REVIEWS IN ECONOMIC GEOLOGY Volume 14 STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON ORE GENESIS Editors Jeremy P. Richards and Richard M. Tosdal SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS, INC. BaREVIEWS IN ECONOMIC GEOLOGY (ISSN 0741-0123) Published by the SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS, IN Graphic Design by Johnson Printing, 1880 S, 57th Court, Boulder, CO 80301 Printed by Johnson Printing, 1880 S, 57th Court, Boulder, CO 80301 Additional copies of this volume may be obtained fro1 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. 7811 Shaffer Parkway Litdeton, GO 80197 USA Tel. 1.720.981.7882 Fax 1.720.981.7874 ‘email: seg@segweb.org FLUID-MINERAL EQUILIBRIA IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS (1984) ISBN 0.9615074.0-4 GEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS (1985), 961907412 EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY: DESIGN AND, INTERPRETATION OF SOIL SURVEYS (1986) ORE DEPOSITION ASSOCIATED WITH MAGMAS (1989) SEDIMENTARY AND DIAGENETIC MINERAL DEPOSITS: ABASIN ANALYSIS APPROACH TO EXPLORATION (1991) ISBN 0961307147 ¢ THE ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL DEPOSITS PART I: PROCESSES, TECHNIQUES, AND HEALTH ISSUES (1999) ISBN 1.887483.50-0 ‘THE ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL, DEPOSITS PART Il: CASE STUDIES AND RESEARCH TOPICS (1999) ISBN 1-887483.500 APPLICATIONS OF MICROANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES ‘TO UNDERSTANDING MINERALIZING PROCESSES, (1998) ISBN LS87483.51.9 VOLCANIC-ASSOCIATED MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS: PROCESSES AND EXAMPLES IN MODERN AND ANCIENT SETTINGS. (1999) ISBN 887483527 ORE GENESIS AND EXPLORATION: THE ROLES OF ORGANIC MATTER (2000) ISBN 887488 ‘TECHNIQUES IN HYDROTHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS GEOLOGY (1998) ISBN L887485.5 METAMORPHOSED AND METAMORPHOGENIC ORE DEPOSITS (2000) ISBN 1887485.55.1 APPLICATION OF RADIOGENIC ISOTOPES TO ORE DEPOSITS RESEARCH AND EXPLORATION (1999) ISBN LAS TASS. GOLD IN 2000 (2000) ISBN LsS7aSS57-8 STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON ORE GENESIS (2001) ISBN 18874895865 Revie in Economic Gols sa publication of the Society of Economic Geologists designed to accompany ‘Short Gourse series. Like the Short Courses, ech volume provides eonprehetive upsates on varius spp an cee topes for praceing economic geologits and geachemisein exploration, development, research al teaching, Vo limes ate produced in conjunction with each new Short Coursey fist serving at a textbook for that courser and subsequently made available to SEG members and others at aden Cox (© Copmighe 2001, Society of Eeonomic Geologists, Ine Permission is granted to individuals to make single copies of chapters for personal wee in research, sty and teac- Jing, amd w use short quotations ustatons, and tables trom Rass in Eomomic Gata) Yor publication in scenic Jnotks Suc uses mus be appropriately credited. Copying for general dsuibutin, for promotion and adverdsng, for ere ing new collective works, or for other commerclal purposes not permed without the specific writen permission of the Sogiey of Erongmic Geologists, IneREVIEWS IN ECONOMIC GEOLOGY (ISSN 0741-0123) Volume 14 STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON ORE GENESIS ISBN 1-887483-58-6 Volume Editors Jeremy P. RICHARDS SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS, INC.‘The Authors: Byron Berger US. Geological Survey MS 964, Federal Center Denver, CO 80225-0046 Usa rT ates Fax: +308,236-3200 E-mail: bberger@usgs.gov Jean Braun Research Sch The Austr Canberr Australia Tel, +61,2.612 Fax: +61.2.612 r if Farth Sciences ian. National University ACT 0200) Stephen F. Cox Department of Geology and. Research School of Earth Sciences ‘The Australian National University Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia ‘Tel, +61.2.6125.0085 Fax: +61.2.6125.5544 Enmail: sfcox@geologyanuedu.au ‘Thomas G, Hildenbrand U.S. Geological Survey MS 989, 54 Midallefield Re. Menlo Park, CA 94025 Usa Tel. +650.529. Fax: 4650.32 Exmail: tom@usgs,gov Robert C, Jachens US. Geological Survey MS 989, 345 Middlefield Ral Menlo Park, CA 94025 Usa, Mark A. Knackstedt Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering. ‘The Australian National University Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia ‘Tel. +61.2.6125.2495 Fax: +61.2.6125.1884 Exmail: mak110@rsphylanu.edu.au Steve Ludington USS. Geological Survey MS 989, 345 Middlefield Re. Menlo Park, CA 94025 USA Tel. +650.399.5371 Fax: +650.329.5374 mail: sludd@usgs.gov Nick Oliver Economie Geology Research U School of Earth Sciences James Cook University ‘Townsville, QLD 4811 Australia Tel, +61.7.07.4781.5049 Fax: $61,707" 1 E-mail: Nick.Oliver@jeu.edu.au. Alison Ord. CSIRO Division of Exploration and Mining PO Box 437 Nedlands, WA 6009 Australi Tel, +61.8.9389.8121 wx: +61.8.989.1906 K. Howard Poulsen 34 Walford Way ON RE 686 Tel. +613.723.1766 Fax: +613.723.7192 E-mail: hpoulsen@attcanada.ca P. Richards Jer Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Univers Edmonton, AB T6G 21 Canada Barrick Gold Corporation 7257 Dunver Richard H. Sibson University of Otago Department of Geology PO Box 56 Dunedin E-mail rick sibson@stonebow.otago.ae.nz Richard M. Tosdal Mineral Deposit Research Unit University of British Columb Vancouver, BC V6T 17 Canada Tel. +604.822.5149 Fax: +604.822.6088 ail: rosdal@eos.ub.ca Phaedra Upton Department of Geology University of Otago: PO Box 56 Dunedin New Zealand ‘Telephone: +64.3.479.7519 Fax: +64.3479,755 E-mail: phaede: uplon@stoncbow o1ago.ae Richard K. Valenta MIM Explor: GPO Box 10 Brisbane, QLD 4001 Australia 14.9245BIOGRAPHIES BYRON R. BERGER graduated from Occidental College, Los Angeles, with a B.A. degree in economics, University of California at Los Angeles with an MS. degree geology. From 1971 to 197, he worked in the Minerals Exploration Department and Minerals Exploration Research Division, Research and Developmer of the Continental Oil Company: In 1977 he joined the U.S. Geo- Togical Survey, where he has been a research geologist and hhas served as Chief, Branch of Geochemistry (1985-1988) al Resources (1988-19 He is pre Imaging and Char acterization Team and conduets research on (1) thermal, ‘mechanical, and hydraulic coupling in ore formatio the environmental geology and geochemistry of min areas, and (3) the development of tectonic and structural ‘models of epizonal hydrothermal mineral deposits for eral resource assessment applications. BRAUN js fellow in the Geodynamics Group at the ‘Research School of Earth Sciences at the Australian National University. His research specializes in computational model ing of geodynamic processes, including fluid transport in permeable media. He holds a BSc. degree in physics from the University of Lidge, and a Ph.D. degree in oceanography from Dalhousie University STEPHEN COX jis professor of structural and economic geology, jointly in the Department of Geology and the Research School of Earth Sciencesat the Australian National University. His research interests are primarily in the cou: pling between deformation processes and fluid flow in ‘crustal regimes, with applications to ore genesis and crustal ‘mechanics, His research is pursued via field-based studies, microstructural and microchemical analyses, and high-pres- sure high-temperature experimental studies. He holds a BSc. (Hons) degree from the University of Tasmania and a PhD. degree from Monash University ‘THOMAS G. HILDENBRAND is geophysicist with the U.S, Geological Survey in Mento Park, California. He received his BSS. degree in engineering physics and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in engineering geoscience from the University of California at Berkeley. He began his career at the US. Geo- logical Survey as a postdoctoral fellow from 1975 to 1977. From 1984 to 1990, he served as Section Chief Chief of the Branch of Geophysies, an interdiscipl devoted to the theoretical development and applica potentialficld, clectrical, and remote sensing techn arch scientist, Hildenbrand is interested in interpreting potentiabfield data by developing geologic models address- ing the origin and evolution of crust in various tectonic set- tings. Recent researeh activities have been directed toward extracting geologic information from potentialfield data in the (1) assessment of mineral resources on local and regional scales in western United States, (2) investigation of local structures aflecting groundwater flow at the Nevad Test Site, with the purpose of exan restoration issues, (3) study of crustal structure and funda mental geologic processes related to earthquake and vol: ceanie hazards in the central and western United States (pri- matily the New Madrid seismic zone and volcanic islands such as Hawaii), and (4) deter the location, attitude, and disp fous, often concealed faults in it systems on ROBERT JACHENS received from San Jose State University and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in geophysics from Columbia University. He was a research associate, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observa- tory, from 1972 to1076, and has been a geophysicist with d USS. Geological Survey from 1976 to the present. Jachen’s primary interest isin the application of gravity and magnetic techniques to the solution of geologic problems. Work has s BS. degree in geology included studies of tidal gravity, temporal gravity chany associated with tectonic and voleanie deformation, earth fis- suring due to groundwater extraction, regional geophysics in mineral resource assessments, plate tectonics of western, North America, contine relationships between grav- ity and uppercrustal geology, and the tectonic evolution of the California coast ranges. His most recent work has focused on the use of regional gravity and magnetic anom alies to understand the structure of and offsets on faults of the San Andreas system, applications of geology and geo- physics to defining the hydrogeologic framework of aquifer ition and visualization of SD geologic maps. MARK KNACKSTEDT js an Australian Research Council Queen Elizabeth Tl Fellow in the Department of Applied Mathematics at the Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering at the Australian National University. His earch interests inclucle multiphase flow in porous media, application of percolation theory to the geological sciences, and characterization -d materials. He holds a bachelor’s degree from Columbia University and a Ph.D. degree from Rice University, both in chemical engineering, STEVE LUDINGTON received his BS. degree in geology from Stanford University in 1967, and a Ph.D. degree in geol: ogy from the University of Colorado in 1974. He worked for the mineral industry from 1969 to 1974, doing exploration in the central and southern Rocky Mountains. In 1974, he joined the U.S. Geological Survey. He has worked for the Sarvey in Denver, Colorado, and Reston, Virginia, and since 1987, he has been in Menlo Park, California. Until the mid 1980, Ludington was a specialist, interested in Climaxctype jolybelenite deposits and other mineral deposits associated, with evolved granites. More recently, he has participated in regional mineral resource studies in Costa Rica, Venezuela, ind Bolivia, and in Nevada. He coordinated the National Mineral Resource Assessment of the U.S. Geological SurveyBIOGRAPHIES (continued) for precious and base metals. At present, he is engaged in using regional geochemistry to elucidate the tectonic frame- work of the northern Great Basin, NICK OLIVER is professor of economic geology and Direc- tor of the Economic Geology Research Unit at James Cook University, a position he has held for four years. Previously he held academic positions at Curtin University, Monash Uni- versity, and research positions at CSIRO and the Carnegie Institute Geophysical Laboratory, where his research involved analysis of large hydrothermal systems through combinations of petrology, geochemistry, and structural ‘geology. He hasa B.Se. (Hons) degree from the University of Queensland Ph.D. degree from Monash University His types and geological settings, from banded iron formations through various epigenetic base metal and gold deposits, nin the Mt. Isa block, Yukon gran nd greenstones and metamorphosed mas- ‘sive sulfides in Finland, With collaborators in CSIRO and the minerals industry, he has applied numerical modeling to assis with interpretation of field and mine patterns for most Of these districts. He is.a fellow of the Society of Economic Geologists and was awarded the 1999 Mineralium Deposita Reviewer of the Year iterelated gold, ALISON ORD received a B.Sc. (Honours) degree from the University of Edinburgh in 197, and a Ph.D. degree from the University of California at Los Angeles in 1981. From 1981 to 1984, she held a postdoctoral research fellowship at Monash University, studying the effect of defect chemistry on. the strength of quartz at high pressures and temperatures, She joined the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation of Australia (CSIRO) in 1984 as a esearch scientist in the ‘of Geomechanics. She is now a chief research scientist in the division of Exploration, and Mining, leading the research group, Structural Controls fon Mineralisition. Fler principal areas of research are explo- mechanics, solid and luding smation-fluid flowthermal trans sdback systems, She has interests also in 3D vision systems for the mining and mineral pro- ndustries, particularly remote and automatic systems ig joint structures in pit walls and fragment istributions on muck piles and conveyor belts. She is on the editorial board of the Australian Journal of Earth Sciences and isa member of the Geological Sdciety of Australia. HOWARD POULSEN was born and raised at Thundler Bay; ‘Ontario, and attended the University of Waterloo (Honors BSc. degree, physics, 1970), Lakehead University (M.Sc degree, structural geology, 1980) and Queen's Univers (Ph.D, degree, economic geology, 1984). With more than 25, years of cumulative research experience at Lakehead Unver- sity, the Ontario Geological Survey, and the Geological Sur- vey of Canacla, he is currently a consulting economic geolo- gist who specializes in structural geology of ore deposits, His research has focused mainly on problems of significance to the global mineral exploration and he has authored or co- authored 55 jou rersand reports. He served as an associate editor for Economic Geology trorn 1993 10 1998 andl is a fellow of the Society of Economic Geologists as well as a He aches a graduate-level course in structural geol- cposits for the mineral exploration program at Queen's Uni JEREMY P. RICHARDS received his BA. degree (1983) in ind a Ph.D. (190) in economic geology National Universit holding a two- \ postdoctoral position at the University of Saskatchewan, ida (1990-1992), he joined the faculty at the University of Leicester, UK, and was Course Director of the Mineral Exploration M.Sc. program from 1994 to 1997. He joined the University of Albert enily associat professor of economic geology. Research spanned a wide range in both pure and economic geology, and include investigations of Keweenawan and central African copperbelt geology, alkalic-type epithermal Au deposits in Papua New tish Colu ice of the current downturn in metal prices, his most recent foray is into sand and gravel resources in Alberta, Actually, there isa lot of gold in those gravels! FRANCOIS ROBERT is a graduate of Ecole Polstechnique in Montreal, where he received his BSc. (1978), M.S. (1980) a \d Ph.D. (1983) degrees. His doctoral work focused and hydrothermal characteristics of the Sigma gold deposit in Abitibi, Following one-year post- doctoral studies at the University of Michigan, where he stud lusions of the: he joined the Geo- ‘vey of Canada ch scientist with eral deposits group. His research focused largely on the geology and suucture of gold deposits and districts in metamorphic terranes, in Canada and abro losely with industry and participated in a ns for international ag ved the Society of Economic Geologists’ rd in 1990 for his work on golel deposits. In 1997, he joined Barrick Gold Corporation as Senior Research Geologist. In addition to his other duties, he serves as in- house technical consultant on different projects worldwide, RICHARD (RICK) SIBSON grat: degree in geology from the University of Auckland, and M.Sc and Ph.D. degrees from Imperial College, London. He taught at Imperial College (1973-1982) and at the University with a BSc. (Hons)BIOGRAPHIES (continued) ‘of California at Santa Barbara (198% to New Zealand as professor of geology at the University of Otago (1990-2001). His research focuses on the structure of ‘crustal fault zones and the mechanics of shallow crustal earth- quakes. Increasing recognition of fid involvement in fat ing has led to an interest in mechanisms for fluid redistribu- tion around seismically active faults, and structural controls ‘on the development of fault-hosted hydrothermal mineral ization, He is author or coauthor of more than 60 research, papers and is an elected fellow of the Geological Society of London, the Geological Society of America, the American Geophysical Union, and the Royal Society of New Zealand. 990) before returning ved a BA. degree from the Uni- Santa Barbara, an M.Se. degree from igsion, Ontario, and a Ph.D. degree the University of California at Santa Barbara, Tosdal has worked for the U.S, Geological Survey and as an inde- pendent geologist for the mining industry, He currently is the Director of the Mineral Deposit Research Unit at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, where he supe vises research groups investigating intr deposits, Carlin-type sedimentary rock-hosted deposits epithermal systems, and pericratonal VMS deposits, and is developing projects in the diamond-related fields and in car- bonate terranes. He has worked on geologic, tectonic, and metallogenic problems in the cordilleras and cratons of North and South America, His personal research interests include the role of structure and tectonics in ore genesis and agmatism, the role of climate in ore genesis, and the source of metals in ore deposits. PHAEDRA UPTON received a B.Se. (Hons) degree in chemistry from Canterbury University in 1989, and a Ph.D, degree in geology fiom the University of Otago inl995, She was a postdoctoral fellow with CSIRO from 1996 co 1998, ince 1998 she has been a Foundation of Research, Science ind Technology postdoctoral fellow at the University of ‘Otago, Her research is focused on the geodynamics of, and the fluid flow systems associated with, convergent plate boundary settings. The majority of her work has been based around the Southern Alps of New Zealand. She uses geod)= namic modeling, fieldwork, and stable isotope geochemistry in her studlies of coupled deformation and fluid flow. She is a member of the Geological and Geophysical Societies of New Zealand and of the American Geophysical Union, RICK VALENTA is Chief Geologist of Mount Isa Mines Exploration and has been with MIM for over six years. Prior 10 that he lectured in geophysics, image interpretation, and geology at Monash University and also consulted. for MIM, World Geoscience, and Aerodata. He hasa BSc. (Hons) degree from the University of New Brunswick and a. Ph.D. degree from Monash University (specializing in defor mation and ore genesis at the Hilton Ph-Zn mine near Mt. Isa). Rick has been instrumental in regional and local area selection and geological synthesis of MIM projects in Aus: tralia, Afviea, and South America, He is well known across ‘Australia as an expert in integrated geological and geophyst al approaches to project generation and terrain interpreta- tion. He is involved with several collaborative research pro- jects, ncliding one on geophysical interpretation, structure, and ore genesis in the Ernest Henry CuAu districtPREFACE, ‘The spark for this volume arose amid the euphoria of completing Techniques in Hydrothermal Ore Deposits Geology (Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 10), and the accompany- ing Society of Economic Geologistssponsored short co at the 1998 Geological Society of America Annual Meeting ‘Toronto, Dick Tosdal noted the lack of any structural geol- ogy in the Techniques volume, and L glibly replied that this could be the subject ofa whole Reviews volume on its own, Several espressos later we shook hands on a new project, this ne also to be presented in Toronto, but as part of the rospectors and Developers Association of Canada Conven- tion in March 2001 The reason that Dick's comment triggered such preci tate action was that we recognized, both in ourselves and the wider economic geology community, a lack of clear derstanding about this fundamental aspect of our disci- pline. The mantra of hydrogeologists and hydrothermal ‘ore deposits geologists alike is “permeability, permeability, permeability,” and one of the best ways to enhance perme- ability is by fracturing rock. This we all know, but for many of us, formal training in structural geology ceased in our ‘undergraduate years. What this volume aims to do is to pro- vide a refresher on basic aspects of structural geology and its control on fluid flow, and also to review some of the more sophisticated models that can be used to predict paleo fluid flow paths—and therefore, zones of potential mineral deposition—from structural and rheological data, The elosing chapter attempts to place deposit-scale struc controls on ore deposition in the context of regional tal stress fields and plate tectonic models, using por- phyry deposits as an example. The volume is intended for economie geologists whose specialization is not structural geology, and should appeal toa wide audience trom academia and industry, including students, It is not intended to supplant formal instruction. in this field, but instead aims to renew interest in structural approaches to ore deposits geology, and to showease s ‘of the developments that allow the formulation of pre‘ tive models for deposit localization. Perhaps surprisingly—and this may be a relief to some people—only one chapter alludes to multiple deformation events, the staple of many classic structural geology courses. For those readers who seek more discussion of this aspect ofthe discipline, we provide below a Table of Events for the construction of a Reviews in Economic Geology volume Event Protolith formation Volume editors dream up concept invite authors to submit chapter outlines D, Editors tell authors what they actually wanted Unconformity ‘Time passes. f Manuscripts prepared by authors regardless, and sent out for review Time passes. Reviews received Reviews considered Time passes Some changes made versions submitted nd revised Mineralization Revised! manuscripts accepted by editors D.M, Copyediting and production Uplift Publication of volume Erosion No! Volume withstands the test of No volume such as this can be prepared without dhe ded- icated efforts of the various authors, and Dick and I thank the 14 contributors who stayed the course. We also thank David John, who guestedited our own contribution, and all the reviewers who provided timely and incisive critiques that have, we hope, kept us honest—their names are listed below. Production of this volume would not have been pos sible without the untiring efforts of Lisa Laird and Alice Bouley at SEG, and Lee Ewert, who expertly handled the copyedit Jeremy P. Richards Richard M. Tosdal Reviewers Jennifer Adams Anne-Marie Boullier Ron Bruhn. Mark Duffett David Hill Jay Hodgson Carol Finn, Michel Jébrak John Ridley Tom Schroeter Stephen Temperley Ted TheodoreCONTENTS Chapter 1—Principles of Structural Control ‘on Permeability and Fluid Flow in Hydrothermal Systems SF Cox, M.A. Knacksteds, and J. Braun Abstract 1 Introduction 1 Principles of Fluid Flow in Porous and Fractured Rocks 2 e Forma Principles of Macroscopic Frac Evolution of Flow Pathways during Deformation Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 2—Seismogenic Framework for Hydrothermal Transport and Ore Deposition Richard H. Sibs Abstract Introduction Seismogenic Crust 26 Stress and Fluid Pressure Regimes 3 Faults, Fractures, and Fluid Pressure Levels... 35 Dynamic Structural Permeability 38 Fluid Redistribution Mechanist Linked to the Earthquake Stress Cycle 41 Summary Discussion 47 Acknowledgments 47 References 47 Chapter 3—Deformation, Fluid Flow, and Ore Genesis in Heterogeneous Rocks, ‘with Examples and Numerical Models from the Mount Isa District, Australia Nicholas H. S. Oliver, Alison Ori, Richard K. Valenta, and Phaedra Upton Abstract 51 Introduction . 51 Principles of Fluid Flow Deformation and Fluid Flow Heterogeneous Deformation and F Numerical Models Examples Discussion Acknowled Relerences igments Chapter 4—Usility of Magnetic and Gravity Data in Evaluating Regional Controls on Mineralization: Examples from the Western United States T. G, Hildenbrand, Byron Berges RG. Jachens, and Steve Ludington Abstract ee 7 Introduction Potential-Fieldl Data and Methods Mineralized Areas in the Western United States Relationships of Geophysical Struct ‘and Deposit Patterns... 90, Conclusions and Summary ot Acknowledgments 106 References 106, Chapter 5—Vein Formation and Deformation in Greenstone Gold Deposi Francois Robert and K. Howard Poulsen 1 11 Abstr Introduction and Scope - ee 11 Suructure of Greenstone Gold Districts 112 Veins and Their Analysis 118 Classification of Veins 124 138 146 Vein Deformation and Superimposed Strain Structural Timing of Veins Discussion of Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments, References Chapter 6—Magmatic and Structural Controls on the Development of Porphyry Cu + Mo + Au Deposits ROM. Tosdal and J. P. Richards Abstract Introduction General Porphyry Model 158 Convergent Plate Margin Magmatism 165 Volcanoes and Shallow-Level Intrusive Complexes: The Environment of Porphyry Cu Deposits Structural Sequence in Porphyry Systems Origin of Breceia Pipes in Porphyry Cu Deposits Tectonic Setting of Porphyry Cu Deposits Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments . ReferencesSito Baie Goats Review. 4, 2001, p 124 Chapter 1 Principles of Structural Control on Permeability and Fluid Flow in Hydrothermal Systems S.F. Cox,! Conte for Acoanced Stuis of One Syems, Department of Glogs and Research School of Earth Sciences, ‘The Australian National University, Canbrrra, ACT 0200, Austratia M.A. KNacastent, Reseurth School of Physical Sciences and Engineering, The Australian National Univesity, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia ann]. Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian BRAUN atonal University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia Abstract Fluid pathways between ‘ered by fluid pressure gradie ‘on ore formation in many epi etic systems de! Tid pressures play in generating and maintaining permeability within active faults, shear zones, aso nd various other stracttres at all ci ralar pornsity, pore connectivity is low, and Aid flow is typ ically controlled by fracture permeability. Deformation-induced fractures develop on scales from microns srthan hundreds of meters, Because mineral sealing of fractures can be rapid relative to the Tie of hydrothermal systems, sustained fluid flow occurs only ated fracture neworks, In hydrothes nal systems with low inten: repeatedly renewed, metal sources and sites of ore deposition in hydrothermal systems are gow pe controls rgely from the role that deformation processes and a ewes ‘active structures where permeability is Tn the brittle upper crust, deformation-induced permeability is associated with macroscopic fracture ar- rays and damage products produced in episodically slipping (se growing folds, and related structures, In the more ductile midl-to lower crust, perm sale dilatancy (especially in active shear zones), as well as with macroscopic hydraulic insiton, steady state creep leads to steady state permeability ng strictures. In contrast, in the seismogenic regime, lange ‘ul Rove neabiity is con existing mechanieal ture growth is favored in high pore fluid factor regimes, which develop especially whet associated with gr fracture arrays Below the seismic—a and continuous fluid flow in actively defors ‘clic changes in permeability lead 1 episod The geome and distribution of pressure states, but may’ also be influ ogeniic) anda ismically ereeping Eilts, bility enhancement is faults andl associated fractres. rolled fundamentally by stress and fluid isotopes in the rock tas, Frac- fluids discharge from faults or shear zones beneath lowepermeabilty flow harriers. low localization within faults and shear zones occurs in areas of highest fracture aperture and fracture density, s hack between deformat iuiddriven growth of hydraulically inked nevwor ‘on scales linking fluid reservoirs and ore deposits s influenced by the rel- olated structures in the that fracture systems reach the percolation threshold at low balk strains. Just above: ‘with Fault jogs, bends, andl splays. Positive fee promo Evolution of fail patsy ative proportions of hackbone, dangling, fof networks indica ng has damage zones associated fluid Move, and Maid pressure ‘of aul, fractures, and shear zones. work, Modeling of the growth the percolation threshold, low is concentrated along a small proportion ofthe total fracture populatio ‘and favors localized ore deposition. At higher strains, flow is distributed more widely chroug ‘and, accordingly the potential for localized, high-grade ore deposition may be reduced, ture popuatio Introduction THE FORMATION of many types of epigenetic ore deposits involves some form of control by structures produced dur- ing crustal deformation. In particular, ore deposition is com- ‘contesponding author: email, sfeoxtge ogyannvedu monly localized within faults, shear zones, or associated frac- ture systems, Additionally, mineralization can be restricted to particular parts of faults or shear zones such as jogs oF bends (Hulin, 1929; Newhouse, 1942; McKinstry, 1948; Sib- son, 1987), t0 fold-related structures such as saddle reefs (Hulin, 1939; Chace, 1949; Cox etal, 1991), o related to deformation around heterogeneities such as competent oC TC LULULULLCUCti‘((NULyE2 cox Eat rock masses (Oliver et al, 2001). Epigenetic mineralization also is typically localized along low displacement faults and fracture systems (e.g., Robert et al, 1995; Cox, 1999). Hydrothermal mineral deposits are produced by focused flow of large volumes of fluids (Henley et al., 1985; F 1987; Cox, 1999). Mass balance calculations, bi example on silica and metal solubility, indicate integrated fluid volumes in many types of hydrothermal ore systems are typically greater than several Crustal deformation processes in sdrothermal syste the driving forces for fluid flow. Understanding how de mation processes and structures influence permeability evo- lution isa key aspect to understanding the architecture of fluid pathways in hydrothermal systems, and the factors con- olfing where ore deposits form along these pathways. This, review explores how active cleformation controls the perme- ability of rock masses through the formation of macroscopic fracture systems, damage zones, and grainscale microcrack permeability within actively deforming structures. The role Of fluid pressures and stress regimes in driving permeability enhancement and growth of permeable fault/fracture/ shear networks is highlighted. We outline how stress regimes and variations in uid pressure in hydrothermal systems gov- em the location and geometry of fluid pathways berween metal sources, Huid sources, and sites of ore deposition, We also examine how linkages among structures develop during progressive deformation, and how they control the architec re of fluid pathways from deposit to crustal scales Principles of Fluid Flow in Porous and Fractured Rocks Fluid migration through the Earth’s erust occurs in. response to various driving forces. The fluid flux and geom- etry of flow is fundamentally controlled by permeability variations in the crust. In this section, we outline the fo ing crustal fluid flow and examine the dependence of flux on rock permeability, We also discuss how the evo- lution of grain-scale to macroscopic permeability in hydrothermal systems is influenced by stress regimes and. fluid pressure regimes during both brittle and ductile styles of deformation, Two central points are highlighted: firstly, the geometry of fluid pathways is strongly dependent on the geometry and style of deformation; and secondly, per- meability is a transient rock property that can be rapidly reduced by porosity-destruction processes stich as con paction and sealing of intergranular pores and fractures. Maintenance of permeability and fluid flow in hydrother mal systems is, therefore, dependent upon active deform: tion repeatedly reget Accordingly, fluid flow is localized within structures that were active dur- ing the operation of hydrothermal systems, Driving forces for fluid flow Fluid flow occurs in response to two major classes of di ticularly at crustal depths less than several kilometers, rock permeability is generally high enough that pore spaces are highly interconnected and fluid pressures are close 10 hydrostatic values (i., owing to the weight of the fMuid col- umn). In this regime, topographic relief is a major factor establishing hydraulic gradients that drive subsurface flow downward from regions of high topography towards regions of lower topography. Depths of topographically driven fluid penetration are typically up to several kilome- ier and Smith, 1990). deformation-induced pore pressure changes, hat set up vertical and lateral hydraulic gradients can be mportant at all crustal depths. These changes arise from compaction of intergranular pore spaces during burial or regional deformation, grain-cale dilatation associated with granular flow, or from to macroscopic c growth and closure du ation, Such deforr ion-induced pore pressure gradients are associated with both small elastic responses (poroelastic effects) or larger nelastic deformations of intergranular pore spaces and tures owing to stress changes associated with the seistnie cycle and heterogeneous deformation (Muir-Wood and King, 1993). In particular, macroscopic dilataney associated with episodic fault slip exerts a powerful control on fluid migration around active faults in the crustal seismogenic regime (Sibson, 1987, 1998, 2001). Transient uid migra- tion in response to pressure gradients due to deformation- induced grain-scale dilatancy during regional deformation Sox and Etheridge (1989) and MeCaig and Knipe (1990), and modeled by Ord and Oliver (1997) and Oliver etal. (2001). Driving pressure-gradients within the erust are also gen erated by development of suprahydrostatieppressured fluid, srvoirs. For example, suprahydrostatic fluid pressur tion can be associated with emplacement of magmas into cooler, porous, fluid-saturated rock-mass. ‘nt driving pressure-gradients are also associated with metamorphic fluic-production and fluid-absorption reactions (Walther, 1990; Rumble, 1994), as well as by fluid expulsion associ- ated with crystallization of hydrous silicate melts. Modeling of two-dimensional advective flow regimes associated with drainage of suprahydrostatic reservoirs has been conducted Roberts (1997). In these flow regimes, spa tions in permeability (for example, owing to the presence of active and permeable faults or shear zones) ‘establish hydraulic gradients that focus fluid flow and gov- ‘em flow pathways (Fig. 1). Temporal and spatial variations permeability induced by episodic fault rupture particu larly c dynamics of fluid flow in pressuredriven flow regimes in the seismogenic upper crust (Sibson et al 1988; Cox, 1999; Sibson, 2001). Buoyancy drive for crustal fluid flow arises from vertical ons in fuid density either through effects of tempera- ture gradients or variable concentrations of dissolved species (eg., salinity) in pore fluids. Decreasing density of hydro- thermal fluid with increasing temperature and depth for many pore fluid compositions leads to gravitational instabil ity and convection of fluid through porous media in near hydrostatic fluid pressure regimes. An excellent ¢ umple ofPRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL, IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS 3 re 1. Numerical finite clement) model simulating steady state, pres suteriven fluid flow patterns around permeable faults or shear anes ‘Cinbeded in ales permeable medi Aerial lthostatc fad presare {rodents aintated i the meri away from the fault Length of aw Stators corresponds to flow velocity; Mow vectors thin faults not shown. ‘Contours indeate departre of fal pressure fom hose ales: ight freasare below and dark areas are abe biotic presre-a. Simple pla ‘har foul or shear ae with perma 10 ines that of he surround ing host vock matrix. Note fii Focusing atthe upstream (ower) part of the siete, sl uid scharge aroun the downstream (upper) parc of the arte bFhid flow patterns associated with the presence of fa ‘Mteponercegion, Permeablity and imponed Mud pressure graents are ‘he sume a8 (3 this is provided by thermally driven convection around hot intrusive complexes, as modeled by Norton and Knight (197), Forster and Smith (1990), and Cathles etal (1997). lox in porous media In addition to a driving force, crustal fluid flow also requires a rock mass with pore spaces to contain fluid, as twell as connectivity hetween pore spaces. The pore spaces Can be intergranular pores or grainscale to macroscopic fractures. The one-limensional macroscopic flux of a sin- flephase fluid in a horizontal plane through an isotropic, porous medium is described by'a simplified form of Darcy's law, which stats that q= Q/At=k/n(aP/Ax), a where gis the Muid lux (i.e, the volume Q of fluid traversing ‘rosssectional area A perpendicular to the x axis, per ‘unit time 1): isthe permeability of the porous medium: m7 the kinematic viscosity ofthe pore Nui: and db/dxis the horizontal fluid pressure gradient that drives flow (Bear; 1972; Fig. 2). ‘The volume flux has dimensions of velocity, and is some- times referred to as the Darcian velocity. Note, however, that the Darcian velocity is not the actual velocity at which the fluid moves through the pore space. Rather, itis a mea sure of the fluid volume per unit time moving through unit crosssectional area of the rock, [tis related to the real avers age fluid velocity, v, by the relationship, rQ, e Particularly in low porosity rocks, the real fluid velocity at the pore scale can be much larger than the Darcian veloc- ity, Darcy's law assumes laminar flow, and applies in porous rocks at flow rates up to about 1 m/s. At higher flow rates, turbulence and high inertial forces lead to breakdown of Darcy's law (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). ‘Permeability has units m? (1 darcy = 10-! m?), and isan intrinsic rock property quantifying the capacity of fis to pass through rock, Permeability is influenced by the eon- hectivity hetween intergramular pore spaces or fractures in a rock, and is particularly sensitive to the minimum throat ize between connecting pores. Natural rocks have perme abilities that range over more than ten orders of magnitude (Brace, 1990; Manning and Ingebritsen, 1999). For exara- ple, porous sandstone (porosity, @> 15%) and poorly com- pacted tuffs can have permeabilities as high as 10" m2, whereas unfractured, “tight” metamorphic or igneous rocks can have permeabilities less than 10 m®, Fluid fluxes and the geometry of flow are, therefore, particularly dependent ‘on spatial and time variations in permeability within the ‘crust, We examine below the eritical effect of deformation processes in generating large, although commonly tran- sient, changes in rock permeability4 CONEPAL DARCY'S LAW QIAt = k/n(dP/dx) fluid volume, Q i, areaA | ; driving pressure | # pf | sracenisricx | z | 8 ‘_ # 1} tg DISTANCE, x ic. 2. Darey’s law andl control of horizontal Mid flow rate by diving prestire gradient, rock permeafiliy and al vices, of the pore ind 800°C, andl pres- sures between 50 and 300 MPa, the viscosity of water ranges over about one order of magnitude (40-400 Pas), decreasing with increasing temperature and decreasing pressure (Haar etal, 1984). Viscosity increases with inereas- ig salinity (Garven and Freeze, 1984). The extreme range in permeability in rocks compared with the much smaller ‘iscosity in typical ore fluids, m ty usually have a greater i n viscosity in simple waterdominated hydrothermal systems. The dynamics of two-phase flow in porous media can lead to complex effects that will not be treated in this review (Sahimi, 1994). For fluid flow with a vertical component of motion (2 axis), the driving force for flow is not the absolute fluid pressure gradient, but the nonhydrostatic component of the gradient. An expanded expression for Darcy's law is given by the relationship, pact on fluid flux @) = (ky/m)-(@P/a, ~ pal de/2X)), where quis the fluid flux in the coordinate direction i; k, is the permeability tensor (allowing for anisotropy of per- meability) pis the fluid density; and § is the gravitational acceleration (Forst 1990) OP /ox, represents the driving force due to gradients in hid and Smith, pressure, whereas the pg(d2/ dx) term accounts for gravity and also buoyancy effects associated with spatial variations in uid density. This full Darcian relationship illustrates that the driving force for fluid flow is the difference between the fluid pressure gradient and the ‘component of the fluid pressure gradient. This res illustrated by considering fluid pressure variations in a ver- tical column of fluid in a porous medium with fully con- nected porosity: The depth dependence of fluid pressure P, in a column of fluid at rest is given by P.= pe “ wher zis the depth below the surface, In this case, the v fluid pressure gradient, pg, owing to the weight of the fluid column does not drive flow, pwn as the hydrostatic fluid pressure gradient. in dP/dz from pg are requitedl to drive vertical flow: Accordingly, for vertical flow of a uniform density uid, Darey’s law reduces to a= (k/n)-(aP/dz~ pa) ey Where dP/dz is greater than pg, upwards flow oceurs, whereas if P/dz is less than pg, downwards flow occurs ina uid of uniform density. For general presstire-driven flow in rocks with isotropic permeability flow is parallel to the non- hydrostatic component of the fluid pressure gradient. Per= meability anisotropy may result in flow that is not parallel to the driving pressure gradient. ‘Types of porosity Porosity, 6, is the ratio of th bulk volume of a porous medit volume of void space to the = Vpere/ Vere + Vac) © Permeability is wot always simply related to porosity. Is dependent on various factors, including pore diameters and shapes, diameters of pore throats ct large granular pores), and connectivities betwes From the standpoint of flow through a porous me interconnected pore volume is of interest. Porosity usually comprises intergranular porosity and fracture porosity. Intergranular porosity sich as primary pore spaces in poorly cemented or weakly compacted clas- tic sediments and pyroclastic materials, can control uid flow in shallow, low-temperature hydrothermal systems, Examples include some carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn systems (Garven, 1985) and some parts of shallow, voleanicelated geothermal systems, Intergranular porosity although ust ally very low, may also be present in metamorphic regimes (Holness, 1997). Reaction-enhanced porosity is associated with volume changes during metamorphic reactions at ele- vated temperatures and pressures (Rumble et al., 1982. Zhang ct al, 2000). This elfect i particularly important in controlling geain-scale uid infiltration in skarn environments, and pervasive hydrothermal alteration astociated. with fluid discharge from fracture-controlled hydrothermal systems into relatively low-permeability wall-rocks. Volume change between the solid reactants and reaction products tends to produce transient changes in intergranular poros- ity and permeability in these regimes. Macroscopically duc- tile deformation in she sociated with grain anslation and grainscale eracking, which also enhances intergranular porosity: Similarly, in low-temperature britle deformation regimes, cataclasis in active fault zones may modify the in ranuikar porosity of the host rocks. In rocks with low, or poorly connected intergranular porosity, fluid transport is controlled by fracture porosity Fractures can be present at scales ranging from grain-scale to macroscopic (> tens of meters long). Fracture formation is usually controlled by the stress and fluid pressure states during deformation of a rock mass (see “Principles of Macroscopic Fracture Formation” below), but may also be influenced by thermal shocking. Porosity permecbility relationships Lows temperature rogimes—Clastie rocks ancl fans rods: Ln low temperature crustal regimes where primary intergranular porosity can survive for geologically long periods, perme- ability exhibits a simple relationship with porosity, espe- cially at high porosities. For porosity greater than about 6 to 10 percent, pores are generally fully intereonnected and porosity is related to permeability by form relationship of the ke Ws, cy where n is approximately 8. In this regime, permeability decrease with decreasing porosity is controlled by pore shrinkage. At lower porosities, progressive loss of connecti ity between pores occurs through clesure of narrow throats that form part ofa connected network that spans the sample/system com: between the larger intergranular pores. Pon prise what is known as the backbone porosity (Fig. 3a). All How is localized along this backbone pore network; accord ingly, the backbone porosity controls the permeability. The remaining porosity comprises two elements: (1) isolated. pores, which do not connect with the backbone porosity even though they may form localized clusters of pores that are connected to each other; and (2) dangling, or dead-end pores, which connect to the backbone porosity from one side only. Although they are part of the interconnected porosity and contain pore fluid, they do not contribute to the flow. At low porosities, permeability changes are directly related to progressive changes in the relative proportions of backbone, dangling, and isolated pores, as well as the total porosity ofa rock The relationship, k= ¢, breaks down where the back: bone porosity hecomes less than the total porosity. At lower y, permeability typically becomes more sensitive to small changes in porosity (Fig. 3b). The porosity at which all pore connectivity is lost (1€.. Qackbone ~ Os Gojated = LD and permeability vanishes, is known as the percolation a SN ccc scoiea pare aaa Eo = 10 E B iow a z Goel a _-> percolation theeshold TOTAL POROSITY Fi. $. a Schematic of clases of intergranular pores, How total eonneeted (i... backbone © dangling) porosity b. Relationship between tal porosity and permeability in Fentanebleat sandstane (afer ovrbic and Zinener, 1983). The pereolation threshold porta the hip k= 9 ae indicated threshold. Where permeability is controlled by approxi ‘mately equant intergranular pores, the percolation thresh ‘old typically occurs at total porosities in the range 3 to 6. percent in many types of chaste rocks Above the percolation threshold, permeability associated. with intergranular porosity is influenced only moderately by confining pressure (David and Darot, 1989). Permeability decreases with increasing c nfining pressure (Fig. 4) in ie deformation, causing pore shrinkage and collapse. Note that at constant confining response to clastic and ine pressure, changes in pore fluid pressure (i., changes in effective confining pressure) lead to relatively small changes in permeability, Poroelastic effects on total inter granular pore volume, driven by changes in stress states associated with fault rupture events and interseismic stress recovery, may play a role in episodic fluid redistribution around active fault zones (Muir Wood and King, 1993; Sib- son, 1993), Such effects are likely to be a small part of the overall fluid budget in ati The relationships between por h-flux hydrothermal system. ty, permeability, and effective stresses, found fi apply also to granular damage produets (got and breccia) produced in fault zones. clastic sedimentary rocks, will In high; regimes, atomic diffusion, creep, grain boundary migration, and chemical reactions High temperature regimes—metamorphic. rocks: temperature. metamorphic are fast on geologic timescales, In this case, intergranular porosity and pore connectivity in roc trolled principally by interfacial surface vided d the polycrystalline aggregate is not deforming. Where pore shapes are controlled by surface energy mint mization, there isa b: the sur forces along ces where two solid g and we can define a dihedral wetting angle, @, which is the langle between the two solid-fuid interfaces (Fig. 5a). The magnitude of the wettin sand a fluid phase meet angle is controlled by the balance of interfacial forces expressed by the relation. O=2arcos(7,./2%0), @ where 7, and 9 are the solid-solid and solid-fluid su face energies per unit are respectively (Smith, 1964) PERMEABILITY, x 10-19 m? a a ee er CONFINING PRESSURE, MPa a aes (006 iter Das aha Ds a grain B fluid — grain A thapes ace controlled by talcatedb, For died ran interfaces, ane hid cha ct fied pockets at fourgain co ‘ud forms ok thee grain sl wet i Brenan, 1987) The three-dimensional connectivity of intergranular pores in isotropic mineral aggregates is dictated by interfa total porosity: We distinguish between pores that form at tworgrain interfaces, along three sin edges, and at grain corners (Fig. 5). For dihe dral wetting angles greater than 60°, pores interfaces tend to form isolated pockets. At low porosity sgrain-edge channels pinch offto form discontinuous beads ain edges, and pores at grain corners tend to be along isolated (Fig. 5c). In contrast, at dihedral wetting angles less than oF equal to 60 connectivity between pores at grain corners may be provided to low porosities by continuous channels along grain edlges (Fig. 5b). For @greater than 0 the equilibrium fluid distribution on wo-grain inter disconnected bubbles. Only in the extreme case of equal 1 a continuous fluid film exist stably on two-grain interfaces. Experimental studies of interfacial wetting. angles for common minerals and pore fluids indicate that mmon mineral-fluid systems, dihedral wetting ;¢ greater than 60° (Holness, 1907). For example, in the quartz-HO-CO, system at elevated pressures and dihedral wet lly greater than 60° unless high solute sent in the pore fluid (Watson and for some ¢ temperatures in the range 950° to 1,150°C angles are typi Brenan, 1987) The evolution of permeability with decreasing porosity at clevated temperatures, wher sare pi surface energy effects controlPRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS pore geometry, i illustrated by high-temperature isostatic Compaction experiments on caleite aggregates (Zhang ¢t al. 1994a). The overall porosity-permeability relationship is Similar to that for clastic sedimentary rocks (Fig. 6a). For the calcite-argon system, the dihedral wetting angle is greater than 60, so the situation is analogous to many mit Eral-fluid systems at elevated temperatures. The porosity permeability relationship approximately follows the cube iw (i.e, n 3 in equation 7) to porosities down to about 0.06, where full connectivity between pores starts to be Tost (Fig, 6b). Below this porosity, permeability is much more strongly dependent on total porosity. The critical porosity, @,, at which pores completely lose connectivity (ie., the per ity of 0.04, For min: ‘eral-fhuid systems with wetting angles less than 60”, the per colation threshold will occur at porosities less than 0.04, Near 6,, the permeability ofthe intergranular pore network ‘obeys the sealing law (Knackstedt and Cox, 1995). colation threshold) occurs at a po! k= (9-9)* ) For high-temperature; sostatically stressed ({e., all prin cipal stresses equal) mineral-fluid systems, where pore geometry is controlled by minimization of interfacial sur face energy, dihedral wetting angles have a profound effect on fluid transport. For wetting angles greater than about {60°, pore connectivity is lost at porosities of several per cent. Accordingly, many metamorphic fluid-rock systems, which have porosities less than one percent, will be below the percolation threshold and effectively impermeable, unless deformation processes actively gene networks Fracture-controlled fluid flo In hydrothermal systems where compaction, pore sealing, processes, or diffusion-controlled surface energy effects have driven intergranular porosity below the percolation threshold, fluid mig on of fracture porosity tion is dependent on the gener Macroscopic to microscopic fractures at low temperatures: For iy state, laminar, incompressible flow in an ideal, hori al, parallel-sided plane fracture, the volume flow rate (in°/s) is given by the relationship, Q=wb'/12n-(aP/dy), (a0) where Dis the fracture aperture wis the width of the fracture (measured in the fracture plane); and bY dx is the fluid pressure gradient along the fracture (Guéguen and Dienes, 1989) By analogy with Darcy's law, for a fracture with cross sectional area wh, the equivalent fracture permeability is given by ay on te ze wi g 10" | Z owl EF om won| 02 ° 0051S, TOTAL POROSITY bo @ epomariy enonend 2] Z| moda scan poets gon 2 008 8 008 L g , 221s? noms aines o ooo eC TOTAL POROSITY sony-pemeabiliyreaonshps or cae grain aggre say hac premcl at nperstres oceen 300 ane 36°C eee gel an wo 0 Ms snd argon pore ald presaresrniged fons 100 250 MPa (after Zhang ec, 14a). b, Rele Tforahip betrren total porosity and connected (or accesible) porn Capetimentally determined dung Bontatie horpressing of calite aggre fo are nue’ ically exile ales of the backbone paras Fe Stowe alter Zhang et. (9Ma) and Kacksted and Cox (108%), In reality, relationships between fracture apertures and to the effects of frac ture roughness leading to aperture changes and tor flow paths. Experimental studies provide clear evidence of surface roughness causing departures from the cubie law in natural rough fractures (Witherspoon et al., 1980; Tsang and Witherspoon, 1981; Brown, 1987). Numerical model- ing of flow through rough fractures also confirms that frac ness and tortuosity lead to substantial departures Waite etal, 1999). Because cracks have high aspect ratios, elastic opening or from the cubic lav closure of cracks in response to changes in effective stress states has important effects on crack aperture and perme ability (Walsh, 1981). The dependence of fracture perme ability on effective confining pressure (Le., confining pres sure fluid pressure), illustrated in Figure 7, shows that the8 CON ET AL 60 Ft 1+ 15 & z #7 1 e = 20 s| E 2 tof 1 2 8 7 G6 1 a, . L L 0 50 100 «150—~—«200 EFFECTIVE CONFINING PRESSURE, MPa Fic. 7. Dependence of rack permeability on effective onining pew sie aller Grggucn ad Palauan, 1994), pressure dependence is substantially greater than for mate- Hials where permeability is controlled by approximately equant intergranular pores (Fig. 4). Accordingly, low poro- elastic and inelastic strains in eracked rocks will be more effect eformation of intergranular pores in chang- ing permeability, and driving uid redistribution Fesponse to stress changes (e.g., around active faults) For a cracked rock with fracture porosity @,, and where penny-shaped cracks are fully interconnected and ran- domly oriented, permeability kis given by 6/3, a2) where a is the average crack halfaperture. For crack raclius,r, and average crack spacing, | and so (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994) k 2/30. aay This relationship holds true for Iractured media where fractures are developed at microscopic to macroscopic scales. Itillustrates how both fracture density and fracture ‘connectivity play'a rolling permeability For randomly distributed fr € not fully con nected, permeability is giv k= (An /15) fae? (as) where connectivity, f, is Of 1 (Guéguen and Dienes, 1989). As in the case for a single fracture, this relationship illustrates how the permeability of cracked medium is very sensitive to av ture aperture. The evolution of con- nectivity among € of networks of fractures, faults, and shear zones, and its influence on flow architecture, is an important aspect of the evolution of hydrothermal sys- ns, and is discussed below in “Evolution of Flow Pathways 1g Deformation.” mary, for flow in fracture-controlled hydrothermal the highest flux will oceur where and when (1) lure apertures are highest, (2) fracture density is high- est, and (3) fracture connectivity is highest. Permeability during macroscopically ductile deformation: Experimental results, together with field observations of Auid-rock interaction in exhumed shear zones, indicate that permeability enhancement is commonly associated with macroscopically ductile deformation. Experimental studies indicate that macroscopically ductile deformation at elevated temperatures and confining pressures is only asso- ciated with permeability enhancement when a component of strain (albeit small) is accommodated by microfractur~ ing, which generates grain-scale fluid pathways The evolution of permeability during deformation involving both intragranular plastic deformation and scale crack growth is illustrated by experimental studies on calcite rocks (Zhang et al, 1994b). This work demonstrates that for low effective confining presstires, permeability increase with increasing strain can be very rapid and large (Fig. 8a, b). For example, at an effective confining pressure of 30 MPa, permeability increases by two orders of magni- tude with three percent shortening, and increases by a fur ther order of magnitude after ten percent shortening, Only small increases in permeability occur with higher strains, however, Major increase in permeability, at strains as lov as a few percent, is associated with growth of microcracks and rapid development of connes crack net works (Fi persists well into the domi- rystal plastic deformation regime, provided that essures are high enough to facilitate some defor mation by microcracking (Fischer and Paterson, 1992: Stor 1992; Zhang et al., 1994b; Peach 6). As both temperature and effective con- sure increase, brittle frictional impeded and intracrystalline plasticity is favo c, and the critical strain required to |, high-permeability crack network de The experimental studies demonst fluid pressures produce low effective cor grain-scale crack growth significantly increases the perme- ability of active shear zones relative to their hostrocks, even though most displacement may occur by microscop- ically ductile deformation mechanisms such as dislocation flow and dissolution-precipitation creep. A significant aspect of the experimental work is that fracture networks can develop high crack connectivity and high permeabil- ity at very low strains, One implication of this result is that Jow strain deformation, especially when localized in net works of faults, shear zones, and associated fracture arrays, may have a big impact on the localization of fluid flow (see “Evolution of Flow Pathways during Deformation” below. that where high ing pressures,PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL, IN HYDROTHERMAL SISTEMS 9 as a | B oo ‘om | 5 oe} 4 ge 1 paige; ° 5 10 15 2 STRAIN, % PERMEABILITY (m2) z 2 h Ie ton L 0 L o 5 10 6 20 STRAIN, % Fic. 8. Relationship between (a) porosity a ability and strain, as function of Selormation of Carrara marble 3 oo fof argon pore fluid. Relaionships at effective 50, and 100 MPa are ilstrated. Conining press strain rate= 12 10-4 alter Zhang et al. 194) = 300 MPa; nominal Competition betwven deformation-induced permeability enhancement and permeability reduction processes At depth in the Earth's erust, and especially at elevated, temperatures in active hydrothermal systems, porosity- destruction processes such intergranular cementation, compaction, and healing and sealing of fractures can cause permeability to decrease on timescales that are short rela- tive to the lifetimes of hydrothermal systems. Permeability and various porosity-destruction processes. The structure of veins in ore systems provide spectacular evidence of repeated fracturing and fracture sealing in hydrothermal systems. For example, erack-seal microstruc tures in veins (Ramsay, 1980; Cox, 1995) indicate that macroscopic f ¢ deep hyelrothermal regimes ‘can open and seal up to several thousand times in the lfe- 1¢ of one active vein (Fig. 9b). Similarly, overprinting relationships in veins in shallow epithe deeper mesothermal systems commonly episodes of fracturing and vein sealing (Fig. 9). Experi- mental studies of fracture healing (Hickman and Evans, 1987; Brantley et al., 1990; Zhang et al., in press), also demonstrate that, at temperatures greater than approxi- ‘mately 300° jonal crack healing and assoc cean be fast, even on Permeability evolution in faults in the seismogenic upper ‘crust can be influenced strongly by porosity changes assoc- ated with deformation during repeated, episodic slip events (over several seconds), or during aseismic creep. In rocks with high initial intergranular porosity, fault slip is associated with reduction in porosity and permeability owing to the production of fine-grained, compact, low-po seals or oe nl rea ts hprothicemal ease, Homectes ically loweporosity tight rocks (e.g., metamorpl igneous rocks), faulting leads to porosity and permeability increase during slip, owing to fracture growth and cataclasis, In contrast, porosity evolution during interseismic intervals is governed by progressive porosity destruction by pore col- lapse andl hydrothermal sealing (Angevine et al., 1982; Cox and Paterson 1991; Cox, 1995). Episodic slip and interseis- ‘mic sealing may result in large, time-lependent changes in permeability in fault zones (Fig. 10). Particularly in fracture controlled hydrothermal systems, flow within permeable faults and associated fracture arrays (Fig. 1) promotes rapid pore sealing by mineral deposition. As soon as poresity drops below the percolation threshold, fluid flow will shut off. An important conclusion then, is that in the immediate post- rupture phase, faults in low-permeabili highly permeable structures that act as fluid conduits. How- ever, with progressive interseismic sealing and loss of perme- ability, faults can become aquitards until a later slip event. Accordingly, in active hydrothermal regimes, permeability is rapidly destroyed unless ongoing deformat permeability: Additionally, for permeable fluid pathways to develop, the rate of deformation-induced permeal enhancement must be greater than the rate of permeabil reduction owing to closure and sealing of pores and fractures, Episodic versus continuous flow Competition between porosity-creation processes and porosity-destruction processes in actively deforming rocks results in a contrast between flow regimes in the upper seismogenic regime and the lower erustal aseismic regime. At depths below the seismic-aseismic transition (rypically 10-20 km deep), where steady state creep processes usually dominate, a balance between rates of Porosity destruction and porosity creation in creeping shear zones is expected to generate quasi-steady state per- meabilities that are higher than these of the surrounding, less rapidly deforming rock mass, This leads to essentially continuous fluid flow cerceping elements of shear networks. Creeping faults and shear zones probably. playa key role in focusing the migration of deeply sourced.w COXETAL Aluids upwards to the base of the seisn contrast, above the seismic~aseismic t sin fault perm 1. Episodic flaw is as and episodic nic regime. In bn, potentially bility catise episodic ted with fluid pressure ibution around active for the dynamies of stems in the seismo- genic regime (Cox, 1999; Sibs ) Principles of Macroscopic Fracture Formation pment of faults, shear zones, and associated pl The deve fracture arn meability di tudes of stresses in hydrothermal systems. these structures is also controlled by fluid ture systems can develop not brittle upper crus but also in the more ductile deeper crust, provided fluid pressures are high enough, Types of fractures and orientation relationships with stress fields Three classes of macroscopic fractures may form during | 75PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL, CONTROL. IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS a E a a = 8 & a fo foo fo TIME LOG PERMEABILITY eo €0 6&0 EO ration of time-dependent charges in (a) poros i ovee, Sudden slip events. After Cox (1985) brittle deformation: (1) pure extension fractures (2) shear fractires;and (3) hybrid extensionalshear fractures. Mineral filling in each of these fracture types produces veins (Fig. 11) Any stres field can be resolved into three mutually pe pendicular components, which are known as the maxitnam principal stress (g;), the intermediate principal stress (6), find the minimum principal stress (04). Pure extension fractures form perpendicular to dy and open perpendic- Jar to the fracture wall (Fig. 12a) fn intact, isotropic rock, shear fractures (ie, faults) tendo form at angles ypically between 20° and 35° to the orientation of a, stich thatthe fault plane contains the orientation of (Fig. 12b). Two conjugate ets of shear fractures can form, and where devel ‘oped, their intersection is subpaallelto-d, Hybrid exten- Sionaishear fractures have components of displacement both parallel and perpendicular to the fracture plane. They form at angles hetween 0° and approximately 35° tothe 6; direction ‘The otientations of the maximum principal stresses asto- ciated with contractional, extensional, and wrench tectonic regimes during crustal deformation produce distinetive ort eentations of shear fractures (faults) and spatially associated, extension fractures (and veins; Fig. 18). The relative orien- tations of faults and extension veins provide one of the most powerful ways of determining shear sense on struc- tures that were active during hydrothermal mineralization (Robert and Poulsen, 2001). Faults and associated fracture arrays exhibit heteroge- neous distributions of fracture apertures and! fracture den- sities at mesoscopic to macroscopic seales. Areas with the highest apertures and/or fracture densities produce the highest permeability sites, which localize most fluid migra- tion if they connect to fluid reservoirs. High fracture aper- tures and densities are typically associated with dilatant fault bends, stepover regions, or jogs that link approxi- ttely planar segments of faults and shear zones (Figs. Ld and La). High fracture densities and apertures can also develop in areas of competence contrast (Oliver et al 2001) and during dilation at fold hinges during flexural slip folding (Cox et al. 1991). High fracture permeability can also localize around fault termination zones, where fault splays, wing cracks, or brecciated regions develop (Fig. 4b). Contractional jogs, as well as dilational jogs, can be sites of high fracture density, which localize uid flow and ore deposition. ‘The orientation relationships between shear fractures, jogs, and slip directions result in the long axis of jogs devel ‘oping approximately parallel to the G, orientation (Fig. He). This produces a permeability anisotropy favoring flow parallel to the jog axis. For reverse and normal faulting regimes, extensional and contractional jogs have subhori- zontal plunges (Fig. 14d), This produces good horizontal fracture connectivity within faults, and may cause ore shoots to have gentle plunges. In contrast, strike-slip regimes pro- ‘duce jogs with good vertical connectivity that can control the geometry of steeply plunging ore shoots (Fig, L44). Stress magnitudes and fracture formation The types of fractures that control permeability in hydro- thermal systems in the brittle regime are governed by the mage nitudes of stres differences (6, ~ 45). The stressstatesin rocks, and the relationships between stress magnitudes, stress differ- fences, fracture type, and fracture orientation can be illustrated by twodimensional Mohr circle construetions. ‘The stresses acting on a plane inclined to 6; atan angle aican be resolved into a normal stress (@,) acting perpen- dicular to the plane, and a shear stress (f.) acting parallel © the plane (Fig. 15a). The magnitudes of the normal stress and shear stress are given by the relationships, /2G, +64) +1/2G,~0,)-cos2a (16) and /2(, ~ 0,)-sin 2a a7 A Mobr diagram plots @, against £, and has the geomet- rty that the normal and shear stresses acting on @ plane inclined at angle orto o; are given by the coordinates:COXETAL ers. This eins aexiated with salle, ubhorizantal extension veins. Mit Lye, Tasman with Fick of view i m wide. d. wrench fas, Les Matelles, Languedo of the point P on the perimeter of the circle having diame ter (6) ~0)) and center at (g, + 63)/2 on the no axis (Fig. 15a). This circle is called the stress circle (or Mohr circle), Note that Pis on normal stress axis. radius inclined at 2a:to the Brittle shear failure: Under fluideabsent conditions, the stress state that causes compressional brittle shear failure (ive. Fault ig) in an intact, isotropic mated by the relationship, dium is approxi: T= C+ po. as) where Cis the cohesi strength of the medium His the coetficient of frictio This Coulomb shear failure criterion is indicated by the le erackseal cpartz ‘Gent lefdipping exten line BC in Figure 15a. This line specifies the brittle shear of the medium as a function of normal stress. So, in dry, intact rock, brittle shear failure occurs where and when the Mohr circle (describing the shear stress and nord in a rock) contacts the failure envelope BC. Shear failure may, therefore, be induced by decreasing 6, and/or increasing the value of g; (stress cir cle Ain Fig. ngle between the Mohr cir- c the angle a tion of the stress am pring = (90° ~arctan y)/2. a9) For typical f shear fractures a tion coefficients of approximately 0.75, inclined at approximately 27° to ¢ Shear fractures formed in intact rock and obeying rela-PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL CONTROL. IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS 13 @ EXTENSION FRACTURES jons of fracture pes wth respect to principal stress cya, Pare excnsion fractures by Conjugate shear of shee indiate, tionship (19) are termed “optimally orientedt” faults (Sib- son, 1989). Activation, or re-activation, of misoriented structures may also be important in controlling fracture permeability in hydrothermal systems, For example, mis oriented faults may develop by rotation away from optimal orientations with respect to the stress field, due either 10 rotation of stress fields and/or rock masses during pro- gressive deformation. Additionally, preexisting faults, or other mechanical anisotropies such as bedding or folia- tion, can also be (re-)activated. Shear (re-)activation occurs when the shear stress on the misoriented plane sat: isfies the Moh-Coulomb failure criterion (Fig. 15e). Fig: ure 15c has been constructed with the cohesive strength, G, of the preexisting fault or anisotropy less than that of intact rock. Note, however, that rapid sealing or com- paction of gouge on fault slip patches in hydrothermal sis tems may cause some faults to quickly regain cohesive strength (Kanagava et al, 2000) Extension and hybrid exlensionatshear failure: Extension fail- ure and extensional shear failure occur ifthe normal stress @ REVERSE FAULT sutmorzoaal extension veins b NORMAL FAULT (© WRENCH FAULT Fa. 13, Orientations of fala as the principal sires directions for eomtn kelp fe tectone regimes, and shear stress state (Mohr circle) contacts the nonline part of the failure envelope at negative (ie, tensile) ni ure extension failure occurs where the nor- Is the tensile strength (T) of the rock (stress 15b). Note that the angle 2a is zero, as expected for extension failure along the o;-ds plane, per pendicular to 3. Hybrid extensional shear failure oceurs circle Cin FuM OEE AL a he a j 3 a & ‘contratonal splays Fro, 1. a, Geometry of contractional and fault terminations e. Coometry ofa distant ‘extensional, and wrench tectonic regimes. High facture density, Sux along the og ass where the stress circle contacts the failure envelope between —T and G (stress circle B in Fig. 15b) Pure extension failure only occurs at relatively small, stress differences, typically less than approximately 4T. For AT < (0, ~ 0,) < 6T, failure occurs in extensional-shear mode, Shear failure occurs at stress differences greater than approximately 6T. Because rock tensile strengths are typically less (sometimes substantially less) than about 10 MPa, the occurrence of pure extension veins in hydrother- mal systems indicates stress differences less than 40 MPa during vein opening (Etheridge, 1983), The role of fluids Fluid pressure modifies stress states at depth in the Earth's crust. The effect of pore fluid pressure (P) is to reduce the effective normal stress (6,’) according to the relationship, (20) SS age b Wing cracks and contractonal splay developed around Slip direction. d: Orientations of jogs in contraction peru, and ennneetvy along jogs sors high Mid In terms of the Mohr circle representation of stress states, the role of fluid pressure is to move the stress circle to the left (Fig. 16). Note that although fluid pressure mod ifies normal stress, it does not influence shear stress. In hydrothermal regimes, changes in stresses and /or fluid pressures can induce brittle failure. For example, at low stress differences, pure extension failure is induced by increase in fluid pressure (Fig. 16a), provided the effective principal stress becomes negative and equal in tude to the tensile strength of the rock. This fuid-tri- nsion fracturing is known as hydraulic extension fracture. The hydraulic fracture eriterion is, thus, P.=,+T. ey The abundance of mineraLfilled extension fractures in y epigenetic ore deposits indicates that tensile effective stress states, and, thus, fluid pressures greater than 0, are common in hydrothermal systems. Importantly, equiPRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL, CONTROL. IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS SHEAR STRESS, a Crary oF NORMAL STRESS, 6» SHEAR STRESS, ts SHEAR STRESS, ts NORWAL STRESS, tal sree The normal sees 0) And shear stress (fon a plane inclined at angle to the orientation of the maximum principal sures ave given bythe coordinates of Ue point P ‘on Mohr cite having diameter (0, ~6,) and center a (0; + 6)/2 on the normal stress ati The curved line “TCD ia ypical brite ‘emelope (mexdiied Grifils MotisConornb failure crterion), Tithe tere sil strength ofthe rock: the shea fale enselope (CB) approximated liythe relationship £= C= a, where tis the shear strength Cs the cole sive strength 1 the coeicient of faction, and gi the normal stress. Note that shear engi dependent on onal tem. Stree ates Fight ofthe faire envelope da not rewalt in brite failure. b, Meir di fram illustrating Mabe ciel for (A) shear failure (ating), (B) hybrid xtensonal shear, and (C) pure extension fllre of intact tock, e. Mob Atiagram illatrating ree conclitions for reactivation ofa nonoptzally cohesion, sca failure plane eg. preexisting fit, or fo ing aniettopy) inclined at angle tothe maximum principal Note that when the shea flr envelope (AI) for a preexisting ‘mechanical weaknes les below the failure envelope for intatt rock, prcesiting structure may be preferentially reactivated. a a q E a = EFFECTIVE NORMAL STRESS b EFFECTIVE NORMAL STRESS. Fis, 16, Mohr circle consructions illustrating the effects of increasing fluid pressure, by an amount Pon effective tess sates and conditions for fare i iatact rock pressure at Yow tess differ: fences reste n extension fare. b. Increasing preset high sie Aferences induces shea fire. (21) illustrates how the opening of hydraulic extension fractures limits the maximum fluid pressures that may in hydrothermal systems. portant aspect of the role of fluid pressure in frac ture processes is that brittle failure may be induced at any depth, provided fluid pressures are high enough. Perme- ability enhancement by fracture growth can occur in sponse to changes in stress difference (i.e., through changes to 0, and/or 03), and also by changes in fluid pressure. This concept is illustrated in Figure 17, which plots failure modes as a function of stress difference and uid pressure. Here, fluid pressure is expressed as the pore fluid factor (4), the ratio of fluid pressure to over- burden stress (0,). The pore fluid factors and stress differ ences leading to failure in extensional, extensional-shear, and shear modes are plotted for a strikeslip regime ata depth of 3 km. From some ambient stress state failure cant bbe induced either by inereasing the pore fluid factor along the trajectories such as Qand S (Fig. 17) without changing the absolute stress state (an example of purely fluid-driven failure), or by maintaining a constant pore fluid factor anel increasing the stress difference (e.g. trajectory P), or some