher level of government is called centralization; the converse, decentralization.” ¥ Henry Fayol: “Everything that goes to increase the importance of the subordinate’s role is decentralization; everything which goes to decrease it is centralization.” Advantages of Centralization An effective centralization offers the following advantages: Y Aclear chain of command ‘A centralized organization benefits from a clear chain of command because every person within the organization knows who to report to. Junior employees also know who to approach whenever they have concerns about the organization. On the other hand, senior executives follow a clear plan of delegating authority to employees who excel in specific functions. The executives also gain the confidence that when they delegate responsibilities to mid-level managers and other employees, there will be no overlap. A clear chain of command is beneficial when the organization needs to execute decisions quickly and in a unified manner. ” Focused vision When an organization follows a centralized management structure, it can focus on the fulfillment of its vision with ease. There are clear lines of communication and the senior executive can ‘communicate the organization’s vision to employees and guide them towards the achievement of the vision. In the absence of a centralized management, there will be inconsistencies in relaying the message to employees because there are no clear lines of authority. Directing the organization’s vision from the top allows for a smooth implementation of its visions and strategies. The organization’s stakeholders such as customers, suppliers, and communities also. receive a uniform message. ” Reduced costs ‘A centralized organization adheres to standard procedures and methods that guide the Jp reduce office and administrative costs. The main decision-makers are tadquarters, and therefore, there is no need for other branches, Also, the organization does not — branches since critical decisions are made at the organization, which hel housed at the company’s head office or he deploying more departments and equipment to need to incur extra costs to hire specialists for its 1CENTRALIZATION head office and then communicated to the branches. The clear chain of command reduces duplication of responsibilities that may result in additional costs to the organization. Y Improved quality of work The standardized procedures and better supervision in a centralized organization result in improved quality of work, There are supervisors in each department who ensure that the outputs are uniform and of high quality. The use of advanced equipment reduces potential wastage from manual work and also helps guarantee high-quality work. Standardization of work also reduces the replication of tasks that may result in high labor costs. ¥ Facility for personnel leadership There is absolutely no doubt that the centralized Office organization helps in establishing a personnel leadership which may even be able to convert a losing business house into a profitable ‘one because of strong, efficient, purposeful and non controversial central leadership. Y Equitable distribution of work In order to group together and economies the working as well as cost the grouping of two and more departments into one also placing the same under one control goes a long way in equitably distributing in workload not only between different departments but between individual worker as well. This brings economy and speed. Y Uniformity of activities Obviously when centralized, the activities will be either in the hand of one individual or a few one but under his (one) direct, control, This will result into uniformity of activities and thereby ensuring uniform decision and uniform process. Y Specialization Specialization of work as well as process and handling of the work by the staff who has specialized in the work he is handling are a few of the meaningful advantages of specialization. ¥ Economy The uniformity of activities and specialization of work lead to economic operation and best utilization of the staff services. This brings efficiency and smoothness as well. All these bring economy. # Mogijeociemmoatation pegene 5 «i Y No duplication of work. Centralized personal leadership, duplication of work in the office. avoided and economy is ensured. ¥ Quick decision For taking advantage of rareCENTRALIZATION ¥ Standardization and training facilities enhanced Centralized office organization helps in standardizing the work and thereby helps in extending the training facilities to everyone and every work in the organization which needs specialization, standardization and attention The new staff member can easily pick up the work and can easily be accommodated and adjusted in such a set-up. Y Effective control Uniformity in activities, specialization and standardization facilitates greater degree or supervision, effective co-ordination, self and departmental integration and thus ensure effective control v Fixing of responsibility is facilitated It is possible in decentralized system to locate the fault and detect the deviations and thus 1s able to pinpoint and take effective measures to improve by knowing and then fixing the responsibility and thereby improving the working and efficiency. Disadvantages of Centr: The following are the disadvantages of centralization: Y Bureaucratic leadership Centralized management resembles a dictatorial form of leadership where employees are only expected to deliver results according to what the top executives assigned them. Employees are unable to contribute to the decision-making process of the organization, and they are merely implementers of decisions made at the higher level. Even when the employees face difficulties in implementing some of the decisions, the executives will not understand because they are only decision-makers and not implementers of the decisions. The result of such actions is a decline in performance because the employees lack the motivation to implement decisions taken by top- level managers without the input of lower-level employees. ¥ Remote control ‘The organization’s executives are under tremendous pressure to formulate decisions for the organization, and they lack control over the implementation process. The failure of executives to decentralize the decision-making process adds a lot of work to their desk. The executives suffer from a lack of time to supervise the implementation of the decisions. It leads to reluctance on the part of employees. Therefore, the executives may end up making too many decisions that are cither poorly implemented or ignored by the employees. Y Delays in work Ceniralization results in delays in work as records are sent to and from the head office. Employees rely on the information communicated to them from the top, and there will be a loss in man-hours if there are delays in relaying the records, It means that the employees will be less productive if they need to wait long periods to get guidance on their next projects. ¥ Lack of employee loyalty Employees become loyal to an organization when they are allowed personal initiatives in the ‘work they do, They can introduce their creativity and suggest ways of performing certain tasks.| —__ igaee e e c eeO CENTRALIZATION v Distinctive to subordinates Subordinate in such a set uy independent decision reservation. The subori ae eared to implement whatever it is asked to carry out. No eee a A mechanical working always creates mental remins oi hash ta eGieare ¢ imitative nor is he allowed to do so. Thus there ae ‘ork or the organization as he knows fully well that no upper him as he is not allowed to take any initiative Factors Governing ee ee aes uy Fesler, the issue of centralization versus decentralization is governed by % examined as follows: oad pee Since the Central agency is held responsible for everything in the it does not easily delegate wide discretionary authority to the field offices and prefers to direct and control all their operations. Thus the factor of responsibility acts as a deterrent to decentralization and favours centralization b) Administrative Factors: These include age of the agency, stability of its policies and methods, competence of its field personnel, pressure for speed and economy and administrative sophistication. An old agency with well-established procedures and precedents finds it easier to decentralize than newer one where frequent reference to the higher level is inevitable. Stability of organizational policies and methods facilitates decentralization while frequent changes in them favour centralization. The more competent the field staff, the greater the propensity to decentralization. The pressure for speed and economy in administration inclines toward decentralization. Finally, the administrative sophistication, that is, a professional approach to the problem of delegation also influences decentralization. ©) Functional Factors: These include the variety of functions performed by the agency, the technical nature of functions, and the need for countrywide uniformity. The scope for decentralization is greater in a multi-functional organization than in a uni-funetional organization. Similarly, the technical nature of functions performed by the agency necessitates decentralization as the head cannot have the technical competence to manage all of them. diectly. ‘The need for uniformity throughout the country in functions like defence, communications, transport, planning and so forth favours centralization, 4) External Factors: The: of development programmes, strengthen grass-roots democr favour decentralized system an‘ se include the demand for people’s participation in the administration the pressure of political parties and interest groups, the need to acy and the demand for “Planning from below.” All these factors d work against the centralizing tendencies in administration.DECENTRALIZATION Meaning of Decentralization Delegation of authority and duties is usually referred to as decentralization in which set up the ‘organization is divided into different section and departments in order to help the organization grow scientifieally and with a purpose of direction leading to harmony in relations and healthy atmosphere which generally is absent in centralized system of organization. Decentralization of authority holds Koontz and O'Donnell, ‘is a fundamental phase of delegation.” To the extent that authority is not delegated is obviously centralization. In the words of Henry Fayol, “everything that goes to increase the importance of the subordinate’s role is decentralization.” Decentralization is diffusion of authority. It is a process by which specific responsibilty is assigned to subordinates. Such a responsibility, when assigned to subordinates, is always followed by sufficient authority which also is given to the executive and other subordinates at Jower levels. Decentralization, therefore, refers to assigning of responsibility and delegation of authority to various executives and other subordinates at lower levels in an effort to make the Jower level more responsible and accountant able to the job entrusted to them. Advantages of Decentralization The following are the advantages of decentralized setup of an organization: + Distribution of Executive's Burden: Certainly the decentralized setup offers an opportunity to the executive to share his burden with others at lower level in the process making himself free for more urgent and important work requiring his undivided attention. This smooth-ens the work gives speed to the work, creates cordial atmosphere and better understanding and develops team spirit among all those who are working for the organization. Saving in Time: The work originating at a particular level in an organization may be accomplished at the same level, if it falls within the limit of the authority of that level. Such work generally originates and accomplished. This naturally saves time and gives a speed to the work. Enthusiastic and Energetic Subord The subordinate, who is asked to shoulder the responsibility with sufficient authority feels enthusiastic and functions with extra zeal and energy. In fact he feels elevated, his ego is satisfied and he is filled with energy simply because he is to work on his own. An involvement is there, A sense of being a part of the organization and a sense of accomplishment gives the subordinate vigor and vision. He works hard and accomplishes the task. This helps the organization in achieving the target satisfactoril P . Greater occiconertaat ‘output: Since the responsibility is given with authority and power everyone entrusted with such a responsibility takes care of fulfilling his responsibility with utmost care. This care and caution and enthusiastic approach ficiency and output. a a ai if am offers greater scope for expansion of business as ing people from routine and other matters and thus time available to jew ideas, This gives an opportunDECENTRALIZATION TE plane expansion and achieve the same without much of difficulty. Expansion of modem business houses is the direct outcome of decentralized system of organization Secrecy maintained: Comparatively here in such a sets up secrecy can easily and effectively be maintained without much cost and unnecessary trouble «Utilization of available talents: The talents available can be best utilized in decentralized setup as everyone is given an opportunity to prove his worth, Such an opportunity is usually not available in centralized setup. This also ensures loyalty and develops team spirit as well Capability is rewarded here and one is given a chance to improve, if someone, somewhere, lacks due to one reason or the other + Quick Decisions: For decision one is not required to reach on the top. Just one can take decision whenever one has to take without wasting time and energy in rituals and maintaining, the channel. Unnecessary wastage of time energy and money is avoided giving overall better performance. Disadvantages of Decentralization The following are the disadvantages of decentralized setup of an organization: + Suitability issues: In cases where the training, experience, education ete. of the employees are inadequate, decentralization of authority would be harmful for the enterprise. + Not desirable for small enterprises: Decentralization is not suitable for small enterprises because it would be easier and more economical to administer the enterprise on a centralized basis + Problematic in case of emergency: In a situation of emergency, decentralized administration is ineffective. It is costly and time consuming to control an emergency situation which affects a vital business area under a decentralized plan. + Lack of uniformity: There might be lack of uniformity and inconsistent procedures as each department might have the authority to formulate its own policies and procedures. + Coordination Problems: As each department / division enjoys substantial autonomy it might lead to coordination problems. Typologies of decentralization Broadly, decentralization is of the two types — political and administrative, The decentralization is further subdivided into territorial (vertical) decentralization and functional (horizontal) decentralization. A brief discussion of the typologies of i ows: a) Poli i is n the autonomous states in India or provinces in Canada, In the is divided between central government and the regional gc or Provincial governments in Canada). The creation of at States like USA or India and in Unitary States like Britain decentralization. Thus the establishment of City Governm Municipal Corporations in India, County Governments in in Japan are good examples of political decentralization, —DECENTRALIZATIO! b) Territorial Decentralisation: It stands for the establishments of area administrative units (field offices) by the higher authority (headquarters). For example, the creation of divisions, districts, talukas, circles, and so on in India, These are vested with decision-making powers ‘within specified limits and thus function in an independent manner ¢) Functional Decentralisation: It implies the vesting of decision-making authority in the specialized units by the central agency, For example, the creation of technical or professional bodies in India likes the University Grants Commission, Flood Control Board, Central Social Welfare Board, and so forth. Approaches to decentralization James W. Fesler classified the different approaches to the concept of dece following four categorie 2) Doctrinal Approach: It conceives decentralization as an end in itself and not as a means (0 the realization of some goal. It views decentralization in terms of idealization, that is, a theory «which holds that things exist only as ideas in the mind. b) Political Approach: It says that the creation of decentralized units with a set of operational autonomy is governed by politcal factor. For example, the creation of Panchayati Raj asa rural local self-governing body in our country is politically determined. «) Administrative Approach: It says that the establishment of autonomous decentralized units in the fields is determined by the factor of administrative efficiency, that is, better decision- making and faster problem-solving. For example, the ereation of regions, divisions, districts, sub-divisions, talukas and circles between the state headquarters and the field. 4) Dual-role Approach: It conceives decentralization as a method of resolving conflicts in field administration between tradition and change. The usage of stafus-quo oriented colonial entralization in theDELEGATION OF AUTHORITY Definition and Nature: Delegation means to entrust one’s own power and responsibility to another person or group of persons who are lower in rank and power. In public administration a chief executive transfers his power or part of it to an employee who is in rank lower to him. In other words, an officer shifts a part of his power to a subordinate. Mooney calls the delegation devolution of power and authority. Mooney’s definition is stated in the following words. It means conferring of specified authority by a higher to a lower authority: An executive transfers some power to his subordinates. The purpose of delegation is to ensure better management. This transfer of power is also called the devolution of power. ‘There are three types of delegation —one is downward, the second is upward, and the third is sideward. A person of higher authority transfers some of his power to his subordinate person. This is a very common picture of any organisation. The upward delegation takes place when stockholders delegate powers to the board of directors. In African tribal areas, tribal chiefs and central authorities exchange power among themselves. The term delegation is sometimes misunderstood. It never means it is a permanent arrangement. That is, powers are not delegated permanently. One critic has said: delegation of authority means more than simply assigning duties to others in more or less detail. The essence of delegation is to confer discretion upon others, to use their judgement in meeting specific problem within the framework of their duties. The concept of delegation has a practical aspect—when an executive is unable to bear the burden of work he delegates a portion to others. ‘Whaat is to be Delegated? ‘Though delegation is an important principle, it cannot be adopted indiscriminately. ‘There are several legal and constitutional procedures for its application: (1) A chief executive or an officer of high rank cannot delegate his powers to his subordinates according to his own sweet will. There are legal and constitutional procedures of delegation which he or she must scrupulously follow. 2) The higher authority must see that it will delegate power only to competent and eligible persons. It is because all the employee of an organisation may not have the to carry out a job efficiently. (3) The executive or any other officer must be convinced that itis not possible for him to do the job alone, a part requires to be delegated. (4) The aim of the delegation should be for the general improvement of the organisation. (5) The size and location of the organisation require delegation, For example, if branches of the organisation are situated at various geographical locations and this compels chief executive to entrust a part of his job to other persons or parts of organisation. f (6) When new programme or new technology is introduced and the executive himself is capable to manage it, in that case the delegation of power or authority is required, (7) For the avoidance of delay or to serve the purpose of the public better a part of the job isation is delegated to other branches of the organisation. central organiDELEGATION OF AUTHORITY ving the public and direct contact with the public is (g) Many organisations are engaged in se ted, These are the cases fssential, then, for that particular purpose, a part of authority is delegat “nich stand for the delegation of power Hindrances to Delegati a is an essential part of modern organisatio ‘a number of hindrances which stand on the way of delegation. be delegated to other officers or branches considerably depends on ‘words, the structure must be suitable for delegation the work done swifily and properly. If this aim is not I not be successful. Naturally, before delegating Power ‘Though delegation n, it can never be implemented at random. There are Some of these are: (1) How much of power is to the structure of the organisation. In other (2) The purpose of delegation is to get achieved, the objective of delegation wi or part of it, this point will be considered vom must be quite favourable for delegation. In other words, all the ice. But this situation does 3) The communication sys .cted with the head offi branches of the organisation will be well-conne: not prevail everywhere. (4) There must exist a good relationship between the branches and the head- office. The branch ice, in regard to delegation, must cooperate with the head- office in this regard. Unfortunately this does not always exist. (5) The chief executive cannot always delegate his powet to all persons. He can delegate only to ‘pace who are eapable of doing the job and ths is a great hindranes. (6) Anexccutive officer cannot delegate all his powers 10 another person or brane! is not acquainted with it. (7) Experience sometim efficiency. In that case delegaty (8) Finally, it may be observe words, the law and constitution of that all organisations do not permit delegation. permissible. ‘h. Every officer es stands on the way of delegation. Everyone cannot do all jobs with ‘on of responsibility may not be successful. or at there shall exist legal permission for delegation. In other the organisation must permit the delegation. It has been found If the organisation is small then delegation is notPLANNING Administration involves planning, organizing, leading and evaluating people and programmes, so as to achieve specific goals of the government, Thus, planning is the first and foremost activity to achieve results in the administrative process. It involves a determining goals, and committing the necessary resources in advance, In simple, it is to decide on what to do how to do and who is to do, with reference to an activity in the process of administration Several definitions are available, on planning and the most widely quoted definitions are discussed here;- ¥ Simon and his associates define planning as the activity that concerns itself with proposals for the future, with the evaluation of alternative proposals, and with the methods by which these proposals may be achieved. Planning is rational, adaptive thought applied to the future and to matters over which the planers, or the administrative organisation with which they are associated, have some degree of control According to Peter Drucker, "Planning is the continuous process of making present risk taking decisions systematically and with the best possible knowledge of their futurity, organising systematically the efforts needed to carry out these decisions, and measuring the results of these decisions against the expectations through organized systematic feedback." Millet describes planning as the process of determining objectives of. administrative efforts and of devising the means calculated to achieve them. Planning is a conscious activity of rationalising the decision making processes in an organisation. According to Dimock and Dimock, “itis an organised attempt to anticipate and to make rational arrangements for dealing with future problems by projecting trends.’ Planning is indispensable to administrative process as decisions to realise the goals limit the range of choices available to the administration owing to limited resources”. Despite its obvious importance, administrative planning is rarely discussed and followed im administration, We are more familiar with economic planning or financial planning, but we know very little about the nature and methods of administrative planning. Yet evesy administrator who has eased some reputation in the profession does follow some Sort of a planned approach to his job. It is understood more as personal skill than some kind of transferable knowledge ‘The general tradition has been that the government departments function with very little formal planning. There are many reasons for this state of affairs. As John Garrett: who was a member of the consultancy group employed by the Fulton Committee in England (1968), pointed "There has been a body of opinion in the higher Civil Service, though it is now diminishing, systematic research and planning has little relevance to its work. Concentration upon the awareness of ministerial responsibility tends to put a low valuation on systematic research-based planning and a high one on rapid reaction to the topic of the day."PLANNING SS. Predominance of politics, job security, absence of price signals or profit motive are some of the ‘major reasons for lack of sustained planning effort in government, Also planning , awareness has been low in government often because of the absence of clear objectives and standards against which achievement could be measured with a degree of precision. In spite of this deficiency in government operations, the need for planning has been widely acknowledged, and various methods and techniques are now being proposed to make planning a reality in government. The socio-economic and political environment of government is never static, and governments everywhere are struggling hard to cope with changes both at home and abroad. Again, resources are always scarce and they have to be allocated among competing alternatives to maximize production and achieve all-round social satisfaction. All these reasons are compelling enough to accept planning as an essential first step in governmental operations. Planning, be it economic or financial, is forward-thinking. It I involves a methodical mental exercise about achievement of results by means of advance preparation of activities-scheduling, Thus, planning essentially involves ‘simulation’ of activities-sequences. The real aim in planning is to achieve intended results which may be anything like increased agricultural productivity, reducing infant mortality, removing illiteracy, ete. With more and more cost consciousness in government now and because of increasing result-orientation in Public Administration in recent times, administrative, planning has assumed critical importance in government all over the globe, In a developing country such as ours, rapid socio-economic reconstruction depends almost exclusively on large-scale and varied public programmes and projects. In this context, administrative planning has a crucial role to play. It is now universally acknowledged that administrative, planning is the key to planned development and achievement of intended results. In the developing countries, there is urgency about time-bound fulfilment of targets and achievements. For instance, in India every five-year plan sets down targets for each sector such as agriculture, irrigation, electricity etc. In this context, administrative planning becomes a critical input in target fulfillment. NATURE OF PLANNING ‘The nature of planning can be understood by examining its four major aspects. They are; Itis a contribution to objectives, * ‘There are many types of the plan; 1. Hierarchical Plans: These institutional, the managerial + Strategic plan aStanding Plans: Standing plans are drawn to cover issues that managers face repeatedly. Such a standing plan may be called standard operating procedure (SOP). Generally, five types of standing plans are used: + Mission or purpose = Strategy = Policies Rules Procedures Single-use Plans: Single-use plans are prepared for single or unique situations or problems and are normally discarded or replaced after one use. Generally, four types of single-use plans are used. These are; + Objectives or Goals + Programs = Projects + Budgets 4. Contingency Plans: Contingency plans are made to deal with situations that might crop up if these assumptions turn out to be wrong. Thus contingency planning is the development of alternative courses of action to be taken if events disrupt a planned course of action.oven Mukfaary Asch Pref. DaLrs BUDGETS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The budget in its elementary form had been part of almost all monarchies of the history. There have been written documents regarding the existence of the state treastiry, accountants and auditors who were employed by the monarchs to protect the royal treasury. The modern democracies have the legislatures playing an important role in the managing of public finances The taxes that are collected and the revenues’ that are generated by the’ government through several means are to be used for the development and welfare of the society. The emergence of the Welfare State made it important that the government money is being judiciously used to better the living conditions of society in general and the mary rginalized sections in particular. The process of budgets fulfills important functions in the economy of the nation. ‘They act as a means 0 carry out several objectives of the public organization. Some of the important roles of budget in the national economy are: * Prioritization of the allocation of the public resources + Achieving policy goals through prudent financial planning * Establishing accountability regarding the usage of the tax payers money * Financial controls also ensure compliance to rules and increase in efficiency In Some countries, the executive part of the government also plays an important part regarding the revenues and expenditures of the government and the legislative is reduced to just an approving and reviewing authority, e.g. in UK where the budget process is primarily dominated by the executive (the House of Commons). A more balanced approach of distributing power is Practiced in the USA where the legislature can review and make changes to the budget presented by the President and the President finally approves it after satisfactory checks and balances are concluded. The dominance of executive or legislature in the budgeting provess is a matter of debate as many Consider the legislative to be an obstacle in the fast paced globalized economy where foreign direct investment and monetary funding from organizations like IMF and World Bank is of crucial importance to several democracies. There are several measures suggested to expedite the decision making process from fixing the term of the legislatures, introducing citizen panels, attaching funding power at local levels to bringing in two year budgetary cycle and special legislation regarding expenditure management. ‘The government expenditure is funded by a common pool of tax payer's money and the policies that are formed with this money are further used to fund projects. The catch here lies in the fact that the people who actually are paying for these policies are the larger group while the people who benefit from these policies might be a much smaller group, which translates that one might not be enjoying the benefits for which one is paying money, Such scenario leads to an excessive spending of public money on policies which are not beneficial to the society as a whole. Such situations are prevalent in democracies which are multi-lingual, multi-ethnic and divided on the basis of regions, religions and other factors, ‘Types of Budgets in Public Administration The public budgets are different from other forms of budgets in many ways; here the voters delegate the power of spending their money to the politicians or the elected representatives, The different kinds of budget that are there in the publie financial management are: 1, Balanced Budget: As suggested by the name a balanced budget is that which has no deficit or surplus. The revenues coming are equal to the expenditures. 2. Revenue Budget: It is just the details of the revenue received by the government through taxes and other sources and the expenditure that is met through itBUDGETS.IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 3. Performance Budget: This type of budget is mostly used by the organizations and ministries involved inthe developmental activities. This process of budgeting, takes into aaa a pslt or the performance of the developmental progrém thus insuring cost effective and efficient planing. With the increasing developmental challenges and awareness regarding the usage of fax payer money, new methods of budgeting are sired af wich the performance based budgeting bas emerged as a transparent and accountable method. Lio cts of understanding of the final outcome, the strategies formulated Te ea ‘and the specific activities that were carried out to achieve se final outcomes t aa ‘With a very detailed and objective analysis, this budgeting, process is v ult oriented in its approach. 4 ae vased budget: Zero based budgeting has its clear advantage when the limited 7er" es are to be allotted carefully and objectively. It is quite flexible in nature and eles on rational methods, systematic evaluation to reallocate resources and justify the ‘age of funds. It stats from a zero base unlike traditional budgets where incremental tpproach is used. Here, the needs and costs of every function of the organization are {uken into consideration for the next year’s budget. So the budget is futuristic and may or may not be equal or more from the last year’s budget as traditionally calculated. ‘The budgets in the parliamentary kind of system similar to what exists in a country like India become a tool of political negotiations where the budgeting powers are delegated to the Finance Minister of the country Ina single party government, the entire party shares the same views regarding the spending of tlie resources however, the disagreement arises when individual members may differ on the cost of the distributive policies and would want the government funds to be diverted to their respective electoral constituencies. Ina coalition government, the differing opinions are tackled through compromise and contracts approach where the coalition parties keeps the check on the budget process ensuring that it lies within the boundaries of the agreed contract, The infamous fallout between the ruling UPA and the Trinomial Congress over the Railway Budget last year is worth citing in reference to the current discussion In the presidential kind of system too, the executive plays a somewhat similar process. A significant change that happened in US regarding the budget process was the Budget Enforcement Act passed in 1990s under the Bush administration, which protected the budgetary parameters against later modifications once cleared in the budget summit between the president and the legislature. The budget process in different systems of government may vary but they are all aligned to achieve the relevant economic and social goals of that country. With increasing globalization and interdependent economies, several external considerations also come into play when the budgets are designed, We shall learn about the budget process in the next section,= Sovama Hakiaja Ait. Pog Dares DEVELOPMENT ADMI STRATION The essence of development administration is to bring about change through integrated, organised and properly directed governmental action, In the recent past the governments in most of the developing nations have shifted their focus on development by means of planned change and people’s participation. With this shift of administrative concern towards developmental objectives the researchers and practitioners of Public Administration have been forced to conceptualise the developmental situation and to bridge the gaps in administrative theory. The growing welfare functions of the government have brought into limelight the limitations of the traditional theory of administration, The essence of administration in the present conditions lies in its capacity to bring about change in the structure and behaviour of different administrative institutions, to develop an acceptance for the change and to create a system which can sustain change and improve the capacity of institutions to change. All this calls for renewed efforts on the part of institutions engaged in the tasks of development. Thus development administration as an area of study and as means to realise developmental goals assumes importance. There is no uniform definition of development administration which is agreeable to all. But we can atleast arrive at certain basic features and characteristics of order to understand the concept of development administration; we should try to understand the meaning of the concept viz., administration of development and development of administration. ‘There is no uniform definition of development administration which is agreeable to all. But we can atleast arrive at certain basic features and characteristics of order to understand the concept of development administration; we should try to understand the meaning of the concept viz., administration of development and development of administration, Development is integral to the aims and activities of the government especially in the developing countries. Because of paucity of resources, human and material in their counties, the need for’ making optimum utilisation of available means and augmenting new means assumes a great importance. Development administration thus becomes a means through which the government brings quantitative and qualitative changes in an economy. Government is engaged in not only fixing priorities but also making efforts to realise them. Hence, we can say that develo administration is an effort towards planned transformation of the economy involving not only th sphere of administration but also formulation of policies and indeed the society as a whole, an effort at the synchronisation of changes in all spheres of development-economic, po social and cultural, Thus development is not only viewed in terms of growth bee bi includes a process of social change. Jt concentrates on the needs and desires of the people and concerned with formulation ei p programmes, policies and projects and their implementation, It plays a central role in. out planned change i.e. it is concemed with planning, co-ordination, control, monito evaluation of plans and programmes. It is not only concerned with the application of determined by the political representatives in existing situation but also with int to modify existing situations so as to serve the cause of the masses.DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION Objectives of Administration of development Application of innovative strategies for development Emphasis on development at the grassroots level. Development has to be a need-oriented and self-reliant process Stress on social development and human capital as a major resource Development has to be viewed not merely as a technological problem but also as an ideological norm Profound and rapid change in order to establish a distinct and just social order Recognising and highlighting the unity, rather than dichotomy between politics and administration Effective and efficient use of scarce resources Creation of a politics-administrative environment which is oriented towards securing basic needs of the population Freedom of administrative machinery to express its values and beliefs Development of Administration or Administrative Development Development of administration means cultural change in administration, It has to be efficient and effective. For that purpose it has to aim at enlargement of administrative capabilities and structural and behavioural change. It is this aspect of administration that is called administrative development or development of administration. In simple terms it means development of administrative system,’of administrative health by _introducing-administrative rationalisation and institution building. The purpose implicit in this concept is not merely changing the administrative procedures and channels but also bringing out fundamental change in administration that leads to: political development, ¥ economic growth, and Y social change. Concerns of Administrative Development The capacity of an administrative system to take decisions in order to meet the increasing demands coming from the environment and with the objective of ck larger political and socioeconomic goals, Increase in size, in specialisation and division of tasks and in the prof personnel. A pattern of increasing effectiveness in the optimum utilisation of available n further augmentation of the means, if necessary, Increase in administrative capability and capacity, Transformation of existing administrative mechanism into a new modemising the bureaucracy by —_external_ inducement, technology and training. autDEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION Replacement bf initiative, practices etc, with those based on realistic needs. Reducing the dependence on foreign experts by producing adequate trained manpower. Promotion of development initiative Administrative reorganisation and rationalisation Making modernisation culturally related. Removing or reducing bureaucratic immobility and widespread corruption, Reorientation of established agencies, and the delegation of administrative powers to them. ease <4 ¥ Creation of administrators who can provide leadership in stimulating and supporting programmes of social and economic improvement Features of development administration ¥ Change- Orientation: The first and foremost element of development administration is its change orientation, Change forms part of philosophic values of development administration, Development administration involves itself in establishing a new social order in which growth and distributive justice coexist. For Pai Panandikar the central theme of development administration is socioeconomic and political change. Development administration cannot be status-quo oriented. No development can take place unless and until it introduces certain positive changes in a system. Changes such as structural reorganisation of administration, innovative programme to increase production, Temove unemployment, poverty etc., new schemes to improve employer-employee relations must form a part, of development administration. Goal- Orientation: Developing countries are facing the problems of poverty, squalor, injustice, unequal distribution of wealth, lopsided agricultural growth, underdeveloped technology etc. These colossal issues need to be tackled systematically by fixation of Priorities and goals. Development administration is the means through which the goals of development viz., social justice, modemisation, industrialisation and economic growth can be achieved. ¥ Innovative Administration: Development administration focuses on _replacing/ improving the existing governing structures and norms with the ones that suit the changing political and social environment. In other words, Development Administration is one that is dynamic and progressive in thought and action, It is interested in identifying and applying new structures, methods, procedures, techniques, policies, planning projects and programmes so that the objectives and goals of development are achieved with ‘minimum possible resources and time, India, for example, has experimented with many new institutions and procedures which can be termed as the hallmarks of development administration, We have introduced various development programmes like IRDP (Integrated Rural Development Programme), TRYSEM (Training Rural Youth for Self Employment), NREP (National Rural Employment Programme), DWACRA (Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas), Tribal Development Programmes.DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION etc. These pragrammes broadly aim at removal of unemployment, creation of job opportunities and reduction of poverty, We have also established some development agencies like the District Rural Development Agency, District Planning Cells, State Planning Boards, Co-operatives etc, Thus development administration has to be innovative enough in order to realise the pre-determined objectives of development. In fact, innovative and creative administration leads to speedy realisation of goals. Client-Oriented Administration: Development administration is positively oriented towards meeting the needs of the specific target groups, like small and marginal farmers of landless agricultural labourers and rural artisans in India, ‘The socio-cultural and politico-economic progress of these sections forms the essential basis of performance appraisal of development administrators. Many target group centered or beneficiary- group oriented organisations have to be created so as to provide these under-privileged sections the requisite goods and services. It has been suggested that development administration is ‘people-oriented’ administration which gives priority to the needs of its beneficiaries by preparing, reviewing and, if necessary, changing the programmes, policies and activities aimed at the satisfaction of the needs of people in question. The administration is involved in the betterment of the lot of the deprived and the weak. Their upliftment becomes a part of the whole administrative ethos. The welfare of the weaker sections is a part of the administrative value.The members of any development organisation are highly motivated and committed to a progressive philosophy aiming at cutting the roots of vested interests in the society. ‘This is possible if the people of initiative, extra-dedication and perseverance are inducted into the development administrative structures. Training of personnel can be one effective method of creating, such a team, Development administrators should not just formulate plans for the people but even monitor them in such a way that the beneficiaries are actually benefited, ¥ Participation-Oriented Administration: Development administration accepts for its purposes the principle of associative and participative system of administration. Here, people are not treated as mere passive recipients of benefits or goods and services. They are taken as active participants in the formulation and execution of development plans, policies and programmes. It is recognised that centralised administration will not only be unable to take cognisance of local problems in a realistic frame, but it would also be deprived of the use of local initiatives, energies and resources. Hence, effective formulation of programmes and their implementation with the help and association of the local people is now a well recognised principle of administration, It involves giving people an increasing share in the governance and management of developmental affairs of the government, That is why the involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions in. planning and administration has found renewed support in the development strategy of India. ¥ Effective Co-ordination: Since development implies increasing specialisation and professionalisation, the number of agencies and organisations involved in developmenttasks has considerably gone up. In order to have the maximum benefit administrative system, co-ordination between various administrative is essential. To achieve maximum results, wastage of resources, avoided. Development .administration has to co-ordinate the ac agencies and organisations to integrate their efforts and energi development goals. This would even save the administratior duplication of functions, neglect of important functions an: irrelevant or marginally relevant activities, It would thus minimi ¥ Ecological Perspective: Development administration shapes social and economic and also gets affected by it in turn, It receives a feedback from the social system and responds to the demands ut on it by th system. In a way, development administration is related to the environment and ahead close interaction between the administration and environment. The environment sets forth the operative parameters of development administration. It Fequires the qualities of Flexibility* and responsiveness in administrative actions and methods. The changes in administration affect its environment and changes in environment also has its bearing on administration. As we know that, development administration is a process of action motivated by and oriented to the achievement of progressive goals of development. It aims at creating and/or mobilising the will and skills to utilise in an optimum manner the resources of the country leading to the realisation of development objectives. Thus development administration is a process of planned change. The administration is being studied now a day in the contextual perspective Comparative analysis of the administrative system in terms of organisation, administration and development management brings out two distinct elements of ‘administration’ (1) Administrative reforms are improvements that each nation has been trying so as to match administration with development needs and (2) Concentration of efforts at acceleration of rate of growth and change so as to meet the challenges of socio-political development and nation-building effectively. It is in this context that the concept of development administration has come to be used. However, the concept has varied dimensions-social, cultural, economic and political. The issue regarding the focus or scope of development administration as a discipline and as a process has, assumed importance, Thus in this article, we shall try to discuss the concept and features development administration it of this emergent units and activities time and cost has to be ictivities of development ies for the realisation of m from the problems of id unnecessary focus on ise administrative lag the environment-political,vere Make Nest Prof. DIS, Unit RIGGS COMPARAT. MODEL Every culture offers support and obstacles to change and development. Riggs wanted to demonstrate how external conditions influence administrative systen Three Tools: 1. Ecological approach 2. Structural - Functional 3. Ideal models. ¥ Ecological Approach: Administration is one subsystem of a society and so is influenced by other subsystems viz. political, social, cultural and economic dimensions, Y Structural Funetional Approach: Society has many structures that perform various functions viz. political, economic, social, symbolic, and communicational. The same set of functional requisites applies to an administrative subsystem. ¥ Ideal Models: Based on structural functional models there are two models: 1. Agraria - Industria 2. Fused - Prismatic — Diffracted AGRARIA - INDUSTRIA MODEL. All societies are cither agro dominant or industrial. The shift from agro to industrial is compulsory and unidirectional. Agriculture dominant Industrial dominant |. Asc varie people are rlacedi.social classes based og) | 2 particularistic norms ‘universalistic norms diffuse pattems specific pattems stable local groups and low spatial mobility high mobility simple occupational differentiation egalitarian class system Few administration structures, Function not specified. Primordial Preferences given priority like casteRIGGS COMPARATIVE MODEL backs: 1. Transitia society less developed. Doesn’t help in examining it, 2. No mechanism to study mixed society 3. Even industrial society have agriculture 4. Assumes unidirectional movement 5. Stresses on environment of administration system not administration systems. 6. Too general and abstract. FUSED PRISMATIC DIFFRACTED MODEL Represent underdeveloped, developed and developing societies. Traditionally agriculture, folk, societies are fused, industrial societies are diffracted and intermediate ones are fused. Thus fused society is where a single structure performs many functions and diffracted one is where a single structure performs limited functions Prismatic model of developing countric 1, Heterogeneity: It means a society is divided into haves and have not’s. The bureaucracy would protect interest of haves and ignore have-nots leading to a revolution. 2. Formalism: The difference between stated and practiced is high. Thus bureaucracy plays dominant role in policy making as executive is busy in power politics. 3. Overlapping: New structures are still dominated by old systems, Thus parliament markets are present but still dominated by family, caste, traditions etc é Fused-Prismatic-Diffract. (Fred W. Riggs) ipies 2 societies ministrative SUD-S {f Prismatic Sala model: Features of RIGGS COMPARATIVE MODEL iyzed interaction between the administration system and its environment in prismatic Hy7<* iamatie Sala model represents a traditional or developing society and Sal’ isthe tem of it Heterogeneity: High degree of heterogeneity 1n a prismatic society due to simultaneous presence of different kinds of systems, practices and viewpoints. Formalism: High degree; due to discrepancy between formally prescribed and effectively ractices i.e. between norms: id reality. ‘Overlapping: High degree; due to formally differentiated structures of a diffracted society crexist with a undifferentiated structures of a fused society Nepotism: ‘Sala’ has nepotism 1 recruitment. Poly-normative: Co-existence of modern, tra on norms of behavior. Poly-communal: Hostile co-existence of communities. Ducane canteen system: The economic subsystem which combines both market economy Bazaar Cronal economy. Hence prices of goods keep fluctuating. A small section exploits large number and controls economic institutions. Prices of goods are determined by 2 are hip between people and officials so it varies largely. In this mode, market factors retjeveloped without inerease in capital so businessmen try to inerease their influence on polities and administration for personal ends. Black market, adulteration, hoarding, Piflation is seen. Exploitation, poverty, social injustices are main features. ‘Authority and Control: Authority is centralized but control is localized so dominance of administrators is seen. ditional norms leading to lack of consensus Change in a prismatic society: 1 Pace of development is related to sources of change. Westen societies change their effective behavior to evolving behavior as they have longer timespan for development. Hence they experience low heterogeneity, formalism and overlapping Change can be exogenous, endogenous or equigenous. An exogenous society faces more heterogeneity, formalism and overlapping than endogenous as the effective behavior precedes establishment of new formal institutions in endogenous. Prismatic societies face problems of greater heterogeneity, formalism and overlapping ia their bid to absorb exogenous change in shortest time. Difficulty in language and terms borrowed from sciences. Lack of change orientation i.e. equilibrium models and so not helpful in introducing social change in system ‘No quantitative levels to measure levels of prismatic and diffraction Focus on negative character of prismatic society. Societies are characterized into fused, prismatic, diffracted on basis of capitalist values and so no ethnocentric,