Syllabus FOR UNDERGRAD UATE COURSES OF LL BRANCHES OF HIGHER EDUCATION ” ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Unit 1: The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies Definition, Scope and importance (2 Lectures) ‘Néed for public awareness. Unit 2: Natural Resources Renewable and non-renewable resources: Natural resources and associated problems. (a) Forest resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies, timber extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people. 6 Water resources: Use and over-utilization of surface and ground water, floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams- benefits and problems. resources: Use are exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources, case studies. MA) Food resources: World food problems, changes causes by agriculture and over-grazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case studies. \¢of Energy resources: Growing energy needs, renewable and non- renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources, case studies. ‘Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced landslides, soil erosion and desertification. oy “ee ) a t \ Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources, C€ Equitable use of resources for sustainable life styles. (8 Lectures) Unit 3 \«Concept of an ecosystem Structure and function of an ecosystem. ¢ Producers, consumers and decomposers. ‘energy flow in the ecosystem. as \e-Ecological succession. . & Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. ~ © Introduction, types, characteristic features, structures and function of the following ecosystem : (a) Forest ecosystem () Grassland ecosystem (©) Desert ecosystem (d) Aquatic ecosystem (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries). (6 Lectures) Unit 4: Bio-diversity and its Conservation \»“Tntroduction—Definition genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. © Biogeographical classification of India. .oValue of biodiversity ; Consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values. © Biodiversity at global, national and local levels © India as a maga-diversity nation. \9Hot-spots of biodiversity. © Threats to biodiversity : Habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man- wildlife conflicts. \@ Endangered and endemic species of India. . © Conservation of biodiversity : In-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity. (8 Lectures)hme _ ~ i — i (xi) nit 5: Environment ‘al Pollution Definition | * Caus; | ut es, effects and control measures of : i @) Air Pollution » ©) Water pottution ®) Soil pottution (@ Marine pollution “) Noise paltution ( Thermal pottution (2) Nuclear hazards, * Solid waste management : Causes, effects and control measures Of urban and industrial wastes, ~ Role of an individual in prevention of pollution ® Pollution case studies, \ Disaster management : Floods, earthquake, cyclone and land- slides. (8 Lectures) Unit 6: Social Issues and the Environment From unsustainable to sustainable development. \ Urban problems related to energy. ¢ Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management. Resettlement and rehabilitation of people: Its problems and concerns. Case studies. \ Environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions, 4 \ Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, nuclear accidents and holocaust. Case studies. ¢ Wasteland reclamation. «* Consumerism and waste products. \e Environment Protection Act. ¢ Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. e Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. Wildlife Protection Act. © Forest Conservation Act.7 (xii i. 4 \~® Issues involved in enforcement of environment legislation, ~ * Public awareness. 7 Lectures) Unit 7: Human Population and Environment \*” Population growth, variation among nations. Population explosion—Family welfare programme. ss Environment and human health, #* Human rights x Value education. ° HIV/AIDS. ¢ Women and child welfare Role of information technology in environment and human health. Case studies. (6 Lectures) Unit 8: Field Work Visit to a local area to document environmental assets—River, forest grassland/hill/ mountain. Visit to a local polluted site—Urban/Rural/Industrial/ Agricultural. Study of common plants, insects and birds. Study of simple ecosystems—Pond, river, hill slopes etc. (Field work equal to 5 lecture hours) (5 Lectures)Herrero royrenee Contents Preface to the Fifth Edition (vii) 1, Em ; vironmental Studies—A Multidisciplinary Subject 1-15 QD What is Environment? 1 2 How is Environmental Studies Multi-disciplinary in Nature? 2 } 1.3 What is the Scope of Environmental Studies? 3 _ 1.4 What is the Importance of Environment? 5 7 1.5 What is the Need for Public Awareness? mental Conservation 1.5.1 What Message of Environ do we Get from Our Cultural Heritage? 8 1.5.2. Indian Environmentalists in Contemporary Times are also Working for the Cause of Environment 8 - 1.5.3 Environmental Concern and Recognition at International Level 9 1.5.4 Environmental Protection Efforts at National Level 11 , Questions 12 Objective Type Questions 13 2. Natural Resources , 16-92 { 2.1 What isa Resource? 16 2,2 Forest Resources 17 . 2.2.1 What are the Uses of Forests? 17 2.2.2 Are we Over-exploiting Our Forests? 19 Severe is the Problem? 20 ay Deforestation: How peg ee TNE (xiii) _24 25 2.6 (xiv) a What are the Major Activities in Forests? 25 2.2.4 2.2.5 Big Dams in Forest Areas: What are the Major Problems? 24 Water Resources 26 2.3.1 Water is a Unique Resource 26 2.3.2 The Hydrological Cycle Continuously Purifies, Recycles and Distributes Fresh Water 27 2.3.3 Water Availability 27 2.3.4. What are the Sources of Freshwater? 29 2.3,5 Floods 31 2.36 Droughts 31 2.3.7 Conflicts Over Water: Inter-state and International Problems 30 2.3.8 Big Dams—What are the Benefits and Problems? 36 Mineral Resources 37 2.4.1 What are Minerals? 37 2.4.2 Uses and Exploitation 38 2.4.3 Some Major Minerals of India 40 24 ~ Environmental Impacts of Mineral Extraction and Use 41 Food Resources 47 2.5.1 World food Problems 48 2.5.2 Impacts of overgrazing and A Scanure 49 Energy Resources 56 2.6.1 Growing Energy Needs 56 2.6.2 SB ewableand Non-renewable Energy Sources 57 2.6.3 Solar Energy 58 2.6.4 Wind Energy 61 2.6.5 Hydropower 62 2.66 Tidal Energy 63 2.6.7 Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE) 64 2.68 Geothermal Energy 65 Biomass Energy 66 2.6.10 Biogas 66 2.611 Biofuels 68—- a TT ot (xv) = * 2.6.12 Hydrogen as a Fuel 69 2.6.13 Coal 70 2.6.14 Petroleum a 2.6.15 Natural Gas 71 , 2.6.16 Nuclear Energy 72 [ 2.7 Land Resources 74 2.7.1 Land as a Resource 74 2.7.2 Land Degradation 74 2.87 Soil Erosion 75 2. Water Logging 79 240" Landslides 80 2.11 Desertification—What are the Major Causes? 81 2.12 Conservation of Natural Resources: What can be the Role of an Individual? 82 2.13 Can Equitable Sharing of Resources be Useful - for Sustainable Life Style? 85 L Questions 86 | - Objective Type Questions 87 ! 3. Ecosystems 93-134 3.1 What are Ecosystems? 93 3.2 Structural Features of Ecosystem 94 3.2.1 Biotic Structure 94 3.2.2 Abiotic Structure 97 3.3 How does an Ecosystem Function? 98 Trophic Structure 99 3.3.2 Food Chains 99 3.3.3 Ecological Pyramids 104 3,3,4~How does Energy Flow in an Ecosystem? 107 3.3.5 How do Nutrients (Matter) Move in an Ecosystem? 109 3.3.6 How Matter is Produced by Ecosystems? 113 3.397 Can an Ecosystem Regulate Itself? 114 3.4 Ecological Succession 115 3.5, Major Ecosystem Types 119 ; Questions 131 ; Objective Type Questions 131(xvi) “i 4. Biodiversity and its Conservation 135-172 4.1 What is Biodiversity? 135 4.2 Levels of Biodiversity 135 4.2.1 Genetic Diversity 136 4.2.2 Species Diversity 136 4.2.3 Ecosystem Diversity 136 4.3 What are the Major Biogeographical Regions of India? 137 4.4 What is the Value of Biodiversity? 139 4.4.1 Consumptive Use Value 149 4.4.2 Productive Use Values 14) 44.3 Social Value 142 4.4.4 - Ethical Value (Existence Value) 142 445 Aesthetic Value 143 446° Option Values 144 44 7 Ecosystem Service Value 144 4.5 | How many Species are there, Globally and Regionally? 145 4.5.1 Global Biodiversity 145 4.5.2 Biological Diversity at National Level (Indian Biodiversity) 147 4.5.3 Regional or Local Biodiversity 148 46 Indiaasa Mega-diversity Nation 148 <4V What are Hotspots of Biodiversity? 150 4.7.1 Indo-Burma Hot Spot 153 4.7.2 Western Ghats Hot Spot 154 4.73 Eastern Himalayas Hot Spot 155 43 What are the Major Threats to Biodiversity? 156 48.1 Loss of Habitat 157 48.2 Poaching 157 4a Are Man-Wildlife Conflicts a Hindrance to Conservation? 158 4.10 Which Species have Become Endangered inIndia? 16) 41° What are the Major E; ndemic Species of India? 164b ~ (xvii) 5. 4.12 How should we Conserve Biodiversity? 165 AWE In Situ Conservation 166 42,2 Ex Situ Conservation 167 Questions 168 Objective Type Questions 169 Environmental Pollution 173-232 S47 What is Environmental Pollution? 173 32 What is Air Pollution? 173 3, What is Noise Pollution? 183 sh What is Water Pollution? 188 SS What is Waste Water Treatment? 193 5-6 What is Thermal Pollution? 197 5.7 What is Marine Pollution? 200 5.8 What is Soil Pollution? 202 5.9 What are Nuclear Hazards? 204 5.10 What is Solid Waste Management? 206 5.11 What Role an Individual can Play in Prevention of Pollution? 210 5.12 What are Floods? 223 Questions 228 Objective Type Questions 230 Social Issues and the Environment 233-294 6.1 Does Development Lead to Environmental Problems? 233 O27 ‘What is Sustainable Development? 233 6.3 What are the Urban Problems Related to Energy? 237 6.4 How can we Conserve Water? 238 9% What is Rainwater Harvesting? 240 6.6 What is a Watershed and What are Watershed Management Practices? 243 6.7 What are the Major Development Related Resettlement and Rehabilitation Issues? 246 6.8 What is the Relevance of Environmental Ethics to Environmental Protection? 251 6.9 What is Global Climate Change Problem? 253 6.9.1 What are Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming? 255“4.1 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT? Everything that surrounds and affects living organisms is environ- ment, ‘Environment is derived from the French word Environner, which means to encircle or surround. All the biological and non-biological entities surrounding us are included in environment. As per the definition given in Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, environment includes all the physical and biological surroundings of an organism along with their interactions. Environment is thus defined as “the sum total of water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exist among them and with the human beings, other living organisms and materials.” The concept of environment can be clearly understood from Fig, 1.1. Fig. 1.1 Concept of Environment: air, water, land, living organisms and materials surrounding us and their interactions together constitute our environment. ee 1 ——« ee Figure 1.1 depicts the environment of cn ater and land surrounding us constitute our environment, environmen, directly. At the same time we too have an influence on ow ine by overuse or over-exploitation of resources or by discharge of pollutants in the air, water and land. The flora, fauna and sieahcmris as well as the man-made structures in our surroundings ave a bi-directional interaction with us directly or indirectly, The totality of all these components and their interactions constitute the environment, Does urban environment differ from rural environment? Urban environment differs from rural environment as there is profound influence of human beings in the former. Most of the natural landscapes in cities have been changed and modified by man-made artificial structures like multi-storeyed buildings, commercial complexes, factories, transportation networks and so on. Urban air, water and soil are loaded with various types of chemicals and wastes. Diversity of plants and animals is much less as compared to rural environment, Urban population is more dense and has greater energy demands. Consumerism is very high in urban environment, 4 1.2. HOW IS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ” MULTI-DISCIPLINARY IN NATURE? Environment is complex and Environmental studies deal has multifarious aspects. with working of earth, its life-support influences, its problems and solutions, Keeping , knowledge and information , SOcial science, i in Environmental Studies t completely, Figure 1,2 depicts the multi-dis mental studies, Physics, chemistry, raphy and 8eograp| ° Mathematics, effective tools Se of the basic concept of atmospheric Scienc, eeoloey, €, Oceano- Statistics and computer Science likewise serve as 1 environmental Modeling,Envitohmienlal Stildies =X WhallasepUnery. SUBeeee 3D ife Sciences ysical Sciences Biology, Biochemistry, Physics, Chemistry, Earth Science, Microbiology, Atmospheric Science, Oceanography, Biotechnology, etc. Geography etc Basic and Applied Studies Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Hydraulics, Nanotechnology, otc. Fig. 1.2 Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies. © Subjects like economics, management and sociology provide the inputs for dealing with the socio-economic aspects associated with various development activities. « A synthesis of civil engineering, hydraulics, chemical engineering and nanotechnology provide the technical solutions to environmental pollution control and waste treatment that are extremely important for protection of the environment. e Environmental laws provide the guidelines and legal measures for effective management and protection of the environment. e Environmental education and mass communication are two important subjects that are instrumental in disseminating environmental awareness. ¢ Environmental ethics provide the guidelines for a sustainable life style. Environmental sciences, therefore, is a multi-disciplinary subject where we deal with different aspects using a holistic approach. "4.3 WHAT IS THE SCOPE OF ,_. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES? Due to its complex and multi-disciplinary nature environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It encompasses a large number of areas and aspects, which may be summarized as follows: e Natural Resources—their conservation and management. e Ecology and biodiversity, e Environmental pollution and control.j ae Chapter T « Social issues in relation to development and environment e Human population and environment These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance to every section of the society, Environmental Studies can also be highly specialized concentrating on more technical aspects like environmental science, environmental engineering or environmental} management In the recent years, the scope of environmental studies has expanded dramatically the world over. Several career options haye emerged in this field that are broadly categorized as: (i) Research & Development (R & D) in environment: Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R & D activities for developing cleaner technologies and promoting sustainable development. There is a need for trained manpower at every level to deal with environmental issues. Environmental management and environmental engineering are emerging as new career opportunities for environmental protection and management, With the pollution control laws becoming more stringent, industries are finding it difficult to dispose off the wastes : produced. In order to avoid expensive litigation, companies ‘ are now trying to adopt green technologies, which would reduce pollution. Investing in pollution control technologies will reduce pollution j as well as cut on costs for effluent treatment. Market for pollution control technology is increasing the world over. | Cleaning up of the wastes produced is another potential market. It is estimated to be more than $ 100 billion per year for all American business, Germany and Japan having more stringent laws for many years have gained more experience in reducing effluents. Still there is a $ 200 billion market for cleaning up the former East Germany alone. In India also the Pollution Control Boards are seriously implementing pollution control laws and insisting on upgradation of effluents to meet the prescribed standards before they are discharged on land or into a water body. Many companies not complying with the orders have been closed or ordered to shift, j (i) Green advocacy: With increasing emphasis on implementing | various Acts and Laws related to environment, need forEnvirdnine tal Shud@e =A” MAMLLE TERY SLE environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to plead the cases related to water and air pollution, forest, wildlife etc. (ii) Green marketing; While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing emphasis on marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have ecomark or ISO 14000 certification. Environmental auditors and environmental managers would be in great demand in the coming years. (iv) Green media: Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like television, radio, newspaper, magazines, hoardings, advertisements etc. for which environmentally educated persons are required. (») Environment consultancy: Many non-government organisations (NGOs), industries and government bodies are engaging environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling environment related problems. Environment belongs to all, influences all and is important to all. Whatever be the occupation or age of a person, he/she will be affected by environment and also he/she will affect the environment by his/her deeds. That is why it becomes very necessary to make everyone aware and conscious about the importance of environment. There is an internationally observed environment calendar to mark some important aspect or issue of environment, so that people think, discuss, carry out campaigns and act for the cause of those environmental issues. Global vs. Local Importance of Environment Environment is one subject that is actually global as well as local in nature. Issues like global warming, depletion of ozone layer, dwindling forests and energy resources, loss of global biodiversity etc. which are going to affect the mankind as a whole are global in nature and for that we have to think and plan globally. However, there are some environmental problems which are of localized importance. For dealing with local environmental issues, e.g. impact of mining or hydro-electric project in an area, problems of disposal and management of solid waste, river or lake pollution, soilEnvironmental Calendar World Wetland Day February 2 World Forest Day March 21 World Day for Water March 22 World Meteorological Day March 23 Earth Day April 22 International Biodiversity Day May 22 Anti-tobacco Day May 31 World Environment Day June § World Ocean Day June 8 World Population Day duly 11 Ozone Week Sept. 16-23 World Car-free Day Sept. 22 Green Consumer Day Sept. 28 World Farm Animal's Day Oct. 2 World Habitat Day Oct. 3 World Animal Welfare Day Oct. 4 Wildlife Week Oct. 1-7 World Conservation Day Oct. 24 Intemational Day for Natural Disaster Reduction Oct. 13 International Day for Dec. 29 Biological Diversity erosion, water logging and salinization of soil, fluorosis problem in local population, arsenic pollution of groundwater etc., we have to think and@act locally. In order to make people aware about those aspects of environment with which they are so intimately associated, it is very important to make every one environmentally educated. individualistic Importance of Environment Environmental studies are very important since it deals with the most mundane problems of life where each individual matters, like dealing with safe and clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions, clean and fresh air, fertile land, healthy food and sustainable development. If we want to live in a clean, healthy, aesthetically beautiful, safe and secure environment for a long time and wish to hand over a clean and safe earth to our children, grandchildren and great grandchildren, it is most essential to understand the basics of environment.Enolromiifital Siudice “A Mulia sepIaAy Sabet 79 r /1.5 WHAT IS THE NEED FOR PUBLIC i AWARENESS? There is a chinese proverb “If you plan for one year plant rice, if you plan for 10 years plant trees, and if you plan for 100 years, educate people”. Tf we want to protect and sustain our earth, we have no other Option but to make everyone environmentally educated. It is absolutely essential to create awareness about environment because: « Rapidly changing technologies lead to abandoned wastes. In modern era of development there is greater inclination for adopting the latest product of technological advancement and discarding the older one as obsolete. People change their cars, mobile phones, computers, i-pads and electronic goods within a few years, thus adding to the vast e-waste stream. ¢ Our fast and energy demanding life style pollutes the environment. To keep pace with the fast and busy life, people have become increasingly dependent on machines to get the work done fast and make life more comfortable for us. But all these machines are energy demanding. Over-dependence on machines not only increases resource-depletion and energy consumption, but also directly or indirectly affect our health. The electromagnetic radiations from mobile towers and cell- phones, the toxic gases released from industries, noise produced by various activities and polluted water can seriously affect human health along with that of other animals and plants. People should know the impacts of all such anthropogenic activities. e Crazy consumerism leads to environmental dagradation. There is a sharp increase in consumerism. With increasing buying capacity people have started over-consumption. No doubt, it is good to have a good standard of living, which is achieved through technological development. But, the wasteful life style of people leads to environmental degradation. Itis important to make people aware about the harmful effects of environmental pollution on human health. At the same time, people should know how their activities influence the environment. e The earth has a definite capacity to tolerate pollutants and sustain populations. Beyond that the earth cannot assimilatesup wastes and support life. How the earth’s life support system works, what is the structure of its system and what are the principles on which it works are very important subjects that everyone should know. It is equally important to know what should be done to Protect the earth and our environment. Thus environmental studies is a very important and the most fascinating subject that is directly concerned with everyone 1.5.1 WHAT MESSAGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVas. TION DO WE GET FROM OUR CULTURAL HERITAGE? Indian culture is based on principles of environmental conservation, Our vedas have glorified every aspect of Nature including sun, water, rivers, mountains, animals and plants as gods and goddesses, so that people have a feeling of reverance for nature. Our social customs and rituals make us care for flora and fauna. Our ancient teachings preach tolerance, contentment and helpfulness, which lead to sustainable life- style. 3 Religions like Buddhism and Jainism call for non-violence and use of minimal resources. There are innumerable examples and quotes that point towards care for mother earth. The teachings of the 15th century saint environmentalist Guru Jambheshwar Ji have remarkable significance for environmental conservation. He preached about conservation of biodiversity and a creed of Bishnois was created who followed his 29 commandments. In those time he could forsee that if trees are protected, wild Fig: 1.3 Guru Jambheshwar— life would be sustained and people would Saaieerainantanes survive. There is an unparalleled example of sacrifice by 363 bishnoi women and men who laid down their lives protecting the ‘Khejri’ tree in Rajasthan. The popular “Chipko Movement” of 1973 derived inspiration from those great sacrifices of 1730, led by Amrita Devi who laid her life saying “If a tree is saved from felling at the cost of one’s head, it should be considered as a cheap bargaining”. 1.5.2 INDIAN ENVIRONMENTALISTS IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES ARE ALSO WORKING FOR THE CAUSE OF ENVIRONMENT Let us see some of the important contributions by such personalities.Enoironimichlal” Skudies “A” MAIMidiSEpORIRY SUOEE 9 In modern India, our late Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi was instrumental in introducing the concept of environmental protection in the Constitution of India as a fundamental duty. * Justice Kuldeep Singh, known popularly as the green judge and Sh.M.C. Mehta, the green advocate, have immensely contributed to the cause of environment. In 1991, the Supreme Court of our country issued directives to make all curricula environment-oriented. This directive was, in fact, in response toa Public Interest Litigation (PIL) filed by M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India (1988) that prompted the apex court to give a mandate for creating environmental awareness among all citizens of India. Based on the judgement by Sh. Kuldeep Singh, Environmental Studies are now being taught as a compulsory course to all students. e Sh. Sunderlal Bahuguna is known for his ‘Chipko movement’ and ‘Tehri Bachao Andolan’. * e Smt. Medha Patekar and Ms. Arundhati Roy are known for their ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’. e* ‘The Magsaysay awardee Sh. Rajender Singh is known for his water conservation efforts and popularly known as ‘Water Man of India’. e Mrs. Maneka Gandhi, former environment minister, has worked a lot for the cause of wildlife protection. e Late Sh. Anil Aggarwal, the founder Chairman of Centre for Science & Environment published the first Citizens Report on Environment. e Sh. GD. Aggarwal, a reknowned scientist and a civil engineer has been deeply involved in ‘Ganga Bachao Andolan’. The veteran octagenarian technocrat is fighting to prevent building of hydroelectric dams on upstreams of Ganga. Fighting for this cause he got transformed as a saint, now named as Swami Gyan Swaroop Sanand. 1.5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN AND RECOGNITION AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL Environmental issues received international attention about 35 years back in Stockholm Conference, held on Sth June, 1972. Since then all over the world we celebrate World Environment Day on 5th June. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio de Jeneiro, in 1992, known popularly as Earth Summit, and ten years later, the World Summit on Sustainable Development, &Environmental Studies "10 Chapter 1 “| eld at Johannesberg in 2002, key issues of global environmenta, concern were highlighted. Attention of general public was drawn towards the deteriorating environmental conditions all over the world, Award of the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004 and 2007 to environmentalists shows increasing global concern towards ues and recognition to efforts being made for environmental is environmental conservation and protection. NOBEL PEACE PRIZE, 2004 AND 2007 FOR ENVIRONMENTALISTS The 2004 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Kenyan Environmentalist Wangari Maathai for her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace. This is the greatest recognition given to the cause of environment at international level. The Norwegian Nobel Committee, while awarding the prize, expressed the views “Peace on Earth depends on our ability to secure our living Environment”. Wangari Maathai (1940-2011) Maathai, Kenya’s Deputy Environment Minister is the founder of Kenya based Green Belt Movement. This movement comprising mainly of women has planted about 30 million trees across Africa. | This has helped in slowing desertification, preserving forest habitats | for wildlife and food for future generations and has helped combat | Poverty. Maathai has given a beautiful slogan we plant the seeds of peace”. “When we plant new trees, | Former US vice-president Al Gore R.K. PachauriEnvironmental Studies—A Mlliidisciplinary. Subject 1H Nobel peace prize, 2007 was awarded jointly to in peovero Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) headed by Indian Environmentalist Dr. R.K. Pachauri, and former US vice- _ President Al Gore. IPCC, the UN body comprising of 3,000 experts from fields is an authority on global warming and its impacts. ‘The award to IPCC is in appreciation of its efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change and tolay the foundation for the measures that are needed to counteract such change. Al Gore is “probably the single individual who has done most to create greater world-wide understanding to the measures that need to be adopted,” observed the Norwegian Nobel Committee while naming the joint winner of the award. 1.5.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION EFFORTS AT NATIONAL LEVEL A full fledged ministry named Ministry of Environment and Forests, (MoEF) since 1986, is looking after all environment related issues and framing guidelines, policies and legislations for environmental protection. Concept of Ecomark: In order to increase consumer awareness about environment, the Government of India has introduced a scheme of eco- labelling of consumer products as ‘Ecomark’ in 1991. It is an ‘earthen pitcher’—a symbol of eco- friendliness and our traditional heritage. A product that is made, used or disposed off ina harmless = manner is called eco-friendly and is awarded this eco- mark. Eco-clubs: The MoFF has set up Eco-clubs in schools for involving school children in environmental protection activities like tree plantation and for awareness drives. Children are encouraged to participate in environmental awareness compaigns on Earth Day, World \, Environment Day and World Day for Fig. 4.5 An Environmentally aware ‘Water. child will grow up as an Earth citizen. Fig. 1.4 Ecomark of India |oN Feo-task force: Army men are involved in various environmen; 12 Chapter 1 protection activites under the Eco-task force. situation, Only when each one of us is aware about earth, its work} : } principles, its influence on us and our impact on it, we would be able tg \ 4 think in eco-friendly way, id For achieving the goals of environmental protection, the efforts ™ by government alone are not enough, The mind-set of people, thejy life-style and approach are very important and for this environmenta} awareness and education would play the most important role, | Environmentalism should not be taken asa ‘fashion’, It is real-life Fig. 1.6 School children on an Environmental Campaign on ‘World Environment Day’ Participation of youth and small children in various environmental. ‘compaigns has increased over the years, which is a welcome sign. It is ‘because the younger generation that is growing in a technologically advanced era has to face the consequences of degrading environment that has to be tackled well in timer with a ‘green mind’. vironmental studies? i plines contribute to environmental _Environmerital Studice—A Multidiseipltnary Gilbject ~~ 13% A. FILL IN THE BLANKS 1. Environment is derived from the French word ......... , which means to encircle or surround. 2. World Environment Day is celebrated on ......... i 3. The UN conference on Environment and Development was held at .....6 + 4. ......... was the saint environmentalist of 15th century who founded Bishnoi creed. 5. Environment friendly products are given ISO.......... certification. B. CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWER 1. UN conference on Environment in 1972 was held at: YayRio de Janeiro (0) Stockholm (c) Geneva (d) Johannesberg 2. Nobel Peace Prize of 2004 was awarded to: (a) Al Gore (b)-Wangari Mathaai (©) R.K. Pachauri (dq) C.V. Raman 3. R.K. Pachauri headed which body, for whose work on climate change Nobel Prize was awarded? (a) TERI (6) UNEP fer IPCC (@ IUCN 4. World population day is celebrated on (a) March 21 (6) April 22 ‘) July 11 (ad September 28 §. June 5 is celebrated as: Md) World Environment Day (5) World Water Day (c) World Forest Day (d) World Ocean Day 6. Ecomark of our country is: (a) Earthen mug roe Earthen pitcher : (c) Earthen saucer (d Earthen lamp . 7. The Magsaysay Awardee known popularly as “Water Man of India” is: (a) Sunder Lal Bahuguna (6) Anil Aggarwal (c) Medha Patkar \(P-Rajender SinghEnvironmental Studies 4 Chapter 1 8. The scientist turned saint, who has been fighting for Protection of nver Ganga is Ady G.D. Aggarwal (6) Anil Aggarwal (©) Sunita Narain (d) Arundhati Ray 9%. Sunder Lal Bahuguna is famous for (a) Narmada Bachao Andolan \(4Y Tehri Bachao Andolan (c) Ganga Bachao Andolan (@ None of these 10. Sept. 16-23 is observed as: (ay Ozone week (6) Wild life week (©) Briodiversity week (d) Disaster Reduction week C. WRITE TRUE OR FALSE | 1. Environment includes all biological organisms, air, water and soil surrounding us, but not the material structures like buildi es. (True/False) 2. Environment in urban areas has high energy demands and dense population. (Trte/False) 3. Market for Pollution Control Technology has remained stable for the last few decades. (True/False) 4. With enforcement of environmental! legislation, need for environmental advocates has increased. (True/False) 5. Wangari Mathaai was awarded Nobel Prize for Peace due to her work on Green Belt Movement. (True/False) 6. PIL filed by Sh. Kuldeep Singh ultimately led to introduction of environmental studies as a compulsory subject at all levels. (True/False) 7. IPCC has prepared very important report on climate change issues. (True/False) A. Fill in the Blanks 1. environner 2. Sth June 3. Rio de Janciro 4, Guru Jambheshwar Ji Maharaj 5. ISO-14000Chapter Natural Resources 2.1. WHAT IS A RESOURCE? ™ Life on this planet earth depends upon a variety of goods and services provided by the nature, which are known as Natural resources, Water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are all examples of natural resources. Any stock or reserve that can be drawn from nature is a natural resource. Natural resources are of two kinds: e Renewable resources which are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of time e.g. forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc. Solar energy is also a renewable form of energy as it is an inexhaustible source of energy. e Non-renewable resources which cannot be regenerated e.g. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be replenished. Even our renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such extent that their rate of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration. For example, if a species is exploited so much that its population size declines below the threshold level then it is able to sustain itself and gradually the species becomes endangered or extinct, Itis very important to protect and conserve Our natural resources and use them in a judicious manner so that we do not exhaust them, It does not mean that we should stop using most of the natural resources. Rather, we should use the Tesources in such a way that we always save enough of them for our future generations. In this unit we shall discuss the major natural resources: (A) Forest resources (B) Water resources (C) Mineral resources 16“Natural (D) Food resources (E) Energy resources (F) Land resources. 2.2 FOREST RESOURCES Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. Covering the carth like a green blanket these forests not only produce pee innumerable material goods, but also provide several environmental services which are essential for life. Fig. 2.1 Forests give us a variety of valuable gifts as materials and services About 1/3rd of the world’s land area is forested which includes closed as well as open forests. Former USSR accounts for about a Sth of the world’s forests, Brazil for about a 7th and Canada and USA each for 6-7%. But it is a matter of concern that almost everywhere the cover of the natural forests has declined over the years. The greatest losses have occurred in tropical Asia where one third of the forest resources have been destroyed. However, latest reports reveal that maximum loss of forest cover is currently taking place in Brazil. 2.2.1 WHAT ARE THE USES OF FORESTS? Forests have enormous potential for human welfare, wildlife and the environment. Forests are of immense value to us. They are not only useful for industry but also for rural economic growth. They offer huge potential for reducing poverty while also conserving their valuable key resources. Figure 2.2 compares the value of a tree in terms of economic products and environmental services.18 Chapter 2 Commercial uses Environmental uses (Approx. annual VaIUE £10 fagg (Approx_annual value £30,000) Timber 4 > Rlegulates water Pulpwood + Produces o» Fruits, condiments Atmore mae spices, beverages hee htm 8 Sink of Ca Fodder sate rn Rubber, gum warming) J Fibres <— Habitat for witatte | Drugs and Medicines Conservation of soi Minerals Fig. 2.2 Economic vs. Environmental value of a tree. (2) Commercial uses: Forests provide us a large number of commercial goods which include timber, firewood, pulpwood, food items, gum, resins, non-edible oils, rubber, fibers, lac, bamboo canes, fodder, medicine, drugs and many more items. Half of the timber cut each year is used as fuel for heating and cooking. One third of the wood harvest is used for building materials as lumber, plywood and hardwood, particle board and chipboard. One sixth of the wood harvest is converted into pulp and used for paper industry. Many forest lands are used for mining, agriculture, grazing” and recreation and for development of dams. (b) Ecological Uses: While a typical tree produces commercial goods worth about %30,000 it provides environmental services worth nearly 710,0000. The ecological services provided by our forests may be summed up as follows: e Production of oxygen: The trees produce oxygen by photosynthesis which is so vital for life on this earth. They are rightly called as earth’s lungs. « Reducing global warming: The main greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO,) is absorbed by the forests as a raw material for photosynthesis. Thus forest canopy acts as a sink for co, thereby reducing the problem of global warming caused by greenhouse gas CO,. e Wildlife habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants. About 7 million species are found in the tropical forests alone.= Nabiiral Resources 19) © Regulation of hydrological cycle: Forested watersheds act like giant sponges, absorbing the rainfall, slowing down the runoff and slowly releasing the water for recharge of springs About 50-80 % of the moisture in the air above tropical forests comes from their transpiration which helps in bringing rains. Thus, they influence local and regional climatic conditions. ¢ Soil conservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil erosion. They also act as wind- || breaks. ¢ Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air pure. They have also been | reported to absorb noise and thus help in preventing air and | noise pollution. e Driving energy flow and nutrient cycling: Their huge biomass ~ and enormous biological and biochemical diversity support energy flow and nutrient cycling. 2.2.2 ARE WE OVER-EXPLOITING OUR FORESTS? Forests have been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been exploited since early times for their vast potential. Exploitation of forests has taken place to meet human demands in the following ways: e Due to wood cutting and large scale logging for raw materials like timber, pulp wood, fuel wood etc. e Deforestation due to road construction. e Clearing of forests to create more agricultural lands to meet the food demands of growing population. e Encroachment of forests leading to destruction of about 1.36 million hectares of forests (2002). « About 78% of forest area is under heavy grazing. e Mining activities lead to clearing of forests. e Big hydropower projects result in large scale destruction of forests. As a result of exploitation, the tropical forest cover in India (89,500 km?) is now only reduced to the Coastal Western Ghats and Northeast India and is suffering degradation. Very little of Indian forests are pristine. The potential of forests must be tapped and nurtured, but we must stop over-exploitation. A recent World Bank study (2004) shows that if we unlock the opportunities for the people of India from itsfo Chapter 2 forests, there will be a boost in economy from the current 222 mitt, US dollars to 2 billion US dollars in the next 15 years. However, the exploitation needs to be balanced with conservation efforts, In India, Joint Forest Management has come up as an innovative approach involving community participation, so that the Tura economy Is strengthened as well as forest resources are conserveq through public involvement. eter } 3 DEFORESTATION: HOW SEVERE IS THE PROBLEM? Deforestation rate is relatively less in temperate countries, but j is very alarming in tropical countries. The total forest area of the worig in 1900 was estimated to be 7,000 million hectares which was reduceq to 2890 million ha in 1975 and fell down to just 2,300 million ha § 2000. We have already cut half of these forests and at the present rate it is estimated that in the next 60 years we would lose more than 90 percent of our tropical forests. The forested area in India seems to have stabilized since 1982 with about 0.04% decline annually between 1982-90. FAO (1983) estimated that about 1.44 m ha of land was brought under afforestation during this period leading to stabilization. As per FAO estimates, the deforestation rate per unit population in India is the lowest amongst \ the major tropical countries, despite the fact that we have a huge population size and very low per capita forest area (0.075 ha per capita), However, we are still far behind the target of achieving 33% forest area, as per our National Forest Policy. Some important forest figures for India are given in tabular form here. INDIAN FOREST STATISTICS (2009) Total Geographic area 3,287,263 km? Total Forest area 690,899 km? (21.02% of total area) Forest classes: S.No. Category Area (km?) Percentage 1 Very dense 83,510 2.54 2. Moderately dense 319,012 971 j 3. Open forests 288,377 8.77 ! 4, Scrub lands 41,525 1.26 Source : India State of Forest Report, 2009 Ministry of Environment & Forests, Gol.Natural Resources 21" Despite increasing awareness about importance of forest, defor- estation rates continue to increase. e Each day about 32,300 ha of forest disappear from the Earth and an equal area of forest suffers degradation. ¢ During 2000-2005, the tropical deforestation rate increased by 8.5% as compared to 1990's deforestation rates ¢ Loss of primary forests have increased by an alarming 25% e Further, primary forests are being replaced by plantations with much less biodiversity. ¥ i What are the major causes of deforestation? () Shifting cultivation: There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting cultivators who practice slash and burn agriculture and are supposed to clear more than 5 lakh ha of forests for shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice in North-east and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P. which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually. (ii) Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in India alone shot up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65 million tons during independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests. (ci) Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-sleepers, plywood, match-boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood is in great demand for packing tea for Tea industry of Assam while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for packing apples in J&K. (iv) Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occur for various development projects like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining etc. (v) Growing food needs: In developing countries this is the main reason for deforestation. To meet the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests. (vt) Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading to loss of tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into grazing lands. Overgrazing by the cattle leads to further degradation of these lands. (vit) Forest fires: These may be natural or man made, and cause huge forest loss. Natural ResourcesNatural Resources. 22 Chapter 2 What are the consequences of deforestation? Deforestation has far reaching consequences, which may be Outlinteg as follows: () It threatens the existence of many wildlife species due to destruction of their natural habitat. (/) Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity is eroded. (it) Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfall, (iv) Problems of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility increase, (v) In hilly areas it often leads to landslides. (v/) More carbon is added to the atmosphere and global warming is enhanced. CASE STUDIES e Desertification in hilly regions of the Himalayas Deforestation in Himalayas, involving clearance of natural forests and plantation of monocultures like Pinus roxburghi, Eucalyptus camadulensis etc. have upset the ecosystem by changing various soil (edaphic) and biological properties. Nutrient cycling has become poor, original rich germplasm is lost and the area is invaded by exotic weeds. These areas are not able to recover and are losing their fertility. The entire west Khasi hill district of Meghalaya in North-east Himalayas, Ladakh and parts of Kumaon and Garhwal are now facing the serious problem of desertification. e Disappearing tea gardens in Chhota Nagpur This hilly region used to be a good forested area towards the turn of the century and used to receive fairly frequent afternoon showers favouring tea plantations. Following the destruction of forests, rainfall declined in Chhota Nagpur to such an extent that tea-gardens also disappeared from the region, ¢ Waning rainfall in Udhagamandalam (Ooty) The sub normal rainfall-Guring 1965-84 at Ooty in Nilgiri mountains was found to be closely associated with declining forest cover in this region in the past 20 years. The rainfall pattern was found to fluctuate with wooded land area in the hills, When the Nilgiri mountains had luxuriant forest cover annual rainfall used to be much higher.Natural Resources 23 2.2.4 WHAT ARE THE MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN FORESTS? Timber Extraction: Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines etc. Also road construction for making approach to the trees causes further damage to the forests. Wood removal in 2005 is estimated to be 1.3 m? in India. Fig. 2.3 Logging is a major activity in forests. Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits is done by sub-surface mining. More than 80,000 ha of land of the country is presently under the stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area Large scale deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminate mining of various minerals over a length of about 40 km. The forested area has declined at an average rate of 33% and the increase in non-forest area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to landslides Indiscriminate mining in forests of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50,000 ha of forest land. Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj and Singrauli areas have caused extensive deforestation in Jharkhand. Mining of magnesite and soap-stones have destroyed 14 ha of forest in the hill slopes at Khirakot, Kosi valley in Almora. Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka is posing similar threats of deforestation. The rich forests of Western Ghats Natural Resources:Natural Resources 24 Chapter 2 ire also facing the same threat duc to mining projects for €xcay of copper, chromite, bauxite and magnetite. Vation 2.2.5 BIG DAMS IN FOREST AREAS: WHAT ARE THE May PROBLEMS? CR Dams have their Effects on Forests and People Big dams and river valley projects have multi-purpose uses and hi; been referred to as “Temples of modern India”. However, these qi’ are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forests, ms India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being the state of Maharashtra (more than 600), followed by Gujarat (mo," than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130). The highest one is Tehri day. on river Bhagirathi in Uttarakhand and the largest in terms of capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in Himachal Pradesh. Big dams have been in sharp focus of various environmental] groups all over the world which is mainly because of several ecologicaj problems including deforestation and socio-economic problems related to tribal or native people associated with them. The Silent Valley hydroelectric project was one of the first such projects situated in the tropical rain forest area of Western Ghats which attracted much concern of the people. The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Tehri dam was led by Sh. Sunder Lal Bahuguna, the leader of Chipko movement. Likewise, the cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues has been taken up by the environmental activists Medha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Roy and Baba Amie. Fig. 2.4 Big dams provide clean energy-but have environmental impacts. For building big dams, large scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods,Natural Resources 2 droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such areas. Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying these ( particularly, the tropical rain forests) we are going to lose these species even before knowing them. These species could be having marvelous economic or medicinal value. This storehouse of species which have evolved over millions of years get lost due to deforestation in a single stroke. | Sardar Sarovar Dam (Uprooted forests and tribals): | A case study | The dam is situated on river Narmada and is spread over three | states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Although the project is aimed at providing irrigation water, drinking water and electricity to the three states, the environmental impacts of the project have raised some challenging questions. A total of 1,44,731 ha of land is submerged by the dam, out of which 56,547 ha is forest land. A total of 573 villages are submerged by the Narmada Dam. Submergence of about 40,000 ha of forest under Narmada Sagar, 13,800 ha under Sardar Sarovar and 2,500 ha under Omkareshwar would further create pressure on remaining forest areas in adjoining areas. Submergence area is very rich in wildlife e.g. tigers, panthers, bears, wolves, pangolins, hyenas, jackals, flying squirrels, antelopes, black bucks, chinkara, marsh crocodiles, turtles etc. Many of these species are listed in schedule I & II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Thus massive loss of these wildlife species is apprehended due to the devastation of the forest under the project. As per the estimates of the Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, the Narmada valley project will lead to eventual displacement of more than one million people, which is probably the largest rehabilitation issue ever encountered as per the World Bank. Uprooting of the tribals and their forced shifting in far- flung areas may not be easily adjusted to. Besides serious economic deprivation, the displacement will affect the tribal peoples’ culture, their beliefs, myths and rituals, festivals, songs and dances, all closely associated with the hills, forest and streams. Most of these tribals belong to poor, unprivileged schedule castes and tribes who are being uprooted from a place where they have lived for generations. (Contd.Re Chapter The displaced persons have to undergo hardship and distress for the sake of development and prosperity of a larger section of the society. It is therefore the duty of the project proponents and government to pay maximum attention for proper rehabilitation of the displaced tribals. d 2.3 WATER RESOURCES i Water is an indispensable natural resource on this earth on which all life depends. About 97% of the earth’s surface is covered by water and most of the animals and plants have 60-65% water in their body, 4 Natural Resources “2.3.1 WATER IS AN UNIQUE RESOURCE Water is characterized by certain unique features which make it a marvellous resource: (It exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperature i.e, from 0°C to 100°C. (ii) It has the highest specific heat, due to which it warms up and cools down very slowly without causing shocks of temperature jerks to the aquatic life. (ii) It has a high latent heat of vaporization. Hence, it takes a huge amount of energy for getting vaporized. That’s why it produces a cooling effect as it evaporates. (iv) It is an excellent solvent for several nutrients. Thus, it can serve as a very good carrier of nutrients, including oxygen, which are essential for life. But, it can also easily dissolve various pollutants and become a carrier of pathogenic microorganisms. (v) Due to high surface tension and cohesion it can easily rise through great heights through the trunk even in the tallest of the trees like Sequoia. (vs) It has an anamolous expansion behaviour i.e, as it freezes, it expands instead of contracting and thus becomes lighter. It is because of this property that even in extreme cold, the lakes freeze only on the surface, Being lighter the ice keeps floating, whereas the bottom waters remain at a higher temperature and therefore, can sustain aquatic organisms even in extreme cold.eee Ralural Resources 27) 2.3.2 THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE CONTINUOUSLY PURIFIES, RECYCLES AND DISTRIBUTES FRESH WATER The water we use keeps on cycling endlessly through the environment, which we call as Hydrological Cycle, We have enormous resources of water on the earth amounting to about 1404 million km’. The water from various moist and wet surfaces evaporates and falls again on the earth in the form of rain or snow and passes through living jy Organisms and ultimately returns to the oceans, Every year about 1.4 i inch thick layer of water evaporates from the oceans, more than 90% of which returns to the oceans through the hydrological cycle. Solar energy drives the water cycle by evaporating it from various water bodies, which subsequently return through rainfall or snow. Plants too play a very important role by absorbing the groundwater from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration. Global distribution of water resources is quite uneven depending upon several geographic factors. Tropical rain forest areas receive maximum rainfall while the major world deserts occur in zones of dry, descending air (20-40° N and S) and receive very little rainfall. 2.3.3 WATER AVAILABILITY Although water is abundant on this earth, yet it is very precious. Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97.4% is salty water (marine) and only 2.6% is fresh water. Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us as most of it is locked up in polar ice caps (1.98%) and just 0.6% is readily available to us in the form of groundwater and surface water (rivers and lakes), water in atmosphere and in the living organisms. Ground water 0.592% Biota 0.001% Rivers 0.0001% ‘Atmospheric moisture Readily available °-001% fresh water Fresh water Global water Fig. 2.5 Distribution of global water. Oceans: Oceans are ultimate sinks for all types of water. About 97.4% of total water is present in oceans. Salt content of oceans is S 4.90 Be. veNatural sma RB Chapier2 about 3.5%. Sea water is not fit for human consumption and othe, anthropogenic activities without desalination. , Glaciers and Ice: A major part of available approximately 2.6% of fresh water is locked up into glaciers and ice caps. These occur at high altitute or high latitude. Antarctic glacier contains approximately 85% of all the world’s ice. About 10% is made by greenland ice-sheet and arctic ice, Rest 5% is in the form of snow on mountain peaks, So we have to use this precious fresh water very judiciously ang wisely. As per UN estimates (2005), it is said that 2/3rd of the world population will be suffering from acute water shortage by 2024. Water use and over-exploitation Are we using and managing our water resources sensibly? «Due to its unique properties water is of multiple uses for all living organisms. Water is absolutely essential for life. Most of the life processes take place in water contained in the body. Uptake of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature, and removal of wastes are all mediated through water. Human beings depend on water for almost every developmental activity. Water is used for drinking, irrigation, transportation, washing and waste disposal for industries and used as a coolant for thermal power plants. Water shapes the earth’s surface and regulates our climate. Water use by humans is of two types: (‘) water withdrawal: taking water from groundwater or surface water resource and (if) water consumption: the water which is taken up but not returned for reuse. Globally, only about 60 percent of the water withdrawn is consumed. Rest is lost through evaporation. With increasing population pressure and rapid development, the demands for water withdrawal have increased tremendously. e Ona global average 70% of water withdrawn is used for agriculture. In India 93% water is used in agriculture. In Kuwait, a water-poor country, only 4% water is used in crop lands. e Ona global average, 25% of water is used in industrial sector. In European countries more than 70% of water withdrawn is used in agriculture, while it is only 5% in less developed countries. Per capita use of water varies largely in different countries. An average family of 4 persons in USA uses 1000 m3 of water, which is many times higher than that in developing countries.Natural Resources ~~ 29° 2.3.4 WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF FRESHWATER? Groundwater We get freshwater from groundwater and surface water. About 0.59 of the total water resources is in the form of groundwater and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplies. Till some time back groundwater was considered to be very pure. However, of late, ¢ven groundwater aquifers have been found to be contaminated by leachates from sanitary landfills etc A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called an aquifer. Layers of sand and gravel are good aquifers while clay and crystalline rocks (like granite) are not since they have low permeability, Aquifers may be of two types: Unconfined aquifers which are overlaid by permeable earth ». materials and they are recharged by water seeping down from above in the form of rainfall and snow melt. Confined aquifers which are sandwiched between two impermeable layers of rock or sediments and are recharged only in those areas where the aquifer intersects the land surface. Sometimes the recharged area is hundreds of kilometers away from the location of the well. Figure 2.6 shows the groundwater system. Groundwater is not static, it moves, though at a very slow rate of about a meter or so ina year. A, > Unconfined aquifer recharge area HEE LECLLE. Evapotranspiration Precipitation i/¢C4! trom croplands Evaporation ‘a 7 Evaporation frpm stream Unconfined aquifer (Water table) Confined aquiter Less permeable material \ Fig. 2.6 The groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer (water table) is formed when water collects over a rock or compact clay. Aconfined aquifer is formed sandwiched between two layers having very low permeability. Natural Resources, 1BO caer What are the effects of excess usage of ground water? (i) Subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than igg recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer get compacted, 4 phenomenon known as ground subsidence. Huge economic losses may occur due to this phenomenon because it result in the sinking of overlying land surface. The common problems associated with it include structural damage jn buildings, fracture in pipes, reversing the flow of sewers ang canals and tidal flooding. . (i) Lowering of water table: Mining of groundwater is done extensively in arid and semi-arid regions for irrigating crop fields. However, it is not advisable to do excessive mining as it would cause a sharp decline in future agricultural production, due to lowering of water table. (iif) Water logging: When excessiv brackish water it raises the water tal water-logging and salinity problems. (iv) Water pollution: Discharge and dumping of wastes very often seeps down into groundwater causing pollution problems. e irrigation is done with ble gradually leading to Surface Water The water coming through precipitation (rainfall, snow) when does not percolate down into the ground or does not return to the atmos- phere as evaporation or transpiration loss, assumes the form of streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands or artificial reservoirs known as surface water. The surface water is largely used for irrigation, industrial use, public water supply, navigation etc. A country’s economy is largely dependent upon its rivers. All our early civilizations are recorded near big rivers. Even now we find that development activities flourish near rivers. Water rich vs. Water poor countries The top ten water rich countries are Iceland, Surinam, Guyana, Papua New Guinea, Gabon, Solomon Islands, Canada, Norway, Panama, and Brazil lying in the far north and have low evaporation losses. The water poor countries include Kuwait, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Malta, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Maldovia, Israel and Oman, lying in the desert belt at about 15° to 25° Latitude and some of them like Malta and Singapore are densely populated areas resulting in low per capita water.~ Natural Resources "3 2.3.6 FLOODS 's there a relation between human activities and flood? In some countries like India and Bangladesh rainfall does not occur throughout the year, rather, 90% of it is concentrated into a few months (June-September). Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low-lying coastal areas. Prolonged downpour can also cause the over-flowing of lakes and rivers resulting into floods. There are several anthropogenic activities like deforestation, overgrazing, mining, rapid industrialization, global warming etc. that have contributed largely to a sharp rise in the incidence of floods, which otherwise is a natural disaster, Floods have been regular features of some north eastern parts of India and Bangladesh causing huge economic loss as well as loss of life. People of Bangladesh are accustomed to moderate flooding during monsoon and they utilize the flood water for raising paddy. But, severe floods like that in 1970, 1988, 1991, 2008 and 2012, resulting from excessive Himalayan runoff and storms, had very disastrous consequences causing massive deaths and damages. In 1970, about one million people were drowned while 1,40,000 people died in 1991. Networking and inter-linking of rivers is being proposed at national level to deal with the problems of floods. 2.3.6 DROUGHTS Have human activities increased vulnerability to drought? There are about 80 countries in the world, lying in the arid and semi-arid regions that experience frequent spells of droughts, very often extending up to year long duration. When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought conditions are created. Ironically, these drought-hit areas are often having a high population growth which leads to poor land use and makes the situation worse. Anthropogenic causes: Drought is a meteorological pheno- menon, but due to several anthropogenic causes like over grazing, deforestation, mining etc. there is spreading of the deserts tending to convert more areas to drought affected areas. In the last twenty years, India has experienced more and more desertification, thereby increasing the vulnerability of larger parts of the country to droughts.Natural pr Chapter 2 Erroncous and intensive cropping pattern and increageg sources through well or canal Irrigation exploitation of scarce water re: to get high productivity has converted drought-prone areas inty desertified ones, In Maharashtra there has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due to ever-exploitation of water by sugarcane crop which has high water demands Remedial measures: in control of drought ang © Indigenous knowledge desertification can be very useful for de *arefully selected mixed cropping help optimize production ‘aling with the problem, and minimize the risks of crop failures * Social Forestry and Wasteland development can prove quite effective to fight the problem, but it should be based on proper understanding of ecological requirements and natural process, otherwise it may even boomerang. The Kolar district of Karnataka ts one of the leaders in Social Forestry with World Bank Aid, but all its 11 talukas have suffered from drought. It is because the tree used for plantation here was Eucalyptus. It is now known that this tree is responsible for lowering down the water table because of its very high transpiration rate, It is therefore, very important to select the appropriate crop or plantation depending upon the climate, soil type and its water requirements. 2.3.7 CONFLICTS OVER WATER: INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS Indispensability of water and its unequal distribution in different regions has often led to inter-state or international disputes. Issues related to sharing of river water have been largely affecting our farmers and also shaking our governments. Some major water conflicts are INTER-STATE AND discussed here. e The Indus Water Treaty: The Indus, one of the mightiest rivers is dying a slow death due to dams and barrages that have been built higher up on the river. The Sukkur barrage (1932), Ghulam Mohammad Barrage at Kotri (1958) and Tarbela and Chasma Dams on Jhelum, a tributary of Indus have resulted in severe shrinking of the Indus delta. In 1960, the Indus water treaty was established by which Indus, the"Natural Resources 3F4 Jhelum and the Chenab were allocated to Pakistan and the Satluj, the Ravi and the Beas were allocated to India. Being the riparian state, India has pre-emptive right to construct barrages across all these rivers in Indian territory. However, the treaty requires that the three rivers allocated to Pakistan may be used for non-consumptive purposes by India i.e. without changing its flow and quality. With improving political e relations between the two countries it is desirable to work out techno-economic details and go for an integrated development of the river basin in a sustainable manner The Cauvery water dispute: Out of India's 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between different states, In all these cases, there Ee are intense conflicts over these resources which hardly seem é to resolve. The Cauvery river water is a bone of contention between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and the problem is almost hundred years old. Tamil Nadu, occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-use regulated in the upstream. Whereas, the upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its primacy over the river as upstream user. The river water is almost fully utilized and both the states have increasing demands for agriculture and industry. The consumption is more in Tamil Nadu than Karnataka - where the catchment area is more rocky. On June 2, 1990, the Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal was set up which through an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made available in Tamil Nadu’s Mettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached. In 1991-92 due to good monsoon, there was no dispute as there was good stock of water in Mettur, but in 1995, the situation turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert committee was set up to look into the matter which found that there was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery basin. Sambra paddy in winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded intefisive water, thus aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use of water, better rationing, rational sharing patterns, and pricing of water are suggested as some measures to solve the problem.(34° Chapler 2 q { Natural Resources © The Satiuj-Yamuna Link (SYL) canal dispute: The issue of srs and SYL issue between Punjap ussed time and again and the case The Eradi ‘Tribunal (1985) baseg is of the time-inflow data sharing the Ravi-Beas and Haryana is being dis is in the Supreme Court the allocation of water on the bas! of 20 years (1960-80), according to which 17.17 MAR (million acre fect) water was available. However, now it is argued by Punjab that in the last 17 years there has been to 14.34 MAF. The consistent decline reducing the quanuly Supreme Court on January 15, 2002 directed Punjab to complete and commission the SYL within a year, failing which the Centre was told to complete it. However, two years have passed, but neither the SYL has been completed nor the conflict over sharing of Ravi-Beas water 1s resolved. The conflict is that Punjab being the riparian state for Beas, Ravi and Satluj stakes its claim. Haryana has faced acute shortage of water after it became a state in 1966 and has been trying to help it out by signing an MoU (Memorandum of understanding) with UP, Rajasthan and Delhi for allocation of Yamuna waters. The Yamuna basin covers the state of Haryana while the Indus basin covers Punjab. Water conflict in the Middle East: Three river basins, namely the Jordan, the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile are the shared water resources for Middle East countries. Ethiopia controls the head waters of 80% of Nile’s flow and plans to increase it. Sudan too is trying to divert more water. This would badly affect Egypt, which is a desert, except for a thin strip of irrigated cropland along the river Nile and its delta. The population of Egypt is likely to double in the next 20 years, thereby increasing its water crisis. Likewise, there is a fierce battle for water among Jordan, Syria and Israel for the Jordan River water share. Turkey has abundant water and plans to build 22 dams on Tigris-Euphrates for Hydroelectric power generation, But, it would drastically reduce the flow of water to Syria and Iraq, lying downstream. Turkey dreams to become the region’s water super power. It plans to transport and sell water to starvedNatural Resources 35 Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Syria, Israel and Jordan, Probably, the next war in the Middle East would be fought over water and not oil. The conflict revolving around sharing of river water needs to be tackled with greater understanding and objectivity. Some Traditional Water Management Systems are Useful In India, even today, there are several villages where water management is done not by the Irrigation Department, but by local managers. e In south India, a neerkatti manages the traditional tanks very efficiently based on his/her knowledge of the terrain, drainage and irrigation needs. They usually give preference to the tail end fields and decide per capita allocation of water based on the stock of available water in the tank and crop needs. ¢ In Maharashtra, the water managers are called havaldars or Jaghyas who manage and resolve conflicts by overseeing the water channels from main canal to the distributory canals. e In Ladakh, the water manager is known as churpun who has got complete charge with full powers over allocation of available water. The major source of water is melt water from glaciers and snow supplementary by water from springs and marshes. The water is distributed to different fields through an intricate network of earthen channels. In traditional water management, innovative arrangements ensure equitable distribution of water, which are democratically implemented. The ‘gram-sabhas’ approve these plans publicly. While water disputes between states and nations often assume battle like situations, our traditional water managers in villages prove to be quite effective. ee Natural Resources.——— Natural Resourc: E36" "Chapter 2 ~ 2.3.8 BIG DAMS—WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS? Big dams are often regarded as a symbol of national development, issucs and problems related to these. However, there are several other dams. Figure 2.7 depicts various aspects associated with big Benefits River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to play a key role in the development process due to their multiple uses, India has the distinction of having the largest number of river-valley projects. The tribals living in the area pin big hopes on these projects as they aim at providing employment and raising the standard and quality of life. The dams have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth. They can help in checking floods and famines, generate electricity and reduce water and power shortage, provide irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas and promote navigation, fishery etc. Environmental Problems The environmental impacts of big-dams are also too many due to which very often the big dams become a subject of controversy. The impacts can be at the upstream as well as downstream levels. The upstream problems include the following: (J Displacement of tribal people (ii) Loss of forests, flora and fauna (iif) Changes in fisheries and the spawning grounds (iv) Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs (v) Loss of non-forest land (vi) Stagnation and waterlogging near reservoir (vit) Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases (viii) Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS) causing earthquakes (ix) Growth of aquatic weeds. (x) Microclimatic changes. The downstream impacts include the following: (4) Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation (i) Micro-climatic changes (iii) Reduced water flow and silt deposition in river ae"—" Wabtiral Resources 370 (iv) Flash floods (v) Salt water intrusion at river mouth (vi) Loss of land fertitity along the river since the sediments car- Tying nutrients get deposited in the reservoir (vit) Outbreak of vector-borne diseases like malaria Thus, although d. ‘ams are built to serve the society with multiple uses, but ¢ it has severa: serious side-effects. That is why now there is a shift towards construction of small dams or mini-hydel projects Negative Ecological Impacts Deforestation and loss 1 Positive Ecological . Waleaaseane eri Impacts salinity * Reduction in famines * Flash floods * Prevention of floods * Change in water flow * Promotion of and siltation productivity in lower * Reservoir induced areas seismicity Positive Socio-economic Impacts. * Employment * Submergence of * Electricity generation villages & fertile lands * Irrigation water supply * Displacement of native * Drinking water supply people * Promotion of navigation * Resettlement issues * Promotion of fisheries * Outbreak of vector borne diseases Fig. 2.7 Impacts of big dams a 2.4.1 WHAT ARE MINERALS? Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having a definite chemical composition and characteristic physicalBE Cap Properties, There are thousands of minerals occurring in different Parts of the world, However, most of the rocks, we sce everyday are Just composed of a few common minerals like quart”, feldspar, biotite, dolomite, calcite, laterite etc. These minerals, in turn, are composed of some elements like silicon, oxygen, iron, magnesium, calcium, aluminium ete, ae USES AND EXPLOITATION Natural Resou: Minerals find use in every sphere of our life Minerals are used in a large number of ways in domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial sectors and thus form a very important part of any nation’s economy. The main uses of mincrals are as follows: 4 () Development of industrial plants and machinery. (i) Generation of energy (for example, coal, lignite, uranium). (iif) Construction, housing, settlements. (iv) Defence equipments—weapons, armaments. (») Transportation means. (vi) Communication—telephone wires, cables, electronic devices. (vif) Medicinal system—particularly in Ayurvedic system. (viit) Formation of alloys for various purposes (for example, steel alloys). (ix) Agriculture—as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides (for example, zineb containing zinc, maneb-containing manganese etc.). (x) Jewellery (for example, gold, silver, platinum, diamond). Based on their properties, minerals are basically of two types: (i) Non-metallic minerals (for example, graphite, diamond, quartz, feldspar). (if) Metallic minerals (for example, bauxite, laterite, haematite etc.) Use of metals by human beings has been so extensive since the very beginning of human civilization that two of the major epochs of human history are named after them as Bronze Age and Iron Age. The reserves of metals and the technical know-how to extract them have been the key elements in determining the economy and political power of nations. Out of the various metals, those used in maximum quantity are iron and steel (740 million metric tons annually) followed by manganese, copper, chromium, aluminium and nickel. ey ie isis“Waluiral Resources” “FH Distribution and uses of some of the major metallic and non- metallic minerals are given in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 Table 2.1. Major reserves and important uses of some of the major metals Major world reserves Majoruses Australia, Guinea, Packaging food items, transpor- | ~~ Jamaica tation, utensils, electronics Chromium CIS, South Africa For making high strength steel alloys, In textile/tanning industries. Copper U.S.A. Canada, CIS, | Electric and electronic goods, | Chile, Zambia building, construction, vessels. Iron CIS, South America, | Heavy machinery, steel Canada, U.S.A, Production, transportation means. Lead North America, U.S.A., | Leaded gasoline, Car batteries, cs paints, ammunition. Manganese | South Africa, CIS, Brazil, Gabon For making high strength, heat- resistant steel alloys. Platinum South Africa, CIS Use in automobiles, catalytic group converters, electronics, medical uses. Gold South Africa, CIS, | Ornaments, medical use, elec- Canada tronic use, use in aerospace. Silver Canada, South Africa, | Photography, electronics Mexico jewellery. Nickel CIS, Canada, New Caledonia Table 2.2. Major uses of some non-metallic minerals Non-metal mineral Majoruses Silicate minerals Sand and gravel for construction, bricks, paving ete. Natural Resources, Limestone Used for concrete, building stone, used in agriculture for neutralizing acid soils, used in cement industry. Gypsum. Used in plaster wall-board, in agriculture. Potash, phosphorite Used as fertilizers. Sulphur pyrites Used in medicine, car battery, industry.Borner It is evident from the tables that the CIS countries (Th, Commonwealth of Independent States é¢. 12 republics of forme, USSR), the United States of America, Canada, South Africa ang Australia are having the major world reserves of most of the metallic minerals. Due to huge mineral and energy resources, the USA became the richest and the most powerful nation in the world in even legs as there are virtually ag pie 200 years. Japan too needs a mention here, no metal reserves, coal, oil and timber resources In Japan and it is : totally dependent on other countries for its resources. But, it hag & developed energy efficient technologies to upgrade these resources © to high quality finished products to sustain its economy. 2 Minerals are sometimes classified as Critical and Strategic. Critical minerals are essential for the economy of a nation e.g. iron, aluminium, copper, gold etc. Strategic minerals are those required for the e.g. Manganese, cobalt, platinum, chromium etc. defence of a country 2.4.3 SOME MAJOR MINERALS OF INDIA (a) Energy generating minerals Coal and lignite: West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh. Uranium (Pitchblende or Uranite ore) Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Meghalaya, Rajasthan (Ajmer). (6) Other commercially used minerals Aluminium (Bauxite ore): Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu Tron (Haematite and magnetite ore): Jharkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa. Copper (Copper Pyrites): Rajasthan (Khetri), Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Uttarakhand.~ Naktaral Resources aT) 2.4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION AND USE The issue related to the limits of the mineral resources in our earth’s crust or in the ocean is not so significant. More important environmental concern arises from the impacts of extraction and processing of these minerals during mining, smelting etc The Indian Scenario: India is the producer of 84 minerals the annual value of which is about 2 50,000 crore. At least six major mines need a mention here which are known for causing severe problems: (Ji jaduguda uranium mine, Jharkhand—Exposing local people to radioactive hazards. (if) Tharia coal mines, Tharkhand—Underground fires associated _ with to land subsidence leading to forced displacement of people. (iit) Sukinda chromite mines, Odisha—Seeping of hexavalent chromium into river posing serious health hazard, Chromium (VI) being highly toxic and carcinogenic. (iv) Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnataka—Causing river pollution and threat to biodiversity. (v) East coast bauxite mine, Odisha—Land encroachment and issue of rehabilitation unsettled. (vi) North-Eastern Coal Fields, Assam—Sulphur contamination of groundwater. Impacts of mining: Mining is done to extract minerals (or fossil fuels) from deep deposits in soil by using sub-surface mining or from. shallow deposits by surface mining. The former method is more destructive, dangerous and expensive including risks of occupational hazards and accidents. Surface mining can make use of any of the following three types: (a) Open-pit mining in which machines dig holes and remove the ores (e.g. copper, iron, gravel, limestone, sandstone, marble, granite). (6) Dredging in which chained buckets and draglines are used which scrap up the minerals from under-water mineral deposits.FAI Chapter? (0) Strip mining in which the ore is stripped off by using bulldozers, power shovels and stripping wheels (¢.8 phosphate rocks), 4 cme Fig. 2.8 Mining activities in hills disturb the ecology of the region (Picture Garhwal hills, Uttarakhand) Natural Resources’ Fig. 2.9 Large scale devegetation and ecological changes occur due to mining. The environmental damage caused by mining activities are as follows: (i) Devegetation and defacing of landscape: The topsoil as well as the vegetation are removed from the mining area to get access to the deposit. While large scale deforestation or devegetation leads to several ecological losses as already discussed in the previous section, the landscape also gets badly affected. The huge quantities of debris and tailings alongwith big scars and disruptions spoil the aesthetic value of the region and make it prone to soil erosion. (i) Subsidence of land: This is mainly associated with underground mining. Subsidence of mining areas often results in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads,Natural Resources a bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from cracked pipe-lines leading to serious disasters, Ecological Impacts. * Deforestation and Physical Impacts + Land subsidence devegetation * Underground fires + Loss of flora and fauna 4 i + Ecosystem Landscape destruction degradation * Soil erosion Positive Socio- Negative Socio- economic economic Impacts Impacts + Employment Impacts * Encroachment * Infrastructure of and evacuation facilities: Mining Activities * Resettlement * Economic & Rehabilitation issues gains Environmental Pollution * Air pollution * Water pollution * Soil pollution * Noise pollution Occupational Health Impacts * Health hazards due to long term exposure to hazardous chemicals * Accidents Fig. 2.10 Impacts of mining activities (i) Groundwater contamination: Mining disturbs the natural hydrological processes and also pollutes the groundwater. Sulphur, usually present as an impurity in many ores is known to get converted into sulphuric acid through microbial action, thereby making the water acidic. Some heavy metals also get leached into the groundwater and contaminate it posing health hazards. (iv) Surface water pollution: The acid mine drainage often con- taminates the nearby streams and lakes. The acidic water is detrimental to many forms of aquatic life. Sometimes radio- active substances like uranium also contaminate the water bodies through mine wastes and kill aquatic animals. Heavy metal pollution of water bodies near the mining areas is a common feature creating health hazards. (») Air pollution: In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the ore, smelting is done which emitsBer Cire enormous quantities of air pollutants damaging the vegetation nearby and has serious environmental health impacts, The suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOX, soot, arsenic d etc, shoot up in the atmosphere nea; particles, cadmium, lea from several health the smelters and the public suffers problems. . (vi) Occupational health hazards: Most of the miners suffer from a is various respiratory and skin diseases due to constant exposure to the suspended particulate matter and toxic substances, Miners working in different types of mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease etc. Safety of mine workers is usually not a priority subject of industry, Statistical data show that, on an average, there are 30 non- | fatal but disabling accidents per ton of mineral produced and one death per 2.5 tons of mineral produced. Remedial measures: e In order to minimize the adverse impacts of mining it is desirable to adopt eco-friendly mining technology. © The low-grade ores can be better utilized by using microbial leaching technique. The bacterium Thiobacillus ferroxidans has been successfully and economically used for extracting gold embedded in iron sulphide ore. The ores are inoculated with } the desired strains of bacteria, which remove the impurities (like sulphur) and leave the pure mineral. This biological method is helpful from economic as well as environmental point of view. e Restoration of mined areas by re-vegetating them with appropriate plant species help in stabilization of the mined lands and gradual restoration of flora. e Prevention of toxic drainage discharge and conforming to the standards of air emissions are essential for minimizing environmental impacts of mining. Natural Resour CASE STUDIES e Improper waste disposal in Malanjkhand’s copper mines: Acidic Threat Acres and acres of land in the waste dump of Malanjkhand’s copper mining project in Balaghat’s Birsa Block, Madhya Pradesh are a vast spread of white sand and toxic water. At present