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México
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Coordenadas : 23°N 102°O

Estados Unidos Mexicanos

Estados Unidos Mexicanos ( Español )
Flag of Mexico
Bandera
Coat of arms of Mexico
Escudo de armas
Lema:
La Patria Es Primero ( español )
("La Patria es Primero")
Himno: Himno Nacional Mexicano
("Himno Nacional Mexicano")
MENÚ0:00
Location of Mexico
Capital
y la ciudad más grande
Ciudad de México 19°26′N 99°08′O

Lenguajes oficiales
Ninguno a nivel federal [b]
Idiomas regionales reconocidos Español y 68 lenguas amerindias [a]
idioma nacional Spanish (de facto)[b]
Ethnic groups 56 Amerindian and diverse foreign ethnic groups
Religion (2020)[1]
88.9% Christianity
—77.7% Catholicism
—11.2% Other Christian
10.6% No religion
0.2% Others
0.3% Unspecified
Demonym(s) Mexican
Government Federal presidential
republic[2]
• President
Andrés Manuel López Obrador
• President of the Senate
Olga Sánchez Cordero
• President of the Chamber of Deputies
Sergio Gutiérrez Luna
• Chief Justice
Arturo Zaldívar
Legislature Congress
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
Chamber of Deputies
Independence from Spain
• Declared
16 September 1810[3]
• Consummated
27 September 1821
• Recognized
28 December 1836
• First constitution
4 October 1824
• Second constitution
5 February 1857
• Current constitution
5 February 1917
Area
• Total
1,972,550 km2 (761,610 sq mi) (13th)
• Water (%)
1.58 (as of 2015)[4]
Population
• 2020 census
126,014,024[1] (10th)
• Density
61/km2 (158.0/sq mi) (142nd)
GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate
• Total
Increase $2.715 trillion[5] (11th)
• Per capita
Increase $21,362[5] (64th)
GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate
• Total
Increase $1.322 trillion[5] (15th)
• Per capita
Increase $10,405[5] (64th)
Gini (2018) Positive decrease 41.8[6]
medium
HDI (2019) Increase 0.779[7]
high · 74th
Currency Mexican peso (MXN)
Time zone UTC−8 to −5 (See Time in Mexico)
• Summer (DST)
UTC−7 to −5 (varies)
Driving side right
Calling code +52
ISO 3166 code MX
Internet TLD .mx
^ Article 4 of the General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples.[8]
[9]
^ Spanish is de facto the official language in the Mexican federal government.
México , [a] [b] oficialmente los Estados Unidos Mexicanos , [c] es un país en la
parte sur de América del Norte . Limita al norte con los Estados Unidos ; al sur y
al oeste con el Océano Pacífico ; al sureste con Guatemala , Belice y el Mar Caribe
; y al este con el Golfo de México . [11] México cubre 1.972.550 kilómetros
cuadrados (761.610 millas cuadradas), [12] lo que lo convierte en el decimotercer
país más grande del mundo .por área; con aproximadamente 126.014.024 habitantes,
[1] es el décimo país más poblado y con más hispanohablantes . México está
organizado como una federación que comprende 31 estados y la Ciudad de México ,
[13] su capital y metrópoli más grande . Otras áreas urbanas importantes incluyen
Guadalajara , Monterrey , Puebla , Toluca , Tijuana , Ciudad Juárez y León . [14]

El México precolombino remonta sus orígenes al año 8000 aC y se identifica como una
de las seis cunas de la civilización ; [15] fue el hogar de muchas civilizaciones
mesoamericanas avanzadas, sobre todo los mayas y los aztecas . En 1521, el Imperio
español conquistó y colonizó la región desde su base en la Ciudad de México ,
estableciendo la colonia de Nueva España . La Iglesia Católica jugó un papel
importante en la difusión del cristianismo y el idioma español, al tiempo que
conservó algunos elementos indígenas. [dieciséis]Las poblaciones nativas fueron
subyugadas y fuertemente explotadas para extraer ricos yacimientos de metales
preciosos, lo que contribuyó al estatus de España como una gran potencia mundial
durante los siguientes tres siglos, [17] y a una afluencia masiva de riqueza y una
revolución de precios en Europa Occidental. [18] Con el tiempo, se formó una
identidad mexicana distinta , basada en una fusión de costumbres europeas e
indígenas; esto contribuyó al éxito de la Guerra de Independencia de México contra
España entre 1810 y 1821. [19]

La historia temprana de México como un estado nación independiente estuvo marcada

por la agitación política y socioeconómica, con facciones liberales y conservadoras
cambiando constantemente la forma de gobierno. El país fue invadido por dos
potencias extranjeras durante el siglo XIX: primero, después de la Revolución de
Texas por parte de los colonos estadounidenses , que condujo a la Guerra México-
Estadounidense y enormes pérdidas territoriales para los Estados Unidos en 1848.
[20] Las reformas liberales se consagraron en la Constitución de 1857, que buscaba
integrar a las comunidades indígenas y cercenar el poder de los militares y la
iglesia, otorgando por primera vez libertad religiosa. Esto desencadenó una guerra
interna de Reforma e intervención de Francia , durante la cual los conservadores
instalaron a Maximiliano Habsburgo como emperador frente a la resistencia
republicana encabezada por Benito Juárez . Las últimas décadas del siglo XIX
estuvieron marcadas por la dictadura del presidente Porfirio Díaz , quien buscó
modernizar México y restaurar el orden. [19] La era del Porfiriato terminó en 1910
con la guerra civil mexicana que duró una década.(Revolución Mexicana), que mató
aproximadamente al 10% de la población y después de lo cual la facción
Constitucionalista victoriosa redactó una Constitución de 1917 aún más socialmente
orientada , que permanece vigente hasta el día de hoy. Los generales
revolucionarios gobernaron como una sucesión de presidentes hasta el asesinato de
Álvaro Obregón en 1928. Esto condujo a la formación del Partido Revolucionario
Institucional al año siguiente, que gobernó México pseudodemocráticamente hasta el
2000 ; primero bajo un modelo paternalista de centro-izquierda de considerable
éxito económico , que pasó a un modelo neoliberal más alineado con Estados Unidos
desde la década de 1980.[21] [22] [23] [24]

México es un país en desarrollo , ocupando el puesto 74 en el Índice de Desarrollo

Humano , pero tiene la 15.ª economía más grande del mundo por PIB nominal y la 11.ª
por PPA , siendo Estados Unidos su mayor socio económico. [25] [26] Su gran
economía y población, su influencia cultural global y su constante democratización
hacen de México una potencia regional y media ; [27] [28] [29] [30] a menudo se la
identifica como una potencia emergente, pero varios analistas la consideran un
estado recién industrializado . [31] [32][33] [34] [35] Sin embargo, el país sigue
luchando contra la desigualdad social, la pobreza y la criminalidad generalizada.
Ocupa un lugar bajo en el Índice de Paz Global , [36] debido en gran parte al
conflicto en curso entre el gobierno y los sindicatos de narcotraficantes , que
compiten violentamente por el mercado estadounidense y las rutas comerciales. Esta
" guerra contra las drogas " ha provocado más de 120.000 muertes desde 2006. [37]

Mexico ranks first in the Americas and seventh in the world for the number of
UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[38][39][40] It is also one of the world's 17
megadiverse countries, ranking fifth in natural biodiversity.[41] Mexico's rich
cultural and biological heritage, as well as varied climate and geography, makes it
a major tourist destination: as of 2018, it was the sixth most-visited country in
the world, with 39 million international arrivals.[42] Mexico is a member of United
Nations, the G20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
forum, the Organization of American States, Community of Latin American and
Caribbean States, and the Organization of Ibero-American States.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Indigenous civilizations
2.2 Conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521)
2.3 Viceroyalty of New Spain (1521–1821)
2.4 War of Independence (1810–1821)
2.5 First Empire and the Early Republic (1821–1855)
2.6 Liberal Reform, Second Empire, and Restored Republic (1855–1876)
2.7 Porfiriato (1876–1911)
2.8 Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)
2.9 Political consolidation and one-party rule (1920–2000)
2.10 Contemporary Mexico
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Biodiversity
4 Government and politics
4.1 Government
4.2 Politics
4.3 Foreign relations
4.4 Military
4.5 Law enforcement
4.6 Crime
4.7 Administrative divisions
5 Economy
5.1 Communications
5.2 Energy
5.3 Science and technology
5.4 Tourism
5.5 Transportation
5.6 Water supply and sanitation
6 Demographics
6.1 Ethnicity and race
6.2 Emigration
6.3 Languages
6.4 Urban areas
6.5 Religion
6.6 Health
6.7 Education
6.8 Women
7 Culture
7.1 Painting
7.2 Sculpture
7.3 Architecture
7.4 Photography
7.5 Literature
7.6 Cinema
7.7 Media
7.8 Cuisine
7.9 Music
7.10 Sports
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Etymology
Main article: Name of Mexico

Depiction of the founding myth of Mexico-Tenochtitlan from the Codex Mendoza

Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely the
Valley of Mexico and surrounding territories, with its people being known as the
Mexica. The terms are plainly linked; it is generally believed that the toponym for
the valley was the origin of the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance,
but it may have been the other way around.[43] In the colonial era, when Mexico was
called New Spain, this central region became the Intendency of Mexico, during the
eighteenth-century reorganization of the empire, the Bourbon Reforms. After the
colony achieved independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, said territory came
to be known as the State of Mexico, with the new country being named after its
capital: Mexico City, which itself was founded in 1524 on the site of the ancient
Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan.

The official name of the country has changed as the form of government has changed.
The declaration of independence signed on 6 November 1813 by the deputies of the
Congress of Anáhuac called the territory América Septentrional (Northern America);
the 1821 Plan of Iguala also used América Septentrional. On two occasions (1821–
1823 and 1863–1867), the country was known as Imperio Mexicano (Mexican Empire).
All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857 and 1917, the current constitution)
used the name Estados Unidos Mexicanos[44]—or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexicanos,
[45] all of which have been translated as "United Mexican States". The phrase
República Mexicana, "Mexican Republic", was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws.
[46]

History
Main article: History of Mexico
See also: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico, Economic history of Mexico,
History of democracy in Mexico, History of Mexico City, and Military history of
Mexico
Indigenous civilizations
Main articles: Pre-Columbian Mexico and Mesoamerican chronology

Pyramid of the Sun of Teotihuacan with first human establishment in the area dating
back to 600 BC
The earliest human artifacts in Mexico are chips of stone tools found near campfire
remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago.
[47] Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize, tomato, and beans, which
produced an agricultural surplus. This enabled the transition from paleo-Indian
hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BC.[48]
In the subsequent formative eras, maize cultivation and cultural traits such as a
mythological and religious complex, and a vigesimal (base 20) numeric system, were
diffused from the Mexican cultures to the rest of the Mesoamerican culture area.
[49] In this period, villages became more dense in terms of population, becoming
socially stratified with an artisan class, and developing into chiefdoms. The most
powerful rulers had religious and political power, organizing the construction of
large ceremonial centers.[50]

Cultivation of maize, shown in the Florentine Codex (1576) drawn by an indigenous

scribe, with text in Nahuatl on this folio
The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was the Olmec culture, which flourished
on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Olmec cultural traits diffused through
Mexico into other formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca and the Valley of
Mexico. The formative period saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic
traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes.[51] The formative-era
of Mesoamerica is considered one of the six independent cradles of civilization.
[52] In the subsequent pre-classical period, the Maya and Zapotec civilizations
developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán, respectively. During this
period the first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec
and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in
the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script. The earliest written histories date from this
era. The tradition of writing was important after the Spanish conquest in 1521.[53]

In Central Mexico, the height of the classic period saw the ascendancy of
Teotihuacán, which formed a military and commercial empire whose political
influence stretched south into the Maya area as well as north. Teotihuacan, with a
population of more than 150,000 people, had some of the largest pyramidal
structures in the pre-Columbian Americas.[54] After the collapse of Teotihuacán
around 600 AD, competition ensued between several important political centers in
central Mexico such as Xochicalco and Cholula. At this time, during the Epi-
Classic, Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and
became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced
speakers of Oto-Manguean languages.

1945 mural by Diego Rivera depicting the view from the Tlatelolco markets into
Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the largest city in the Americas at the time
During the early post-classic era (ca. 1000–1519 CE), Central Mexico was dominated
by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec, and the lowland Maya area had
important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Toward the end of the post-Classic
period, the Mexica established dominance, establishing a political and economic
empire based in the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), extending from
central Mexico to the border with Guatemala.[55] Alexander von Humboldt popularized
the modern usage of "Aztec" as a collective term applied to all the people linked
by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state and Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān,
the Triple Alliance.[56] In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H.
Prescott, it was adopted by most of the world, including 19th-century Mexican
scholars who considered it a way to distinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-
conquest Mexicans. This usage has been the subject of debate since the late 20th
century.[57]

The Aztec empire was an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert
supreme authority over the conquered territories; it was satisfied with the payment
of tributes from them. It was a discontinuous empire because not all dominated
territories were connected; for example, the southern peripheral zones of
Xoconochco were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the
Aztec empire was demonstrated by their restoration of local rulers to their former
position after their city-state was conquered. The Aztec did not interfere in local
affairs, as long as the tributes were paid.[58]

The Aztec of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central
Mexico.[59] The Aztec were noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale.
Along with this practice, they avoided killing enemies on the battlefield. Their
warring casualty rate was far lower than that of their Spanish counterparts, whose
principal objective was immediate slaughter during battle.[60] This distinct
Mesoamerican cultural tradition of human sacrifice ended with the gradually Spanish
conquest in the 16th century. Over the next centuries many other Mexican indigenous
cultures were conquered and gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule.[61]

Conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521)

Further information: Spanish conquest of Mexico

Depict of Hernán Cortés and his bilingual cultural translator, Doña Marina
("Malinche"), meeting Moctezuma II from the Lienzo de Tlaxcala. This historical
document was created c. 1550 by the Tlaxcalans to remind the Spanish of their
loyalty and the importance of Tlaxcala during the conquest of the Aztec Empire.
Although the Spanish had established colonies in the Caribbean starting in 1493, it
was not until the second decade of the sixteenth century that they began exploring
the coast of Mexico. The Spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de
Grijalva expedition of 1518. The natives kept "repeating: Colua, Colua, and Mexico,
Mexico, but we [explorers] did not know what Colua or Mexico meant", until
encountering Montezuma's governor at the mouth of the Rio de las Banderas.[62]: 33–
36  The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began in February 1519 when Hernán
Cortés landed on the Gulf Coast and founded the Spanish city of Veracruz. Around
500 conquistadores, along with horses, cannons, swords, and long guns gave the
Spanish some technological advantages over indigenous warriors, but key to the
Spanish victory was making strategic alliances with disgruntled indigenous city-
states (altepetl) who supplied the Spaniards and fought with them against the Aztec
Triple Alliance. Also important to the Spanish victory was Cortés's cultural
translator, Malinche, a Nahua woman enslaved in the Maya area whom the Spanish
acquired as a gift. She quickly learned Spanish and gave strategic advise about how
to deal with both indigenous allies and indigenous foes.[63] The unconquered city-
state of Tlaxcala allied with the Spanish against their enemies, the Aztecs of
Tenochtitlan. The Spanish gained other indigenous allies, who also joined in the
war for their own reasons.

We know so much about the conquest because it is among the best documented events
in world history from multiple points of view. There are accounts by the Spanish
leader Cortés[64] and multiple other Spanish participants, including Bernal Díaz
del Castillo.[65][66] There are indigenous accounts in Spanish, Nahuatl, and
pictorial narratives by allies of the Spanish, most prominently the Tlaxcalans, as
well as Texcocans[67] and Huejotzincans, and the defeated Mexican themselves,
recorded in the last volume of Bernardino de Sahagún's General History of the
Things of New Spain.[68][69][70]

Smallpox depicted by an indigenous artist in the 1556 Florentine Codex in its

account of the conquest of Mexico from the point of view of the defeated Mexica
When the Spaniards arrived, the ruler of the Aztec empire was Moctezuma II, who
after a delay allowed the Spanish to proceed inland to Tenochtitlan. The Spanish
captured him, holding him hostage. He died while in their custody and the Spanish
retreated from Tenochtitlan in great disarray. His successor and brother Cuitláhuac
took control of the Aztec empire, but was among the first to fall from the first
smallpox epidemic in the area a short time later.[71] Unintentionally introduced by
Spanish conquerors, among whom smallpox, measles, and other contagious diseases
were endemic, epidemics of Old World infectious diseases ravaged Mesoamerica
starting in the 1520s. The exact number of deaths is disputed, but unquestionably
more than 3 million natives who had no immunity.[72] Other sources, however,
mentioned that the death toll of the Aztecs might have reached 15 million (out of a
population of less than 30 million) although such a high number conflicts with the
350,000 Aztecs who ruled an empire of 5 million or 10 million.[73] Severely
weakened, the Aztec empire was easily defeated by Cortés and his forces on his
second return with the help of state of Tlaxcala whose population estimate was
300,000.[74] The native population declined 80–90% by 1600 to 1–2.5 million. Any
population estimate of pre-Columbian Mexico is bound to be a guess but 8–12 million
is often suggested for the area encompassed by the modern nation.

The territory became part of the Spanish Empire under the name of New Spain in
1535.[75] Mexico City was systematically rebuilt by Cortés following the Fall of
Tenochtitlan in 1521. Much of the identity, traditions and architecture of Mexico
developed during the 300-year colonial period from 1521 to independence in 1821.
[76]

Viceroyalty of New Spain (1521–1821)

Main article: New Spain
See also: History of Mexico § Spanish Rule (1521-1821); Economic history of Mexico
§ Economy of New Spain, 1521–1821; and History of Mexico City § Colonial period,
1521-1821
The National Palace on the east side of Plaza de la Constitución or Zócalo, the
main square of Mexico City; it was the residence of viceroys and Presidents of
Mexico and now the seat of the Mexican government.
The 1521 capture Tenochtitlan and immediate founding of the Spanish capital Mexico
City on its ruins was the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial era during which
Mexico was known as Nueva España (New Spain). The Kingdom of New Spain was created
from the remnants of the Aztec empire. The two pillars of Spanish rule were the
State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown.
In 1493 the pope had granted sweeping powers to the Spanish crown, with the proviso
that the crown spread Christianity in its new realms. In 1524, King Charles I
created the Council of the Indies based in Spain to oversee State power its
overseas territories; in New Spain the crown established a high court in Mexico
City, the Real Audiencia, and then in 1535 created the viceroyalty. The viceroy was
highest official of the State. In the religious sphere, the diocese of Mexico was
created in 1530 and elevated to the Archdiocese of Mexico in 1546, with the
archbishop as the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, overseeing Roman Catholic
clergy. Castilian Spanish was the language of rulers. The Catholic faith the only
one permitted, with non-Catholics (Jews and Protestants) and Catholics (excluding
Indians) holding unorthodox views being subject to the Mexican Inquisition,
established in 1571.[77]

In the first half-century of Spanish rule, a network of Spanish cities was created,
sometimes on pre-Columbian sites. The capital Mexico City was and remains the
premier city. Cities and towns were hubs of civil officials, ecclesiastics,
business, Spanish elites, and mixed-race and indigenous artisans and workers. When
deposits of silver were discovered in sparsely populated northern Mexico, far from
the dense populations of central Mexico, the Spanish secured the region against
fiercely resistant indigenous Chichimecas. The Viceroyalty at its greatest extent
included the territories of modern Mexico, Central America as far south as Costa
Rica, and the western United States. The Viceregal capital Mexico City also
administrated the Spanish West Indies (the Caribbean), the Spanish East Indies
(that is, the Philippines), and Spanish Florida. In 1819, the Spain signed the
Adams-Onís Treaty with the United States, setting New Spain's northern boundary.
[78]

Viceroyalty of New Spain following the signing of the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty
The population of Mexico was overwhelmingly indigenous and rural during the entire
colonial period and beyond, despite the massive decrease in their numbers due to
epidemic diseases. Diseases such as smallpox, measles, and others were introduced
by Europeans and African slaves, especially in the sixteenth century. The
indigenous population stabilized around one to one and a half million individuals
in the 17th century from the most commonly accepted five to thirty million pre-
contact population.[79] During the three hundred years of the colonial era, Mexico
received between 400,000 and 500,000 Europeans,[80] between 200,000 and 250,000
African slaves.[81] and between 40,000 and 120,000 Asians.[82][83]

The first census in Mexico (then known as New Spain) that included an ethnic
classification was the 1793 census. Also known as the Revillagigedo census. Most of
its original datasets have reportedly been lost, thus most of what is known about
it nowadays comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had
access to the census data and used it as reference for their works such as German
scientist Alexander von Humboldt. Europeans ranged from 18% to 22% of New Spain's
population, Mestizos from 21% to 25%, Indians from 51% to 61% and Africans were
between 6,000 and 10,000. The total population ranged from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354.
It is concluded that the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even,
while the percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%–17%
per century, mostly due to the latter having higher mortality rates from living in
remote locations and being in constant war with the colonists.[84] Independent-era
Mexico eliminated the legal basis of the Colonial caste system which led to
exclusion of racial classification in the censuses to come.

Luis de Mena, Virgin of Guadalupe and castas, showing race mixture and hierarchy as
well as fruits of the realm,[85] ca. 1750
Colonial law with Spanish roots was introduced and attached to native customs
creating a hierarchy between local jurisdiction (the Cabildos) and the Spanish
Crown. Upper administrative offices were closed to native-born people, even those
of pure Spanish blood (criollos). Administration was based on the racial
separation. Society was organized in a racial hierarchy, with whites on top, mixed-
race persons and blacks in the middle, and indigenous at the bottom. There were
formal legal designations of racial categories. The Republic of Spaniards
(República de Españoles) comprised European- and American-born Spaniards, mixed-
race castas, and black Africans. The Republic of Indians (República de Indios)
comprised the indigenous populations, which the Spanish lumped under the term
Indian (indio), a Spanish colonial social construct which indigenous groups and
individuals rejected as a category. Spaniards were exempt from paying tribute,
Spanish men had access to higher education, could hold civil and ecclesiastical
offices, were subject to the Inquisition, and liable for military service when the
standing military was established in the late eighteenth century. Indigenous paid
tribute, but were exempt from the Inquisition, indigenous men were excluded from
the priesthood; and exempt from military service.

Although the racial system appears fixed and rigid, there was some fluidity within
it, and racial domination of whites was not complete.[86] Since the indigenous
population of New Spain was so large, there was less labor demand for expensive
black slaves than other parts of Spanish America.[87][88] In the late eighteenth
century the crown instituted reforms that privileged Iberian-born Spaniards
(peninsulares) over American-born (criollos), limiting their access to offices.
This discrimination between the two became a sparking point of discontent for white
elites in the colony.[89]

The Marian apparition of the Virgin of Guadalupe said to have appeared to the
indigenous Juan Diego in 1531 gave impetus to the evangelization of central Mexico.
[90][91] The Virgin of Guadalupe became a symbol for American-born Spaniards'
(criollos) patriotism, seeking in her a Mexican source of pride, distinct from
Spain.[92] The Virgin of Guadalupe was invoked by the insurgents for independence
who followed Father Miguel Hidalgo during the War of Independence.[91]

New Spain was essential to the Spanish global trading system. White represents the
route of the Spanish Manila Galleons in the Pacific and the Spanish convoys in the
Atlantic. (Blue represents Portuguese routes.)
The rich deposits of silver, particularly in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, resulted in
silver extraction dominating the economy of New Spain. Taxes on silver production
became a major source of income for Spain. Other important industries were the
haciendas and mercantile activities in the main cities and ports.[93] Wealth
created during the colonial era spurred the development of New Spanish Baroque.
[citation needed]

As a result of its trade links with Asia, the rest of the Americas, Africa and
Europe and the profound effect of New World silver, central Mexico was one of the
first regions to be incorporated into a globalized economy. Being at the crossroads
of trade, people and cultures, Mexico City has been called the "first world city".
[94] The Nao de China (Manila Galleons) operated for two and a half centuries and
connected New Spain with Asia. Silver and the red dye cochineal were shipped from
Veracruz to Atlantic ports in the Americas and Spain. Veracruz was also the main
port of entry in mainland New Spain for European goods, immigrants from Spain, and
African slaves. The Camino Real de Tierra Adentro connected Mexico City with the
interior of New Spain. Mexican silver pesos became the first globally used
currency.

Silver peso mined and minted in colonial Mexico, which became a global currency
Spanish forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer
territory or quell rebellions through the colonial era. Notable Amerindian revolts
in sporadically populated northern New Spain include the Chichimeca War (1576–
1606),[95] Tepehuán Revolt (1616–1620),[96] and the Pueblo Revolt (1680), the
Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712 was a regional Maya revolt.[97] Most rebellions were
small-scale and local, posing no major threat to the ruling elites.[98] To protect
Mexico from the attacks of English, French, and Dutch pirates and protect the
Crown's monopoly of revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on
the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacific. Among the best-known pirate attacks are
the 1663 Sack of Campeche[99] and 1683 Attack on Veracruz.[100] Of greater concern
to the crown was of foreign invasion, especially after Britain seized in 1762 the
Spanish ports of Havana, Cuba and Manila, the Philippines in the Seven Years' War.
It created a standing military, increased coastal fortifications, and expanded the
northern presidios and missions into Alta California. The volatility of the urban
poor in Mexico City was evident in the 1692 riot in the Zócalo. The riot over the
price of maize escalated to a full-scale attack on the seats of power, with the
viceregal palace and the archbishop's residence attacked by the mob.[86]

Due to the importance of New Spain administrative base, Mexico was the location of
the first printing shop (1539),[101] first university (1551),[102] first public
park (1592),[103] and first public library (1640) in the Americas,[104] among other
institutions. Important artists of the colonial period, include the writers Juan
Ruiz de Alarcón, Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz,
painters Cristóbal de Villalpando and Miguel Cabrera, and architect Manuel Tolsá.
The Academy of San Carlos (1781) was the first major school and museum of art in
the Americas.[105] German scientist Alexander von Humboldt spent a year in Mexico,
finding the scientific community in the capital active and learned. He met Mexican
scientist Andrés Manuel del Río Fernández, who discovered the element vanadium in
1801.[106] Many Mexican cultural features including tequila,[107] first distilled
in the 16th century, charreria (17th),[108] mariachi (18th) and Mexican cuisine, a
fusion of American and European (particularly Spanish) cuisine, arose during the
colonial era.

War of Independence (1810–1821)

Main article: Mexican War of Independence

Father Miguel Hidalgo with the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe. Antonio Fabrés,
1905.
On 16 September 1810, a "loyalist revolt" against the ruling junta was declared by
priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato.[109]
This event, known as the Cry of Dolores (Spanish: Grito de Dolores) is commemorated
each year, on 16 September, as Mexico's independence day.[110] The first insurgent
group was formed by Hidalgo, the Spanish viceregal army captain Ignacio Allende,
the militia captain Juan Aldama and La Corregidora (English: "The Magistrate")
Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were captured and
executed by firing squad in Chihuahua, on 31 July 1811.[111]: 
17–27 

Following Hidalgo's death, the leadership was assumed by Ignacio López Rayón and
then by the priest José María Morelos, who occupied key southern cities with the
support of Mariano Matamoros and Nicolás Bravo. In one notable incident, Nicolas
Bravo captured 200 royalist soldiers, whom Morelos ordered should be executed in
revenge of the murder of Bravo's father. In an act of mercy, Bravo instead pardoned
the prisoners, most of whom then joined the insurgent cause.[111]: 40–41  In 1813
the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and, on 6 November, signed the "Solemn
Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America".[111]: 35–37  This Act
also abolished slavery and the caste system. Being a Catholic priest himself,
Morelos also called for Roman Catholicism to be the exclusive faith in Mexico.
[111]: 
44–50  Morelos was captured and executed on 22 December 1815.[111]: 46 

Depiction of the Abrazo de Acatempan between Agustín de Iturbide, left, and Vicente
Guerrero
In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse, but in 1820 Viceroy Juan
Ruiz de Apodaca sent an army under the criollo general Agustín de Iturbide against
the troops of Vicente Guerrero who had among his trusted soldiers, Filipino
Mexicans who were concentrated in Guerrero, a state later named after Vicente
Guerrero himself and where the Mexican flag was first sewn. Chief among the
Filipino-Mexican soldiers was General Isidoro Montes de Oca who defeated Royalist
armies 3 times his force's size.[112] Filipino participation occurred even earlier
when Manila-born Ramón Fabié joined the insurgents. Then, the Criollo Royalist,
Agustin Iturbide, instead of attacking Vicente Guerrero, approached Guerrero to
join forces as he was impressed with his tenacity despite fighting larger odds, and
on 24 August 1821 representatives of the Spanish Crown and Iturbide signed the
"Treaty of Córdoba" and the "Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire",
which recognized the independence of Mexico under the terms of the "Plan of
Iguala".[111]: 
53–80  Similarly to José María Morelos' goals.[clarification needed]
A provision of the Plan of Iguala of Agustín de Iturbide bringing about Mexican
independence in 1821, also included Catholic exclusivity in the religious sphere.
The Constitution of 1824 declared that the official religion of the Republic would
be Catholic.

Mexico's short recovery after the War of Independence was soon cut short again by
the civil wars, foreign invasion and occupation, and institutional instability of
the mid-19th century, which lasted until the government of Porfirio Díaz
reestablished conditions that paved the way for economic growth. The conflicts that
arose from the mid-1850s had a profound effect because they were widespread and
made themselves perceptible in the vast rural areas of the countries, involved
clashes between castes, different ethnic groups, and haciendas, and entailed a
deepening of the political and ideological divisions between republicans and
monarchists.[113]

First Empire and the Early Republic (1821–1855)

Main articles: First Mexican Empire, First Mexican Republic, and Centralist
Republic of Mexico

The territorial evolution of Mexico after independence, noting the secession of

Central America (purple), Chiapas annexed from Guatemala (blue), losses to the U.S.
(red, white and orange) and the reannexation of the Republic of Yucatán (red)
The first 35 years after Mexico's independence were marked by political instability
and the changing of the Mexican state from a monarchy to a federated republic.
There were military coups d'état, foreign invasions, ideological conflict between
Conservatives and Liberals, and economic stagnation. Catholicism remained the only
permitted religious faith and the Catholic Church as an institution retained its
special privileges, prestige, and property, a bulwark of Conservatism. The army,
another Conservative institution, also retained its privileges. Former Royal Army
General Agustín de Iturbide, became regent, as newly independent Mexico sought a
constitutional monarch from Europe. When no member of a European royal house
desired the position, Iturbide himself was declared Emperor Agustín I. The young
and weak United States was the first country to recognize Mexico's independence,
sending an ambassador to the court of the emperor and sending a message to Europe
via the Monroe Doctrine not to intervene in Mexico. The emperor's rule was short
(1822–23) and he was overthrown by army officers.[111]: 
87–88 

The successful rebels established the First Mexican Republic. In 1824, a

constitution of a federated republic was promulgated and former insurgent general
Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the newly born republic.[111]: 94–
95  Central America, including Chiapas, left the union. In 1829, former insurgent
general and fierce Liberal Vicente Guerrero, a signatory of the Plan de Iguala that
achieved independence, became president in a disputed election. During his short
term in office, April to December 1829, he abolished slavery. As a visibly mixed-
race man of modest origins, Guerrero was seen by white political elites as an
interloper.[114] His Conservative vice president, former Royalist General Anastasio
Bustamante, led a coup against him and Guerrero was judicially murdered.[115] There
was constant strife between Liberals, supporters of a federal form of decentralized
government and often called Federalists and their political rivals, the
Conservatives, who proposed a hierarchical form of government, were termed
Centralists.[111]: 101–115, 
125–127 

General Antonio López de Santa Anna

Mexico's ability to maintain its independence and establish a viable government was
in question. Spain attempted to reconquer its former colony during the 1820s, but
eventually recognized its independence. France attempted to recoup losses it
claimed for its citizens during Mexico's unrest and blockaded the Gulf Coast during
the so-called Pastry War of 1838–39.[116] Santa Anna lost a leg in combat during
this conflict, which he used for political purposes. Emerging as a national hero in
defending Mexico was creole army general, Antonio López de Santa Anna, who had
participated in the overthrow of the emperor, fought the Spanish invasion, and came
to dominate the politics for the next 25 years, until his own overthrow in 1855.

Mexico also contended with indigenous groups which controlled territory that Mexico
claimed in the north. The Comanche controlled a huge territory in the sparsely
populated region of central and northern Texas.[117] Wanting to stabilize and
develop the frontier, the Mexican government encouraged Anglo-American immigration
into present-day Texas. The region bordered the United States, and was territory
controlled by Comanches. There were few settlers from central Mexico moving to this
remote and hostile territory. Mexico by law was a Catholic country; the Anglo
Americans were primarily Protestant English speakers from the southern United
States. Some brought their black slaves, which after 1829 was contrary to Mexican
law. Santa Anna sought to centralize government rule, suspending the constitution
and promulgating the Seven Laws, which place power in his hands. When he suspended
the 1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the country. Three new governments
declared independence: the Republic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande and
the Republic of Yucatán.[111]: 
129–137 

The largest blow to Mexico was the U.S. invasion of Mexico in 1846 in the Mexican–
American War. Mexico lost much of its sparsely populated northern territory, sealed
in the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Despite that disastrous loss, Conservative
Santa Anna returned to the presidency yet again and then was ousted and exiled in
the Liberal Revolution of Ayutla.

Liberal Reform, Second Empire, and Restored Republic (1855–1876)

Main articles: Second Mexican Republic, La Reforma, and Second Mexican Empire

The Execution of Emperor Maximilian, 19 June 1867. Gen. Tomás Mejía, left,
Maximiian, center, Gen. Miguel Miramón, right. Painting by Édouard Manet 1868.
The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by
Liberals allowed them to enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico's
economic development. It was a prelude to more civil wars and yet another foreign
invasion. The Liberal Reform attempted to modernize Mexico's economy and
institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated a new Constitution of 1857,
separating Church and State, stripping the Conservative institutions of the Church
and the military of their special privileges (fueros); mandating the sale of
Church-owned property and sale of indigenous community lands, and secularizing
education.[118] Conservatives revolted, touching off civil war between rival
Liberal and Conservative governments (1858–61).

The Liberals defeated the Conservative army on the battlefield, but Conservatives
sought another solution to gain power via foreign intervention by the French.
Mexican conservatives asked Emperor Napoleon III to place a European monarch as
head of state in Mexico. The French Army defeated the Mexican Army and placed
Maximilian Hapsburg on the newly established throne of Mexico, supported by Mexican
Conservatives and propped up by the French Army. The Liberal republic under Benito
Juárez was basically a government in internal exile, but with the end of the Civil
War in the U.S. in April 1865, that government began aiding the Mexican Republic.
Two years later, the French Army withdrew its support, Maximilian remained in
Mexico rather than return to Europe. Republican forces captured him and he was
executed in Querétaro, along with two Conservative Mexican generals. The "Restored
Republic" saw the return of Juárez, who was "the personification of the embattled
republic,"[119] as president.

The Conservatives had been not only defeated militarily, but also discredited
politically for their collaboration with the French invaders. Liberalism became
synonymous with patriotism.[120] The Mexican Army that had its roots in the
colonial royal army and then the army of the early republic was destroyed. New
military leaders had emerged from the War of the Reform and the conflict with the
French, most notably Porfirio Díaz, a hero of the Cinco de Mayo, who now sought
civilian power. Juárez won re-election in 1867, but was challenged by Díaz, who
criticized him for running for re-election. Díaz then rebelled, crushed by Juárez.
Having won re-election, Juárez died in office of natural causes in July 1872, and
Liberal Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada became president, declaring a "religion of state"
for rule of law, peace, and order. When Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz rebelled
against the civilian president, issuing the Plan of Tuxtepec. Díaz had more support
and waged guerrilla warfare against Lerdo. On the verge of Díaz's victory on the
battlefield, Lerdo fled from office, going into exile.[121] Another army general
assumed the presidency of Mexico.

Porfiriato (1876–1911)
Main articles: Porfirio Díaz and Porfiriato

The Metlac rail bridge in 1897. There was large investment in rail transport during
the Porfiriato.

Celebration of Mexico's first one hundred years of Independence in 1910. Several

projects were undertaken for the celebrations, such as the Monumento a la
Independencia.
After the turmoil in Mexico from 1810 to 1876, the 35-year rule of Liberal General
Porfirio Díaz (r.1876–1911) allowed Mexico to rapidly modernize in a period
characterized as one of "order and progress". The Porfiriato was characterized by
economic stability and growth, significant foreign investment and influence, an
expansion of the railroad network and telecommunications, and investments in the
arts and sciences.[122] The period was also marked by economic inequality and
political repression. Díaz knew the potential for army rebellions, and
systematically downsized the expenditure for the force, rather expanding the rural
police force under direct control of the president. Díaz did not provoke the
Catholic Church, coming to a modus vivendi with it; but he did not remove the
anticlerical articles from the 1857 Constitution. From the late nineteenth century,
Protestants began to make inroads in Mexico.
The government encouraged British and U.S. investment. Commercial agriculture
developed in northern Mexico, with many investors from the U.S. acquiring vast
ranching estates and expanding irrigated cultivation of crops. The Mexican
government ordered a survey of land with the aim of selling it for development. In
this period, many indigenous communities lost their lands and the men became
landless wage earners on large landed enterprises (haciendas).[123] British and
U.S. investors developed extractive mining of copper, lead, and other minerals, as
well as petroleum on the Gulf Coast. Changes in Mexican law allowed for private
enterprises to own the subsoil rights of land, rather than continuing the colonial
law that gave all subsoil rights to the State. An industrial manufacturing sector
also developed, particularly in textiles. At the same time, new enterprises gave
rise to an industrial work force, which began organizing to gain labor rights and
protections.

Díaz ruled with a group of advisors that became known as the científicos
("scientists").[124] The most influential científico was Secretary of Finance José
Yves Limantour.[125] The Porfirian regime was influenced by positivism.[126] They
rejected theology and idealism in favor of scientific methods being applied towards
national development. As an integral aspect of the liberal project was secular
education. The Díaz government led a protracted conflict against the Yaqui that
culminated with the forced relocation of thousands of Yaqui to Yucatán and Oaxaca.

Díaz's long success did not include planning for a political transition beyond his
own presidency. He made no attempt, however, to establish a family dynasty, naming
no relative as his successor. As the centennial of independence approached, Díaz
gave an interview where he said he was not going to run in the 1910 elections, when
he would be 80. Political opposition had been suppressed and there were few avenues
for a new generation of leaders. But his announcement set off a frenzy of political
activity, including the unlikely candidacy of the scion of a rich landowning
family, Francisco I. Madero. Madero won a surprising amount of political support
when Díaz changed his mind and ran in the election, jailing Madero. The September
centennial celebration of independence was the last celebration of the Porfiriato.
The Mexican Revolution starting in 1910 saw a decade of civil war, the "wind that
swept Mexico."[127]

Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)

Further information: Mexican Revolution

Revolutionaries, 1911

Candidate Francisco I. Madero with peasant leader Emiliano Zapata in Cuernavaca

during the Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution was a decade-long transformational conflict in Mexico, with
consequences to this day.[128] It saw uprisings against President Díaz, his
resignation, an interim presidency, and the democratic election of a rich
landowner, Francisco I. Madero in 1911. In February 1913, a military coup d'état
overthrew Madero's government, with the support of the U.S., resulted in Madero's
murder by agents of Federal Army General Victoriano Huerta. A coalition of anti-
Huerta forces in the North, the Constitutionalist Army overseen by Venustiano
Carranza, and a peasant army in the South under Emiliano Zapata, defeated the
Federal Army. In 1914 that army was dissolved as an institution. Following the
revolutionaries' victory against Huerta, revolutionary armies sought to broker a
peaceful political solution, but the coalition splintered, plunging Mexico into
civil war again. Constitutionalist general Pancho Villa, commander of the Division
of the North, broke with Carranza and allied with Zapata. Carranza's best general,
Alvaro Obregón, defeated Villa, his former comrade-in-arms in the battle of Celaya
in 1915, and Villa's forces melted away. Carranza became the de facto head of
Mexico, and the U.S. recognized his government. In 1916, the winners met at a
constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of 1917, which was ratified in
February 1917. Said Constitution strengthened the anticlerical provisions that were
carried over from the 1857 Constitution.[129] With amendments, it remains the
governing document of Mexico. It is estimated that the war killed 900,000 of the
1910 population of 15 million.[130][131]

The U.S. has had a history of inference and intervention in Mexico, most notably
the Mexican-American War. During the Revolution, the Taft administration supported
the Huerta coup against Madero, but when Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated as
president in March 1913, it refused to recognize Huerta's regime and allowed arms
sales to the Constitutionalists. Wilson ordered troops to occupy the strategic port
of Veracruz in 1914, which was lifted.[132] After Pancho Villa was defeated by
revolutionary forces in 1915, he led an incursion raid into Columbus, New Mexico,
prompting the U.S. to send 10,000 troops led by General John J. Pershing in an
unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. Carranza pushed back against U.S. troops
being in northern Mexico. The expeditionary forces withdrew as the U.S. entered
World War I.[133] Germany attempted to get Mexico to side with it, sending a coded
telegram in 1917 to incite war between the U.S. and Mexico, with Mexico to regain
the territory it lost in the Mexican-American War.[134] Mexico remained neutral in
the conflict.

Consolidating power, President Carranza had peasant-leader Emiliano Zapata

assassinated in 1919.[111]: 
312  Carranza had gained support of the peasantry during
the Revolution, but once in power he did little to distribute land, and, in fact,
returned some confiscated land to their original owners. President Carranza's best
general, Obregón, served briefly in Carranza's administration, but returned to his
home state of Sonora to position himself to run in the 1920 presidential election.
Carranza chose a political and revolutionary no-body to succeed him. Obregón and
two other Sonoran revolutionary generals drew up the Plan of Agua Prieta,
overthrowing Carranza, who died fleeing Mexico City in 1920. General Adolfo de la
Huerta became interim president, followed the election of General Álvaro Obregón.

Political consolidation and one-party rule (1920–2000)

Further information: Institutional Revolutionary Party

Logo of the Institutional Revolutionary Party, which incorporates the colors of the
Mexican flag
The first quarter-century of the post-revolutionary period (1920–1946) was
characterized by revolutionary generals serving as Presidents of Mexico, including
Álvaro Obregón (1920–24), Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–28), Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–
40), and Manuel Avila Camacho (1940–46). Since 1946, no member of the military has
been President of Mexico. The post-revolutionary project of the Mexican government
sought to bring order to the country, end military intervention in politics, and
create organizations of interest groups. Workers, peasants, urban office workers,
and even the army for a short period were incorporated as sectors of the single
party that dominated Mexican politics from its founding in 1929.

Obregón instigated land reform and strengthened the power of organized labor. He
gained recognition from the United States and took steps to settle claims with
companies and individuals that lost property during the Revolution. He imposed his
fellow former Sonoran revolutionary general, Calles, as his successor, prompting an
unsuccessful military revolt. As president, Calles provoked a major conflict with
the Catholic Church and Catholic guerrilla armies when he strictly enforced
anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution. The Church-State conflict was
mediated and ended with the aid of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico and ended with an
agreement between the parties in conflict, by means of which the respective fields
of action were defined. Although the constitution prohibited reelection of the
president, Obregón wished to run again and the constitution was amended to allow
non-consecutive re-election. Obregón won the 1928 elections, but was assassinated
by a Catholic zealot, causing a political crisis of succession. Calles could not
become president again, since he has just ended his term. He sought to set up a
structure to manage presidential succession, founding the party that was to
dominate Mexico until the late twentieth century. Calles declared that the
Revolution had moved from caudillismo (rule by strongmen) to the era institucional
(institutional era).[135]

Pemex, the national oil company created in 1938 for reasons of economic
nationalism; it continues to provide major revenues for the government
Despite not holding the presidency, Calles remained the key political figure during
the period known as the Maximato (1929–1934). The Maximato ended during the
presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas, who expelled Calles from the country and implemented
many economic and social reforms. This included the Mexican oil expropriation in
March 1938, which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo-Dutch oil company known as the
Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company. This movement would result in the creation of the
state-owned Mexican oil company Pemex. This sparked a diplomatic crisis with the
countries whose citizens had lost businesses by Cárdenas's radical measure, but
since then the company has played an important role in the economic development of
Mexico. Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946) was more moderate,
and relations between the U.S. and Mexico vastly improved during World War II, when
Mexico was a significant ally, providing manpower and materiel to aid the war
effort.

From 1946 the election of Miguel Alemán, the first civilian president in the post-
revolutionary period, Mexico embarked on an aggressive program of economic
development, known as the Mexican miracle, which was characterized by
industrialization, urbanization, and the increase of inequality in Mexico between
urban and rural areas.[136] With robust economic growth, Mexico sought to showcase
it to the world by hosting the 1968 Summer Olympics. The government poured huge
resources into building new facilities. At the same time, there was political
unrest by university students and others with those expenditures, while their own
circumstances were difficult. Demonstrations in central Mexico City went on for
weeks before the planned opening of the games, with the government of Gustavo Díaz
Ordaz cracking down. The culmination was the Tlatelolco Massacre,[137] which
claimed the lives of around 300 protesters based on conservative estimates and
perhaps as many as 800.[138]

Logo for the 1968 Mexico Olympics

Students in a burned bus during the protests of 1968

Although the economy continued to flourish for some, social inequality remained a
factor of discontent. PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times
oppressive in what is now referred to as the Mexican Dirty War.[139]

Luis Echeverría, Minister of the Interior under Díaz Ordaz, carrying out the
repression during the Olympics, was elected president in 1970. His government had
to contend with mistrust of Mexicans and increasing economic problems. He
instituted some with electoral reforms.[140][141] Echeverría chose José López
Portillo as his successor in 1976. Economic problems worsened in his early term,
then massive reserves of petroleum were located off Mexico's Gulf Coast. Pemex did
not have the capacity to develop these reserves itself, and brought in foreign
firms. Oil prices had been high because of OPEC's lock on oil production, and López
Portilla borrowed money from foreign banks for current spending to fund social
programs. Those foreign banks were happy to lend to Mexico because the oil reserves
were enormous and future revenues were collateral for loans denominated in U.S.
dollars. When the price of oil dropped, Mexico's economy collapsed in the 1982
Crisis. Interest rates soared, the peso devalued, and unable to pay loans, the
government defaulted on its debt. President Miguel de la Madrid (1982–88) resorted
to currency devaluations which in turn sparked inflation.

In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in the PRI's complete political dominance. In
Baja California, the PAN candidate was elected as governor. When De la Madrid chose
Carlos Salinas de Gortari as the candidate for the PRI, and therefore a foregone
presidential victor, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of former President Lázaro Cárdenas,
broke with the PRI and challenged Salinas in the 1988 elections. In 1988 there was
massive electoral fraud, with results showing that Salinas had won the election by
the narrowest percentage ever. There were massive protests in Mexico City to the
stolen election. Salinas took the oath of office on 1 December 1988.[142] In 1990
the PRI was famously described by Mario Vargas Llosa as the "perfect dictatorship",
but by then there had been major challenges to the PRI's hegemony.[143][144][145]

NAFTA signing ceremony, October 1992. From left to right: (standing) President
Carlos Salinas de Gortari (Mexico), President George H. W. Bush (U.S.), and Prime
Minister Brian Mulroney (Canada)
Although Salinas won by fraud, he embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms which
fixed the exchange rate of the peso, controlled inflation, opened Mexico to foreign
investment, and began talks with the U.S. and Canada to join their free-trade
agreement. In order to do that, the Constitution of 1917 was amended in several
important ways. Article 27, which allowed the government to expropriate natural
resources and distribute land, was amended to end agrarian reform and to guarantee
private owners' property rights. The anti-clerical articles that muzzled religious
institutions, especially the Catholic Church, were amended and Mexico reestablished
of diplomatic relations with the Holy See, to which the Mexican State did not
recognize as a political entity. Signing on to the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) removed Mexico's autonomy over trade policy. The agreement came
into effect on 1 January 1994; the same day, the Zapatista Army of National
Liberation (EZLN) started a two-week-long armed rebellion against the federal
government, and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against
neoliberalism and globalization.

In 1994, following the assassination of the PRI's presidential candidate Luis

Donaldo Colosio, Salinas was succeeded by substitute PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo.
Salinas left Zedillo's government to deal with the Mexican peso crisis, requiring a
$50 billion IMF bailout. Major macroeconomic reforms were started by President
Zedillo, and the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the
end of 1999.[146]

Contemporary Mexico

Vicente Fox and his opposition National Action Party won the 2000 general election,
ending one-party rule.
In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the
opposition conservative National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential
election, Felipe Calderón from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow
margin (0.58%) over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador then the
candidate of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD).[147] López Obrador,
however, contested the election and pledged to create an "alternative government".
[148]

After twelve years, in 2012, the PRI won the presidency again with the election of
Enrique Peña Nieto, the governor of the State of Mexico from 2005 to 2011. However,
he won with a plurality of about 38%, and did not have a legislative majority.[149]

After founding the new political party MORENA, Andrés Manuel López Obrador won the
2018 presidential election with over 50% of the vote. His political coalition, led
by his left-wing party founded after the 2012 elections, includes parties and
politicians from all over the political spectrum. The coalition also won a majority
in both the upper and lower congress chambers. AMLO's (one of his many nicknames)
success is attributed to the country's other strong political alternatives
exhausting their chances as well as the politician adopting a moderate discourse
with focus in conciliation.[150]

Mexico has contended with high crime rates, official corruption, narcotrafficking,
and a stagnant economy. Many state-owned industrial enterprises were privatized
starting in the 1990s, with neoliberal reforms, but Pemex, the state-owned
petroleum company is only slowly being privatized, with exploration licenses being
issued.[151] In AMLO's push against government corruption, the ex-CEO of Pemex has
been arrested.[152]

Although there were fears of electoral fraud in Mexico's 2018 presidential

elections,[153] the results gave a mandate to AMLO.[154] On 1 December 2018, Andrés
Manuel López Obrador was sworn in as the new President of Mexico. After winning a
landslide victory in the July 2018 presidential elections, he became the first
leftwing president for decades.[155] In June 2021 midterm elections, López
Obrador's left-leaning Morena’s coalition lost seats in the lower house of
Congress. However, his ruling coalition maintained a simple majority, but López
Obrador failed to secure the two-thirds congressional supermajority. The main
opposition was a coalition of Mexico's three traditional parties: the center-right
Revolutionary Institutional Party, right-wing National Action Party and leftist
Party of the Democratic Revolution.[156]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Mexico

Topographic map of Mexico

Mexico is located between latitudes 14° and 33°N, and longitudes 86° and 119°W in
the southern portion of North America. Almost all of Mexico lies in the North
American Plate, with small parts of the Baja California peninsula on the Pacific
and Cocos Plates. Geophysically, some geographers include the territory east of the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec (around 12% of the total) within Central America.[157]
Geopolitically, however, Mexico is entirely considered part of North America, along
with Canada and the United States.[158]

Mexico's total area is 1,972,550 km2 (761,606 sq mi), making it the world's 13th
largest country by total area. It has coastlines on the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of
California, as well as the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, the latter two forming
part of the Atlantic Ocean.[159] Within these seas are about 6,000 km2 (2,317 sq
mi) of islands (including the remote Pacific Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo
Islands). From its farthest land points, Mexico is a little over 2,000 mi (3,219
km) in length.

On its north, Mexico shares a 3,141 km (1,952 mi) border with the United States.
The meandering Río Bravo del Norte (known as the Rio Grande in the United States)
defines the border from Ciudad Juárez east to the Gulf of Mexico. A series of
natural and artificial markers delineate the United States-Mexican border west from
Ciudad Juárez to the Pacific Ocean. On its south, Mexico shares an 871 km (541 mi)
border with Guatemala and a 251 km (156 mi) border with Belize.

Mexico is crossed from north to south by two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre
Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental, which are the extension of the Rocky
Mountains from northern North America. From east to west at the center, the country
is crossed by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt also known as the Sierra Nevada. A
fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur, runs from Michoacán to Oaxaca.
[160]
As such, the majority of the Mexican central and northern territories are located
at high altitudes, and the highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican
Volcanic Belt: Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m or 18,701 ft), Popocatépetl (5,462 m or
17,920 ft) and Iztaccihuatl (5,286 m or 17,343 ft) and the Nevado de Toluca (4,577
m or 15,016 ft). Three major urban agglomerations are located in the valleys
between these four elevations: Toluca, Greater Mexico City and Puebla.[160]

An important geologic feature of the Yucatán peninsula is the Chicxulub crater. The
scientific consensus is that the Chicxulub impactor was responsible for the
Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

Climate

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Main article: Climate of Mexico

Mexico map of Köppen climate classification

The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical
zones. Land north of the Tropic of Cancer experiences cooler temperatures during
the winter months. South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are fairly constant
year round and vary solely as a function of elevation. This gives Mexico one of the
world's most diverse weather systems.

Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer with elevations up to 1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the
southern parts of both coastal plains as well as the Yucatán Peninsula), have a
yearly median temperature between 24 to 28 °C (75.2 to 82.4 °F). Temperatures here
remain high throughout the year, with only a 5 °C (9 °F) difference between winter
and summer median temperatures. Both Mexican coasts, except for the south coast of
the Bay of Campeche and northern Baja, are also vulnerable to serious hurricanes
during the summer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the Tropic of Cancer
are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature
averages (from 20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F) because of more moderate conditions
during the winter.

Many large cities in Mexico are located in the Valley of Mexico or in adjacent
valleys with altitudes generally above 2,000 m (6,562 ft). This gives them a year-
round temperate climate with yearly temperature averages (from 16 to 18 °C or 60.8
to 64.4 °F) and cool nighttime temperatures throughout the year.

Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with sporadic
rainfall while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south average more than 2,000
mm (78.7 in) of annual precipitation. For example, many cities in the north like
Monterrey, Hermosillo, and Mexicali experience temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) or
more in summer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C (122 °F) or more.

Biodiversity

Mexican wolf

Gray whale
Mexico ranks fourth[161] in the world in biodiversity and is one of the 17
megadiverse countries. With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home of 10–
12% of the world's biodiversity.[162] Mexico ranks first in biodiversity in
reptiles with 707 known species, second in mammals with 438 species, fourth in
amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species.
[163] Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in ecosystems and
fourth in overall species.[164] About 2,500 species are protected by Mexican
legislations.[164]

In 2002, Mexico had the second fastest rate of deforestation in the world, second
only to Brazil.[165] It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of
6.82/10, ranking it 63rd globally out of 172 countries.[166] The government has
taken another initiative in the late 1990s to broaden the people's knowledge,
interest and use of the country's esteemed biodiversity, through the Comisión
Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad.

In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometers (65,637 sq mi) are considered "Protected

Natural Areas". These include 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67
national parks, 4 natural monuments (protected in perpetuity for their aesthetic,
scientific or historical value), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for
natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins and forests)
and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in diverse species).[162]

The discovery of the Americas brought to the rest of the world many widely used
food crops and edible plants. Some of Mexico's native culinary ingredients include:
chocolate, avocado, tomato, maize, vanilla, guava, chayote, epazote, camote,
jícama, nopal, zucchini, tejocote, huitlacoche, sapote, mamey sapote, many
varieties of beans, and an even greater variety of chiles, such as the habanero and
the jalapeño. Most of these names come from indigenous languages like Nahuatl.

Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a frequent site of
bioprospecting by international research bodies.[167] The first highly successful
instance being the discovery in 1947 of the tuber "Barbasco" (Dioscorea composita)
which has a high content of diosgenin, revolutionizing the production of synthetic
hormones in the 1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention of combined
oral contraceptive pills.[168]

Government and politics

Government
Main article: Federal government of Mexico

Andrés Manuel López Obrador President of Mexico

The United Mexican States are a federation whose government is representative,
democratic and republican based on a presidential system according to the 1917
Constitution. The constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal
Union, the state governments and the municipal governments. According to the
constitution, all constituent states of the federation must have a republican form
of government composed of three branches: the executive, represented by a governor
and an appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constituted by a unicameral
congress[169][original research?] and the judiciary, which will include a state
Supreme Court of Justice. They also have their own civil and judicial codes.

The federal legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union, composed of the
Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies. The Congress makes federal law,
declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international
treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments.[170]

The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are elected by a system of
parallel voting that includes plurality and proportional representation.[171] The
Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected by plurality vote
in single-member districts (the federal electoral districts) and 200 are elected by
proportional representation with closed party lists[172] for which the country is
divided into five electoral constituencies.[173] The Senate is made up of 128
senators. Of these, 64 senators (two for each state and two for Mexico City) are
elected by plurality vote in pairs; 32 senators are the first minority or first-
runner up (one for each state and one for Mexico City), and 32 are elected by
proportional representation from national closed party lists.[172]

Site of the Supreme Court of Justice

The executive is the President of the United Mexican States, who is the head of
state and government, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military
forces. The President also appoints the Cabinet and other officers. The President
is responsible for executing and enforcing the law, and has the power to veto
bills.[174]

The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is the Supreme Court of
Justice, the national supreme court, which has eleven judges appointed by the
President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws
and judges cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the
Federal Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the
Council of the Federal Judiciary.[175]

Politics
Main article: Politics of Mexico
Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in Mexican politics: the
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), a catch-all party[176] and member of the
Socialist International[177] that was founded in 1929 to unite all the factions of
the Mexican Revolution and held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics since
then; the National Action Party (PAN), a conservative party founded in 1939 and
belonging to the Christian Democrat Organization of America;[178] and the Party of
the Democratic Revolution (PRD) a left-wing party,[179] founded in 1989 as the
successor of the coalition of socialists and liberal parties. PRD emerged after
what has now been proven was a stolen election in 1988,[180] and has won numerous
state and local elections since then. PAN won its first governorship in 1989, and
won the presidency in 2000 and 2006.[181]

A new political party, National Regeneration Movement (MORENA), a leftist-populist

party, emerged after the 2012 election and dominated the 2018 Mexican general
election.[182]

Unlike many Latin American countries, the military in Mexico does not participate
in politics and is under civilian control.[183]

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Mexico

Alfonso García Robles diplomat who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1982
The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of Mexico[184] and
managed through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[185] The principles of the foreign
policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which
include: respect for international law and legal equality of states, their
sovereignty and independence, trend to non-interventionism in the domestic affairs
of other countries, peaceful resolution of conflicts, and promotion of collective
security through active participation in international organizations.[184] Since
the 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these
principles.[186]

Mexico is founding member of several international organizations, most notably the

United Nations,[187] the Organization of American States,[188] the Organization of
Ibero-American States,[189] the OPANAL[190] and the CELAC.[191] In 2008, Mexico
contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Nations regular budget.[192] In
addition, it was the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development since it joined in 1994 until Chile gained full
membership in 2010.[193][194]
Mexico is considered a regional power[195][196] hence its presence in major
economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20. In addition, since the 1990s Mexico
has sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working
methods[197] with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries,
which form a group informally called the Coffee Club.[198]

After the War of Independence, the relations of Mexico were focused primarily on
the United States, its northern neighbor, largest trading partner,[199] and the
most powerful actor in hemispheric and world affairs.[200] Mexico supported the
Cuban government since its establishment in the early 1960s,[201] the Sandinista
revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s,[202] and leftist revolutionary
groups in El Salvador during the 1980s.[203] Felipe Calderón's administration
(2006–2012) put a greater emphasis on relations with Latin America and the
Caribbean.[204] Enrique Peña Nieto (2012–2018) emphasized economic issues and
foreign investment, particularly the now-defunct Trans-Pacific Partnership.[205]
Andrés Manuel López Obrador has taken a cautious approach, unwilling to challenge
U.S. President Donald Trump on either trade or migration, while maintaining
neutrality on Venezuela and welcoming Chinese money.[206]

Military
Main article: Mexican Armed Forces
See also: Military history of Mexico

A Mexican Navy Eurocopter

The Mexican military "provides a unique example of a military leadership's
transforming itself into a civilian political elite, simultaneously transferring
the basis of power from the army to a civilian state."[207] The transformation was
brought about by revolutionary generals in the 1920s and 1930s, following the
demise of the Federal Army following its complete defeat during the decade-long
Mexican Revolution.[208]

The Mexican Armed Forces have two branches: the Mexican Army (which includes the
Mexican Air Force), and the Mexican Navy. The Mexican Armed Forces maintain
significant infrastructure, including facilities for design, research, and testing
of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics;
[209][210] military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems, and
advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile
technologies.[211]

In recent years, Mexico has improved its training techniques, military command and
information structures and has taken steps to becoming more self-reliant in
supplying its military by designing as well as manufacturing its own arms,[212]
missiles,[210] aircraft,[213] vehicles, heavy weaponry, electronics,[209] defense
systems,[209] armor, heavy military industrial equipment and heavy naval vessels.
[214] Since the 1990s, when the military escalated its role in the war on drugs,
increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms,
aircraft, helicopters, digital war-fighting technologies,[209] urban warfare
equipment and rapid troop transport.[215]

Mexico has the capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this
possibility with the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to only use its
nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.[216] In 1970, Mexico's national institute
for nuclear research successfully refined weapons grade uranium[217][failed
verification] which is used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons but in April
2010, Mexico agreed to turn over its weapons grade uranium to the United States.
[218][219] Mexico signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[220]

Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts,[221] with the

exception of World War II. However, in recent years some political parties have
proposed an amendment of the Constitution to allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or
Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to provide
military help to countries that officially ask for it.[222]

Law enforcement
Main article: Law enforcement in Mexico

Federal Police headquarters in Mexico City

Public security is enacted at the three levels of government, each of which has
different prerogatives and responsibilities. Local and state police departments are
primarily in charge of law enforcement, whereas the Mexican Federal Police are in
charge of specialized duties. All levels report to the Secretaría de Seguridad
Pública (Secretary of Public Security). The General Attorney's Office (Fiscalía
General de la República, FGR) is a constitutional autonomous organism in charge of
investigating and prosecuting crimes at the federal level, mainly those related to
drug and arms trafficking,[223] espionage, and bank robberies.[224] The FGR
operates the Federal Ministerial Police (Policia Federal Ministerial, PMF) an
investigative and preventive agency.[225]

While the government generally respects the human rights of its citizens, serious
abuses of power have been reported in security operations in the southern part of
the country and in indigenous communities and poor urban neighborhoods.[226] The
National Human Rights Commission has had little impact in reversing this trend,
engaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its powers to issue public
condemnations to the officials who ignore its recommendations.[227] By law, all
defendants have the rights that assure them fair trials and humane treatment;
however, the system is overburdened and overwhelmed with several problems.[226]

Despite the efforts of the authorities to fight crime and fraud, most Mexicans have
low confidence in the police or the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are
actually reported by the citizens.[226] The Global Integrity Index which measures
the existence and effectiveness of national anti-corruption mechanisms rated Mexico
31st behind Kenya, Thailand, and Russia.[228] In 2008, president Calderón proposed
a major reform of the judicial system, which was approved by the Congress of the
Union, which included oral trials, the presumption of innocence for defendants, the
authority of local police to investigate crime—until then a prerogative of special
police units—and several other changes intended to speed up trials.[229]

Crime
Main articles: Crime in Mexico, Mexican Drug War, and Human trafficking in Mexico
Drug cartels are a major concern in Mexico.[230] Mexico's drug war, ongoing since
2006, has left over 120,000 dead and perhaps another 37,000 missing.[37] The
Mexican drug cartels have as many as 100,000 members.[231] Mexico's National
Geography and Statistics Institute estimated that in 2014, one-fifth of Mexicans
were victims of some sort of crime.[232] The U.S. Department of State warns its
citizens to exercise increased caution when traveling in Mexico, issuing travel
advisories on its website.[233]

Demonstration on 26 September 2015, in the first anniversary of the disappearance

of the 43 students in the Mexican town of Iguala
President Felipe Calderón (2006–12) made eradicating organized crime one of the top
priorities of his administration by deploying military personnel to cities where
drug cartels operate. This move was criticized by the opposition parties and the
National Human Rights Commission for escalating the violence,[234] but its effects
have been positively evaluated by the US State Department's Bureau for
International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs as having obtained
"unprecedented results" with "many important successes".[235]
Since President Felipe Calderón launched a crackdown against cartels in 2006, more
than 28,000 alleged criminals have been successfully killed.[236][237] Of the total
drug-related violence 4% are innocent people,[238] mostly by-passers and people
trapped in between shootings; 90% accounts for criminals and 6% for military
personnel and police officers.[238] In October 2007, President Calderón and US
president George W. Bush announced the Mérida Initiative, a plan of law enforcement
cooperation between the two countries.[239]

More than 100 journalists and media workers have been killed or disappeared since
2000, and most of these crimes remained unsolved, improperly investigated, and with
few perpetrators arrested and convicted.[240][241]

The mass kidnapping of the 43 students in Iguala on 26 September 2014 triggered

nationwide protests against the government's weak response to the disappearances
and widespread corruption that gives free rein to criminal organizations.[242]

Administrative divisions
Main articles: Administrative divisions of Mexico, States of Mexico, Municipalities
of Mexico, and List of Mexican state legislatures
The United Mexican States are a federation of 31 free and sovereign states, which
form a union that exercises a degree of jurisdiction over Mexico City.[243]

Each state has its own constitution, congress, and a judiciary, and its citizens
elect by direct voting a governor for a six-year term, and representatives to their
respective unicameral state congresses for three-year terms.[244]

Mexico City is a special political division that belongs to the federation as a

whole and not to a particular state.[243] Formerly known as the Federal District,
its autonomy was previously limited relative to that of the states.[245] It dropped
this designation in 2016 and is in the process of achieving greater political
autonomy by becoming a federal entity with its own constitution and congress.[246]

The states are divided into municipalities, the smallest administrative political
entity in the country, governed by a mayor or municipal president (presidente
municipal), elected by its residents by plurality.[247]

Gulf of
MexicoPacific
OceanCentral
AmericaUnited States of AmericaMexico CityAGBaja
CaliforniaBaja
California
SurCampecheChiapasChihuahuaCoahuilaColimaDurangoGuanajuatoGuerreroHDJaliscoEMMichoa
cánMONayaritNuevo
LeónOaxacaPueblaQuerétaroQuintana
RooSan Luis
PotosíSinaloaSonoraTabascoTamaulipasTLVeracruzYucatánZacatecas
Entity/Abbreviation Capital Entity/Abbreviation Capital
Aguascalientes (AGS) Aguascalientes Morelos (MOR) Cuernavaca
Baja California (BC) Mexicali Nayarit (NAY) Tepic
Baja California Sur (BCS) La Paz Nuevo León (NL) Monterrey
Campeche (CAM) Campeche Oaxaca (OAX) Oaxaca
Chiapas (CHIS) Tuxtla Gutiérrez Puebla (PUE) Puebla
Chihuahua (CHIH) Chihuahua Querétaro (QRO) Querétaro
Coahuila (COAH) Saltillo Quintana Roo (QR) Chetumal
Colima (COL) Colima San Luis Potosí (SLP) San Luis Potosí
Durango (DUR) Durango Sinaloa (SNL) Culiacán
Guanajuato (GTO) Guanajuato Sonora (SON) Hermosillo
 Guerrero (GRO) Chilpancingo Tabasco (TAB) Villahermosa
Hidalgo (HGO) Pachuca Tamaulipas (TAMPS) Victoria
Jalisco (JAL) Guadalajara Tlaxcala (TLAX) Tlaxcala
State of Mexico (EM) Toluca Veracruz (VER) Xalapa
Mexico City (CDMX) Mexico City Yucatán (YUC) Mérida
Michoacán (MICH) Morelia Zacatecas (ZAC) Zacatecas
Economy
Main article: Economy of Mexico
See also: Economic history of Mexico

A proportional representation of Mexico's exports. The country has the most complex
economy in Latin America.

Historical GDP per capita development of Mexico

As of April 2018, Mexico has the 15th largest nominal GDP (US$1.15 trillion)[248]
and the 11th largest by purchasing power parity (US$2.45 trillion). GDP annual
average growth was 2.9% in 2016 and 2% in 2017.[248] Agriculture has comprised 4%
of the economy over the last two decades, while industry contributes 33% (mostly
automotive, oil, and electronics) and services (notably financial services and
tourism) contribute 63%.[248] Mexico's GDP in PPP per capita was US$18,714.05. The
World Bank reported in 2009 that the country's Gross National Income in market
exchange rates was the second highest in Latin America, after Brazil at
US$1,830.392 billion,[249] which led to the highest income per capita in the region
at $15,311.[250][251] Mexico is now firmly established as an upper middle-income
country. After the slowdown of 2001 the country has recovered and has grown 4.2,
3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005 and 2006,[252] even though it is considered to be
well below Mexico's potential growth.[253] The International Monetary Fund predicts
growth rates of 2.3% and 2.7% for 2018 and 2019, respectively.[248] By 2050, Mexico
could potentially become the world's fifth or seventh largest economy.[254][255]

Although multiple international organizations coincide and classify Mexico as an

upper middle income country, or a middle class country[256][257] Mexico's National
Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (CONEVAL), which is the
organization in charge to measure the country's poverty reports that a huge
percentage of Mexico's population lives in poverty. According to said council, from
2006 to 2010 (year on which the CONEVAL published its first nationwide report of
poverty) the portion of Mexicans who live in poverty rose from 18%–19%[258] to 46%
(52 million people).[259] However, rather than Mexico's economy crashing,
international economists attribute the huge increase in the percentage of
population living below the country's poverty line to the CONEVAL using new
standards to define it, as now besides people who lives below the economic welfare
line, people who lacks at least one "social need" such as complete education,
access to healthcare, access to regular food, housing services and goods, social
security etc. were considered to be living in poverty (several countries do collect
information regarding the persistence of said vulnerabilities on their population,
but Mexico is the only one that classifies people lacking one or more of those
needs as living below its national poverty line). Said economists do point out that
the percentage of people living in poverty according to Mexico's national poverty
line is around 40 times higher than the one reported by the World Bank's
international poverty line (with said difference being the biggest in the world)
and ponder if it would not be better for countries in the situation of Mexico to
adopt internationalized standards to measure poverty so the numbers obtained could
be used to make accurate international comparisons.[260] According to the OECD's
own poverty line (defined as the percentage of a country's population who earns
60%[261] or less of the national median income) 20% of Mexico's population lives in
a situation of poverty.[262]

Mexican Stock Exchange building

Among the OECD countries, Mexico has the second-highest degree of economic
disparity between the extremely poor and extremely rich, after Chile – although it
has been falling over the last decade, being one of few countries in which this is
the case.[263] The bottom ten percent in the income hierarchy disposes of 1.36% of
the country's resources, whereas the upper ten percent dispose of almost 36%. The
OECD also notes that Mexico's budgeted expenses for poverty alleviation and social
development is only about a third of the OECD average.[264] This is also reflected
by the fact that infant mortality in Mexico is three times higher than the average
among OECD nations whereas its literacy levels are in the median range of OECD
nations. Nevertheless, according to Goldman Sachs, by 2050 Mexico will have the 5th
largest economy in the world.[265] According to a 2008 UN report the average income
in a typical urbanized area of Mexico was $26,654, while the average income in
rural areas just miles away was only $8,403.[266] Daily minimum wages are set
annually being set at $102.68 Mexican pesos (US$5.40) in 2019.[267] All of the
indices of social development for the Mexican Indigenous population are
considerably lower than the national average, which is motive of concern for the
government.[268]

Angel of Independence on Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City

The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last decade.
Mexico has the sixth largest electronics industry in the world after China, United
States, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Mexico is the second-largest exporter of
electronics to the United States where it exported $71.4 billion worth of
electronics in 2011.[269] The Mexican electronics industry is dominated by the
manufacture and OEM design of televisions, displays, computers, mobile phones,
circuit boards, semiconductors, electronic appliances, communications equipment and
LCD modules. The Mexican electronics industry grew 20% between 2010 and 2011, up
from its constant growth rate of 17% between 2003 and 2009.[269] Currently
electronics represent 30% of Mexico's exports.[269]

Mexico produces the most automobiles of any North American nation.[270] The
industry produces technologically complex components and engages in some research
and development activities.[271] The "Big Three" (General Motors, Ford and
Chrysler) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and
Nissan built their plants in the 1960s.[272] In Puebla alone, 70 industrial part-
makers cluster around Volkswagen.[271] In the 2010s expansion of the sector was
surging. In 2014 alone, more than $10 billion in investment was committed. In
September 2016 Kia motors opened a $1 billion factory in Nuevo León,[273] with Audi
also opening an assembling plant in Puebla the same year.[274] BMW, Mercedes-Benz
and Nissan currently have plants in construction.[275]

The domestic car industry is represented by DINA S.A., which has built buses and
trucks since 1962,[276] and the new Mastretta company that builds the high-
performance Mastretta MXT sports car.[277] In 2006, trade with the United States
and Canada accounted for almost 50% of Mexico's exports and 45% of its imports.[12]
During the first three quarters of 2010, the United States had a $46.0 billion
trade deficit with Mexico.[278] In August 2010 Mexico surpassed France to become
the 9th largest holder of US debt.[279] The commercial and financial dependence on
the US is a cause for concern.[280]

The remittances from Mexican citizens working in the United States account for 0.2%
of Mexico's GDP[281] which was equal to US$20 billion per year in 2004 and is the
tenth largest source of foreign income after oil, industrial exports, manufactured
goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and
financial services.[282] According to Mexico's central bank, remittances in 2008
amounted to $25bn.[283]

Communications
Main article: Telecommunications in Mexico

Telmex Tower, Mexico City.

The telecommunications industry is mostly dominated by Telmex (Teléfonos de
México), privatized in 1990. By 2006, Telmex had expanded its operations to
Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and the United States. Other
players in the domestic industry are Axtel, Maxcom, Alestra, Marcatel, AT&T Mexico.
[284] Because of Mexican orography, providing a landline telephone service at
remote mountainous areas is expensive, and the penetration of line-phones per
capita is low compared to other Latin American countries, at 40 percent; however,
82% of Mexicans over the age of 14 own a mobile phone. Mobile telephony has the
advantage of reaching all areas at a lower cost, and the total number of mobile
lines is almost two times that of landlines, with an estimation of 63 million
lines.[285] The telecommunication industry is regulated by the government through
Cofetel (Comisión Federal de Telecomunicaciones).

The Mexican satellite system is domestic and operates 120 earth stations. There is
also extensive microwave radio relay network and considerable use of fiber-optic
and coaxial cable.[285] Mexican satellites are operated by Satélites Mexicanos
(Satmex), a private company, leader in Latin America and servicing both North and
South America.[286] It offers broadcast, telephone and telecommunication services
to 37 countries in the Americas, from Canada to Argentina. Through business
partnerships Satmex provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital Broadcast
Services.[287] Satmex maintains its own satellite fleet with most of the fleet
being designed and built in Mexico.

Major players in the broadcasting industry are Televisa, the largest Mexican media
company in the Spanish-speaking world,[288] TV Azteca and Imagen Televisión.

Energy
See also: Electricity sector in Mexico

The Central Eólica Sureste I, Fase II in Oaxaca. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is the
region of Mexico with the highest capacity for wind energy. (see Tehuantepecer, a
strong wind that affects the region)
Energy production in Mexico is managed by the state-owned companies Federal
Commission of Electricity and Pemex.

Pemex, the public company in charge of exploration, extraction, transportation and

marketing of crude oil and natural gas, as well as the refining and distribution of
petroleum products and petrochemicals, is one of the largest companies in the world
by revenue, making US$86 billion in sales a year.[289][290][291] Mexico is the
sixth-largest oil producer in the world, with 3.7 million barrels per day.[292] In
1980 oil exports accounted for 61.6% of total exports; by 2000 it was only 7.3%.
[271]

The largest hydro plant in Mexico is the 2,400 MW Manuel Moreno Torres Dam in
Chicoasén, Chiapas, in the Grijalva River. This is the world's fourth most
productive hydroelectric plant.[293]

Mexico is the country with the world's third largest solar potential.[294] The
country's gross solar potential is estimated at 5kWh/m2 daily, which corresponds to
50 times national electricity generation.[295] Currently, there is over 1 million
square meters of solar thermal panels[296] installed in Mexico, while in 2005,
there were 115,000 square meters of solar PV (photo-voltaic). It is expected that
in 2012 there will be 1,8 million square meters of installed solar thermal panels.
[296]

The project named SEGH-CFE 1, located in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Northwest of

Mexico, will have capacity of 46.8 MW from an array of 187,200 solar panels when
complete in 2013.[297] All of the electricity will be sold directly to the CFE and
absorbed into the utility's transmission system for distribution throughout their
existing network. At an installed capacity of 46.8 MWp, when complete in 2013, the
project will be the first utility scale project of its kind in Mexico and the
largest solar project of any kind in Latin America.

Science and technology

Main article: History of science and technology in Mexico

Guillermo Haro Observatory in Cananea, Sonora.

The National Autonomous University of Mexico was officially established in 1910,
[298] and the university became one of the most important institutes of higher
learning in Mexico.[299] UNAM provides world class education in science, medicine,
and engineering.[300] Many scientific institutes and new institutes of higher
learning, such as National Polytechnic Institute (founded in 1936),[301] were
established during the first half of the 20th century. Most of the new research
institutes were created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM
from 1929 to 1973.[302] In 1959, the Mexican Academy of Sciences was created to
coordinate scientific efforts between academics.

In 1995, the Mexican chemist Mario J. Molina shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
with Paul J. Crutzen and F. Sherwood Rowland for their work in atmospheric
chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone.[303]
Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, became the first Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prize
in science.[304]

In recent years, the largest scientific project being developed in Mexico was the
construction of the Large Millimeter Telescope (Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT),
the world's largest and most sensitive single-aperture telescope in its frequency
range.[305] It was designed to observe regions of space obscured by stellar dust.
Mexico was ranked 55th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, up from 56th in
2019.[306][307][308][309]

Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Mexico

Cancun and the Riviera Maya is the most visited region in Latin America
As of 2017, Mexico was the 6th most visited country in the world and had the 15th
highest income from tourism in the world which is also the highest in Latin
America.[310] The vast majority of tourists come to Mexico from the United States
and Canada followed by Europe and Asia. A smaller number also come from other Latin
American countries.[311] In the 2017 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report,
Mexico was ranked 22nd in the world, which was 3rd in the Americas.[312]

The coastlines of Mexico harbor many stretches of beaches that are frequented by
sunbathers and other visitors. According to national law, the entirety of the
coastlines are under federal ownership, that is, all beaches in the country are
public. On the Yucatán peninsula, one of the most popular beach destinations is the
resort town of Cancún, especially among university students during spring break.
Just offshore is the beach island of Isla Mujeres, and to the east is the Isla
Holbox. To the south of Cancun is the coastal strip called Riviera Maya which
includes the beach town of Playa del Carmen and the ecological parks of Xcaret and
Xel-Há. A day trip to the south of Cancún is the historic port of Tulum. In
addition to its beaches, the town of Tulum is notable for its cliff-side Mayan
ruins.

On the Pacific coast is the notable tourist destination of Acapulco. Once the
destination for the rich and famous, the beaches have become crowded and the shores
are now home to many multi-story hotels and vendors. Acapulco is home to renowned
cliff divers: trained divers who leap from the side of a vertical cliff into the
surf below.

At the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula is the resort town of Cabo San
Lucas, a town noted for its beaches and marlin fishing.[313] Further north along
the Sea of Cortés is the Bahía de La Concepción, another beach town known for its
sports fishing. Closer to the United States border is the weekend draw of San
Felipe, Baja California.

Transportation
Main article: Transportation in Mexico

The Baluarte Bridge is the highest cable-stayed bridge in the world, the fifth-
highest bridge overall and the highest bridge in the Americas.
The roadway network in Mexico is extensive and all areas in the country are covered
by it.[314] The roadway network in Mexico has an extent of 366,095 km (227,481 mi),
[315] of which 116,802 km (72,577 mi) are paved.[316] Of these, 10,474 km (6,508
mi) are multi-lane expressways: 9,544 km (5,930 mi) are four-lane highways and the
rest have 6 or more lanes.[316]

Starting in the late nineteenth century, Mexico was one of the first Latin American
countries to promote railway development,[226] and the network covers 30,952 km
(19,233 mi).[317] The Secretary of Communications and Transport of Mexico proposed
a high-speed rail link that will transport its passengers from Mexico City to
Guadalajara, Jalisco.[318][319] The train, which will travel at 300 kilometers per
hour (190 miles per hour),[320] will allow passengers to travel from Mexico City to
Guadalajara in just 2 hours.[320] The whole project was projected to cost 240
billion pesos, or about 25 billion US$[318] and is being paid for jointly by the
Mexican government and the local private sector including the wealthiest man in the
world, Mexico's billionaire business tycoon Carlos Slim.[321] The government of the
state of Yucatán is also funding the construction of a high speed line connecting
the cities of Cozumel to Mérida and Chichen Itza and Cancún.[322]

Mexico has 233 airports with paved runways; of these, 35 carry 97% of the passenger
traffic.[317] The Mexico City International Airport remains the busiest in Latin
America and the 36th busiest in the world[323] transporting 45 million passengers a
year.[324]

Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Mexico

El Cajon Dam
Among the achievements is a significant increase in access to piped water supply in
urban areas (96.4%) as well as in rural areas (69.4%) as of 2018.[325] Other
achievements include the existence of a functioning national system to finance
water and sanitation infrastructure with a National Water Commission as its apex
institution.

The challenges include water scarcity in the northern and central parts of the
country; inadequate water service quality (drinking water quality; 11% of Mexicans
receiving water only intermittently as of 2014);[326] poor technical and commercial
efficiency of most utilities (with an average level of non-revenue water of 43.2%
in 2010);[327] increasing the national percentage of fully sanitized water which at
57%,[328] is considered to not be enough, as the country's theoretically available
percentage of water per capita is 60% lower than it was 60 years ago;[329] and the
improvement of adequate access in rural areas. In addition to on-going investments
to expand access, the government has embarked on a large investment program to
improve wastewater treatment.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Mexico

Mexican states by population density

Throughout the 19th century, the population of Mexico had barely doubled. This
trend continued during the first two decades of the 20th century, and even in the
1921 census there was a loss of about 1 million inhabitants. The phenomenon can be
explained because during the decade from 1910 to 1921 the Mexican Revolution took
place. The growth rate increased dramatically between the 1930s and the 1980s, when
the country registered growth rates of over 3% (1950–1980). The Mexican population
doubled in twenty years, and at that rate it was expected that by 2000 there would
be 120 million Mexicans. Life expectancy went from 36 years (in 1895) to 72 years
(in the year 2000). According to estimations made by Mexico's National Geography
and Statistics Institute, as of 2017 Mexico has 123.5 million inhabitants[330]
making it the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.[331] Between
2005 and 2010, the Mexican population grew at an average of 1.70% per year, up from
1.16% per year between 2000 and 2005.

Even though Mexico is a very ethnically diverse country, research about ethnicity
has largely been a forgotten field, in consequence of the post-revolutionary
efforts of Mexico's government to unify all non-indigenous Mexicans under a single
ethnic identity (that of the "Mestizo"). As a result, since 1930 the only explicit
ethnic classification that has been included in Mexican censuses has been that of
"Indigenous peoples".[332] Even then, across the years the government has used
different criteria to count Indigenous peoples, with each of them returning
considerably different numbers ranging from 6.1%[1] to 23% of the country's
population. It is not until very recently that the Mexican government began
conducting surveys that consider other ethnic groups that live in the country such
as Afro-Mexicans who amount to 2% of Mexico's population[1] or White Mexicans[333]
[334] who amount to 47% of Mexico's population (with the criteria being based on
appearance rather than on self-declared ancestry).[335][336][337][338][339] Less
numerous groups in Mexico such as Asians and Middle Easterners are also accounted
for, with numbers of around 1% each.

As of 2017, it is estimated that 1.2 million foreigners have settled in the

country,[340] up from nearly 1 million in 2010.[341] The vast majority of migrants
come from the United States (900,000), making Mexico the top destination for U.S.
citizens abroad.[342] The second largest group comes from neighboring Guatemala
(54,500), followed by Spain (27,600).[340] Other major sources of migration are
fellow Latin American countries, which include Colombia (20,600), Argentina
(19,200) and Cuba (18,100).[340] Historically, the Lebanese diaspora and the
German-born Mennonite migration have left a notorious impact in the country's
culture, particularly in its cuisine and traditional music.[343][344] At the turn
of the 21st century, several trends have increased the number of foreigners
residing in the country such as the 2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis,[345]
increasing gang-related violence in the Northern Triangle of Central America,[346]
the ongoing political and economic crisis in Venezuela,[347][348] and the
automotive industry boom led by Japanese and South Korean investment.[349][350]

Ethnicity and race

Las castas. Casta painting showing 16 racial groupings. Anonymous, 18th century,
oil on canvas, 148×104 cm, Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán, Mexico.
Regardless of ethnicity, the majority of Mexicans are united under the same
national identity.[351] This is the product of an ideology strongly promoted by
Mexican academics such as Manuel Gamio and José Vasconcelos known as mestizaje,
whose goal was that of Mexico becoming a racially and culturally homogeneous
country.[352][351][353] The ideology's influence was reflected in Mexico's national
censuses of 1921 and 1930: in the former, which was Mexico's first-ever national
census (but second-ever if the census made in colonial times is taken into account)
[84] that considered race, approximately 60% of Mexico's population identified as
Mestizos,[354] and in the latter, Mexico's government declared that all Mexicans
were now Mestizos, for which racial classifications would be dropped in favor of
language-based ones in future censuses.[332] During most of the 20th century these
censuses' results were taken as fact, with extraofficial international publications
often using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition,[355][226]
[356] but in recent time historians and academics have claimed that said results
are not accurate, as in its efforts to homogenize Mexico, the government inflated
the Mestizo label's percentage by classifying a good number of people as such
regardless of whether they were of actual mixed ancestry or not,[357][358][359]
[360] pointing out that an alteration so drastic of population trends compared to
earlier censuses such as New Spain's 1793 census (on which Europeans were estimated
to be 18% to 22% of the population, Mestizos 21% to 25% and Indigenous peoples 51%
to 61%)[84] is not possible and that the frequency of marriages between people of
different ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico was low.[361][362] It
is also observed that when asked directly about their ethno-racial identification,
many Mexicans nowadays do not identify as Mestizos,[363] would not agree to be
labeled as such,[364] and that "static" ethnoracial labels such as "White" or
"Indian" are far more prominent in contemporary Mexican society than the "Mestizo"
one is, whose use is mostly limited to intellectual circles, a result of the
label's constantly-changing and subjective definition.[365]

The total percentage of Mexico's indigenous peoples tends to vary depending on the
criteria used by the government in its censuses: if the ability to speak an
indigenous language is used as the criterion to define a person as indigenous, it
is 6.1%,[1][366] if racial self-identification is used, it is 14.9%[367][d] and if
people who consider themselves part indigenous are also included, it amounts to
23%.[370] Nonetheless, all the censuses conclude that the majority of Mexico's
indigenous population is concentrated in rural areas of the southern and south-
eastern Mexican states,[371] with the highest percentages being found in Yucatán
(59% of the population), Oaxaca (48%), Quintana Roo (39%), Chiapas (28%), and
Campeche (27%).[268][372]

Similarly to Mestizo and indigenous peoples, estimates of the percentage of

European-descended Mexicans vary considerably depending on the criteria used:
recent nationwide field surveys that account for different phenotypical traits
(hair color, skin color etc.) report a percentage between 18%[373]-23%[374] if the
criterion is the presence of blond hair, and of 47% if the criterion is skin color,
with the later surveys having been conducted by Mexico's government itself.[335]
[336][337][339][375] While, during the colonial era, most of the European migration
into Mexico was Spanish, in the 19th and 20th centuries, a substantial number of
non-Spanish Europeans immigrated to the country,[376] with Europeans often being
the most numerous ethnic group in colonial Mexican cities.[377][378] Nowadays,
Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of European
populations, with the majority of the people not having native admixture or being
of predominantly European ancestry.[379]

Colonial caste painting of Mexican family in Viceroyalty of New Spain

The Afro-Mexican population (2,576,213 individuals as of 2020)[1][380] is an ethnic
group made up of descendants of Colonial-era slaves and recent immigrants of sub-
Saharan African descent. Mexico had an active slave trade during the colonial
period, and some 200,000 Africans were taken there, primarily in the 17th century.
The creation of a national Mexican identity, especially after the Mexican
Revolution, emphasized Mexico's indigenous and European past; it passively
eliminated the African ancestors and contributions. Most of the African-descended
population was absorbed into the surrounding Mestizo (mixed European/indigenous)
and indigenous populations through unions among the groups. Evidence of this long
history of intermarriage with Mestizo and indigenous Mexicans is also expressed in
the fact that, in the 2015 inter-census, 64.9% (896,829) of Afro-Mexicans also
identified as indigenous. It was also reported that 7.4% of Afro-Mexicans speak an
indigenous language.[1][381] The states with the highest self-report of Afro-
Mexicans were Guerrero (8.6% of the population), Oaxaca (4.7%) and Baja California
Sur (3.3%).[1][382] Afro-Mexican culture is strongest in the communities of the
Costa Chica of Oaxaca and Costa Chica of Guerrero.

During the early 20th century, a substantial number of Arabs (mostly Christians)
[citation needed] began arriving from the crumbling Ottoman Empire. The largest
group were the Lebanese and an estimated 400,000 Mexicans have some Lebanese
ancestry.[383] Smaller ethnic groups in Mexico include South and East Asians,
present since the colonial era. During the colonial era, Asians were termed Chino
(regardless of ethnicity), and arrived as merchants, artisans and slaves.[384] A
study by Juan Esteban Rodríguez, a graduate student at the National Laboratory of
Genomics for Biodiversity, indicated that up to one third of people sampled from
Guerrero state had significantly more Asian ancestry than most Mexicans, primarily
Filipino or Indonesian.[385][386] Modern Asian immigration began in the late 19th
century, and at one point in the early 20th century, the Chinese were the second
largest immigrant group.[387]

Emigration
Main article: Emigration from Mexico
See also: Immigration to Mexico
In the early 1960s, around 600,000 Mexicans lived abroad, which increased sevenfold
by the 1990s to 4.4 million.[388] At the turn of the 21st century, this figure more
than doubled to 9.5 million.[388] As of 2017, it is estimated that 12.9 million
Mexicans live abroad, primarily in the United States, which concentrates nearly 98%
of the expatriate population.[388] The majority of Mexicans have settled in states
such as California, Texas and Illinois, particularly around the metropolitan areas
of Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston and Dallas–Fort Worth.[389] As a result of these
major migration flows in recent decades, around 36 million U.S. residents, or 11.2%
of the country's population, identified as being of full or partial Mexican
ancestry.[390] The remaining 2% of expatriates have settled in Canada (86,000),
primarily in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec,[391] followed by Spain (49,000)
and Germany (18,000), both European destinations represent almost two-thirds of the
Mexican population living in the continent.[388] As for Latin America, it is
estimated that 69,000 Mexicans live in the region, Guatemala (18,000) being the top
destination for expatriates, followed by Bolivia (10,000) and Panama (5,000).[388]

Languages
Main article: Languages of Mexico

Octavio Paz was awarded the 1981 Miguel de Cervantes Prize, the 1982 Neustadt
International Prize for Literature, and the 1990 Nobel Prize in Literature.
Spanish is the de facto national language spoken by the vast majority of the
population, making Mexico the world's most populous Hispanophone country.[392][331]
Mexican Spanish refers to the varieties of the language spoken in the country,
which differ from one region to another in sound, structure, and vocabulary.[393]
In general, Mexican Spanish does not make any phonetic distinction among the
letters s and z, as well as c when preceding the vowels e and i, as opposed to
Peninsular Spanish. The letters b and v have the same pronunciation as well.[393]
Furthermore, the usage of vos, the second person singular pronoun, found in several
Latin American varieties, is replaced by tú; whereas vosotros, the second person
plural pronoun, fell out of use and was effectively replaced by ustedes.[393] In
written form, the Spanish Royal Academy serves as the primary guideline for
spelling, except for words of Amerindian origin that retain their original
phonology such as cenzontle instead of sinzontle and México not Méjico. Words of
foreign origin also maintain their original spelling such as "whisky" and "film",
as opposed to güisqui and filme as the Royal Academy suggests.[393] The letter x is
distinctly used in Mexican Spanish, where it may be pronounced as [ks] (as in
oxígeno or taxi); as [ʃ], particularly in Amerindian words (e.g. mixiote, Xola and
uxmal); and as the voiceless velar fricative [x] (such as Texas and Oaxaca).[393]

The federal government officially recognizes sixty-eight linguistic groups and 364
varieties of indigenous languages.[394] It is estimated that around 8.3 million
citizens speak these languages,[395] with Nahuatl being the most widely spoken by
more than 1.7 million, followed by Yucatec Maya used daily by nearly 850,000
people. Tzeltal and Tzotzil, two other Mayan languages, are spoken by around half a
million people each, primarily in the southern state of Chiapas.[395] Mixtec and
Zapotec, with an estimated 500,000 native speakers each, are two other prominent
language groups.[395] Since its creation in March 2003, the National Indigenous
Languages Institute has been in charge of promoting and protecting the use of the
country's indigenous languages, through the General Law of Indigenous Peoples'
Linguistic Rights, which recognizes them de jure as "national languages" with
status equal to that of Spanish.[396] That notwithstanding, in practice, indigenous
peoples often face discrimination and don't have full access to public services
such as education and healthcare, or to the justice system, as Spanish is the
prevailing language.[397]

Aside from indigenous languages, there are several minority languages spoken in
Mexico due to international migration such as Low German by the 80,000-strong
Mennonite population, primarily settled in the northern states, fueled by the
tolerance of the federal government towards this community by allowing them to set
their own educational system compatible with their customs and traditions.[398] The
Chipilo dialect, a variance of the Venetian language, is spoken in the town of
Chipilo, located in the central state of Puebla, by around 2,500 people, mainly
descendants of Venetians that migrated to the area in the late 19th century.[399]
Furthermore, English is the most commonly taught foreign language in Mexico. It is
estimated that nearly 24 million, or around a fifth of the population, study the
language through public schools, private institutions or self-access channels.[400]
However, a high level of English proficiency is limited to only 5% of the
population.[401] Moreover, French is the second most widely taught foreign
language, as every year between 200,000 and 250,000 Mexican students enroll in
language courses.[402][403][404]

Urban areas
Main articles: Metropolitan areas of Mexico and List of cities in Mexico
Largest urban areas in Mexico

Sobrevuelos CDMX HJ2A5091 (40386338731).jpg

Mexico City
Skyline of Monterrey Business District 2020 Enhanced.png
Monterrey
Guadalajara panorámica Puerta de Hierro 2022 2.jpg
Guadalajara
Rank Name States Pop. Rank Name States Pop.
Catedral de Puebla desde Fuerte de Guadalupe.jpg
Puebla
Toluca a los pies del nevado.jpg
Toluca
Aguacaliente skyscrapers4.JPG
Tijuana
1 Ciudad de México CDMX, Méx, Hgo 21 804 515 11 Mérida Yucatán
1 316 088
2 Monterrey Nuevo León 5 341 171 12 San Luis Potosí San Luis Potosí
1 243 980
3 Guadalajara Jalisco 5 268 642 13 Aguascalientes Aguascalientes
1 140 916
4 Puebla Pue, Tlax 3 199 530 14 Mexicali Baja California 1 049
792
5 Toluca Estado de México 2 353 924 15 Saltillo Coahuila 1 031
779
6 Tijuana Baja California 2 157 853 16 Cuernavaca Morelos 1 028
589
7 León Guanajuato 2 139 484 17 Culiacán Sinaloa 1 003 530
8 Querétaro Querétaro 1 594 212 18 Morelia Michoacán 988 704
9 Ciudad Juárez Chihuahua 1 512 450 19 Chihuahua Chihuahua 988
065
10 Torreón Coah, Dgo 1 434 283 20 Veracruz Veracruz 939 046
Religion
See also: Religion in Mexico
Religion in Mexico (2020 census)[1][405]
Roman Catholicism
 
77.7%
Protestantism
 
11.2%
Other religion
 
2.4%
No religion
 
8.1%
Unanswered
 
.4%
The 2020 census by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (National
Institute of Statistics and Geography) gave Roman Catholicism as the main religion,
with 77.7% (97,864,218) of the population, while 11.2% (14,095,307) belong to
Protestant/Evangelical Christian denominations—including Other Christians
(6,778,435), Evangelicals (2,387,133), Pentecostals (1,179,415), Jehovah's
Witnesses (1,530,909), Seventh-day Adventists (791,109), and members of the Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (337,998)—; 8.1% (9,488,671) declared having
no religion; .4% (491,814) were unspecified.[1][405]

Our Lady of Guadalupe, patron saint of Mexico. This painting of her at the Basilica
of Guadalupe is among her most notable depictions; scientists still debate if it
should be dated 1531, the year of the first apparition,[406] or the 1550s.[407]
The 97,864,218[1] Catholics of Mexico constitute in absolute terms the second
largest Catholic community in the world, after Brazil's.[408] 47% percent of them
attend church services weekly.[409] The feast day of Our Lady of Guadalupe, the
patron saint of Mexico, is celebrated on 12 December and is regarded by many
Mexicans as the most important religious holiday of their country.[410]

The denominations Pentecostal also have an important presence, especially in the

cities of the border and in the indigenous communities. As of 2010, Pentecostal
churches together have more than 1.3 million adherents, which in net numbers place
them as the second Christian creed in Mexico. The situation changes when the
different Pentecostal denominations are considered as separate entities. The third-
largest Christian group is the Jehovah's Witnesses, which totals more than 1
million adherents. In the same census The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, whose members are known as Mormons, reported 314,932 members,[citation
needed] though the church claimed in 2009 to have over one million registered
members.[411] Other groups are growing, such as Iglesia apostólica de la Fe en
Cristo Jesús, Mennonites and Seventh-day Adventist Church and Church of the La Luz
del Mundo, which has its center in "La Hermosa Provincia", a colony of Guadalajara.
Migratory phenomena have led to the spread of different aspects of Christianity,
including branches Protestants, Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodox
Church.[412] The presence of Jews in Mexico dates back to 1521, when Hernán Cortés
conquered the Aztecs, accompanied by several Conversos.[413] According to the 2020
census, there are 58,876 Jews in Mexico.[1] Islam in Mexico (with 7,982 members) is
practiced mostly by Arab Mexicans.[1] In the 2010 census 36,764 Mexicans reported
belonging to a spiritualist religion,[1] a category which includes a tiny Buddhist
population.

Puebla Cathedral in Puebla de Zaragoza

According to Jacobo Grinberg (in texts edited by the National Autonomous University
of Mexico), the survival of magic-religious rituals of the old indigenous groups is
remarkable, not only in the current indigenous population but also in the mestizo
and white population that make up the Mexican rural and urban society. There is
often a syncretism between shamanism and Catholic traditions. Another religion of
popular syncretism in Mexico (especially in recent years) is the Santería. This is
mainly due to the large number of Cubans who settled in the territory after the
Cuban Revolution (mainly in states such as Veracruz and Yucatán). Even though
Mexico was also a recipient of black slaves from Africa in the 16th century, the
apogee of these cults is relatively new.[414] In general, popular religiosity is
viewed with bad eyes by institutionally structured religions. One of the most
exemplary cases of popular religiosity is the cult of Holy Dead (Santa Muerte). The
Catholic hierarchy insists on describing it as a satanic cult. However, most of the
people who profess this cult declare themselves to be Catholic believers, and
consider that there is no contradiction between the tributes they offer to the
Christ Child and the adoration of God. Other examples are the representations of
the Passion of Christ and the celebration of Day of the Dead, which take place
within the framework of the Catholic Christian imaginary, but under a very
particular reinterpretation of its protagonists.[415]

In certain regions, the profession of a creed other than the Catholic is seen as a
threat to community unity. It is argued that the Catholic religion is part of the
ethnic identity, and that the Protestants are not willing to participate in the
traditional customs and practices (the tequio or community work, participation in
the festivities and similar issues). The refusal of the Protestants is because
their religious beliefs do not allow them to participate in the cult of images. In
extreme cases, tension between Catholics and Protestants has led to the expulsion
or even murder of Protestants in several villages. The best known cases are those
of San Juan Chamula,[416][417] in Chiapas, and San Nicolás, in Ixmiquilpan,[418]
Hidalgo.

A similar argument was presented by a committee of anthropologists to request the

government of the Republic to expel the Summer Linguistic Institute (SIL), in the
year 1979, which was accused of promoting the division of indigenous peoples by
translating the Bible into vernacular languages and evangelizing in a Protestant
creed that threatened the integrity of popular cultures. The Mexican government
paid attention to the call of the anthropologists and canceled the agreement that
had held with the SIL.[419]

Health
Main article: Healthcare in Mexico

General Hospital of Mexico in Mexico City.

Since the early 1990s, Mexico entered a transitional stage in the health of its
population and some indicators such as mortality patterns are identical to those
found in highly developed countries like Germany or Japan.[420] Mexico's medical
infrastructure is highly rated for the most part and is usually excellent in major
cities,[421][422] but rural communities still lack equipment for advanced medical
procedures, forcing patients in those locations to travel to the closest urban
areas to get specialized medical care.[226] Social determinants of health can be
used to evaluate the state of health in Mexico.

State-funded institutions such as Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) and the
Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers (ISSSTE) play a major
role in health and social security. Private health services are also very important
and account for 13% of all medical units in the country.[423]

Medical training is done mostly at public universities with much specializations

done in vocational or internship settings. Some public universities in Mexico, such
as the University of Guadalajara, have signed agreements with the U.S. to receive
and train American students in Medicine. Health care costs in private institutions
and prescription drugs in Mexico are on average lower than that of its North
American economic partners.[421]

Education

Central Library of the National Autonomous University of Mexico

Main article: Education in Mexico
In 2004, the literacy rate was at 97%[424] for youth under the age of 14, and 91%
for people over 15,[425] placing Mexico at 24th place in the world according to
UNESCO.[426]

Nowadays, Mexico's literacy rate is high, at 94.86% in 2018, up from 82.99% in

1980,[427] with the literacy rates of males and females being relatively equal.

The National Autonomous University of Mexico ranks 103rd in the QS World University
Rankings, making it the best university in Mexico. After it comes the Monterrey
Institute of Technology and Higher Education as the best private school in Mexico
and 158th worldwide in 2019.[428] Private business schools also stand out in
international rankings. IPADE and EGADE, the business schools of Universidad
Panamericana and of Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education
respectively, were ranked in the top 10 in a survey conducted by The Wall Street
Journal among recruiters outside the United States.[429]

Women
Main article: Women in Mexico

Olga Sánchez Cordero, Minister of the Interior (Gobernacion) in President López

Obrador's cabinet
Until the twentieth century, Mexico was an overwhelmingly rural country, with rural
women's status defined within the context of the family and local community. With
urbanization beginning in the sixteenth century, following the Spanish conquest of
the Aztec empire, cities have provided economic and social opportunities not
possible within rural villages. Beginning in the late nineteenth century, women
including middle-class women began working outside the home in offices and
factories, and the gained access to education.[430][431] Women were granted
suffrage in 1953.[432] In the 21st century, Mexican women are prominent in
politics, academia, journalism, literature, and visual arts among other fields. In
President Andrés Manuel López Obrador's first cabinet following his 2018 election,
he appointed women in equal numbers as men.[433] However, a wave of feminism in
2020 has criticized the president for his tone-deaf response to murders of women in
Mexico.[434]

Mexico is among the countries that treat particular murders of women as femicide.
[435] In 2014, Mexico had the 16th highest rate of homicides committed against
women in the world.[436] The remains of the victims were frequently mutilated.[437]
According to a 1997 study, domestic abuse in Mexican culture "is embedded in gender
and marital relations fostered in Mexican women's dependence on their spouses for
subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by ideologies of romantic love, by
family structure and residential arrangements".[438] The perpetrators are often the
boyfriend, father-in-law, ex-husbands or husbands but only 1.6% of the murder cases
led to an arrest and sentencing in 2015.[437] After a particularly well-publicized
gruesome femicide followed by that of a kidnapped little girl, women began
protesting more vociferously, falling on deaf ears, including those of President
López Obrador. This is the first new and major movement with which his presidency
has had to deal. On International Women's Day (8 March) in 2020, women staged a
massive demonstration in Mexico City with some 80,000 participants. On Monday, 9
March 2020, the second day of action was marked by the absence of women at work, in
class, shopping and other public activities. The "Day Without Women" (Día Sin
Nosotras) was reported in the international press along with the previous day's
demonstrations.[439][440]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Mexico

Talavera pottery
Mexican culture reflects the complexity of the country's history through the
blending of indigenous cultures and the culture of Spain, imparted during Spain's
300-year colonial rule of Mexico. Exogenous cultural elements have been
incorporated into Mexican culture as time has passed.

The Porfirian era (el Porfiriato), in the last quarter of the 19th century and the
first decade of the 20th century, was marked by economic progress and peace. After
four decades of civil unrest and war, Mexico saw the development of philosophy and
the arts, promoted by President Díaz himself. Since that time, as accentuated
during the Mexican Revolution, cultural identity has had its foundation in the
mestizaje, of which the indigenous (i.e. Amerindian) element is the core. In light
of the various ethnicities that formed the Mexican people, José Vasconcelos in La
Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race) (1925) defined Mexico to be the melting pot of all
races (thus extending the definition of the mestizo) not only biologically but
culturally as well.[441] Other Mexican intellectuals grappled with the idea of Lo
Mexicano, which seeks "to discover the national ethos of Mexican culture."[442]
Nobel laureate Octavio Paz explores the notion of a Mexican national character in
The Labyrinth of Solitude.

Painting
Main article: Mexican art

Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts)

Mexican Muralism. A cultural expression starting in the 1920s created by a group of

Mexican painters after the Mexican Revolution.
Painting is one of the oldest arts in Mexico. Cave painting in Mexican territory is
about 7500 years old and has been found in the caves of the Baja California
Peninsula. Pre-Columbian Mexico is present in buildings and caves, in Aztec
codices, in ceramics, in garments, etc.; examples of this are the Maya mural
paintings of Bonampak, or those of Teotihuacán, those of Cacaxtla and those of
Monte Albán.

Mural painting with religious themes had an important flowering during the 16th
century; the same in religious constructions as in houses of lineage; such is the
case of the convents of Acolman, Actopan, Huejotzingo, Tecamachalco and
Zinacantepec. These were also manifested in illustrated manuscripts such as the
1576 Florentine codex overseen by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún. Most art in the
colonial era was religious, but starting in the late seventeenth century and most
prominently in the eighteenth century, secular portraits and casta painting
appeared. Important painters of the late colonial period were Juan Correa,
Cristóbal de Villalpando and Miguel Cabrera.

Nineteenth-century painting had a marked romantic influence; landscapes and

portraits were the greatest expressions of this era. Hermenegildo Bustos is one of
the most appreciated painters of the historiography of Mexican art. Other painters
include Santiago Rebull, Félix Parra, Eugenio Landesio, and his noted pupil, the
landscape artist José María Velasco.[443]

Mexican painting of the 20th century has achieved world renown with figures such as
David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Joaquín Clausell, Frida Kahlo and
Diego Rivera, a generation of idealists who marked the image of modern Mexico in
the face of strong social and economic criticism. The Oaxacan School quickly gained
fame and prestige, diffusion of ancestral and modern culture. Freedom of design is
observed in relation to the color and texture of the canvases and murals as a
period of transition between the 20th century and the 21st century. Federico Cantú
Garza, Juan O'Gorman, and Rufino Tamayo are also important artists. Diego Rivera,
the most well-known figure of Mexican muralism, painted the Man at the Crossroads
at the Rockefeller Center in New York City, a huge mural that was destroyed by the
Rockefellers the next year because of the inclusion of a portrait of Russian
communist leader Lenin.[444] Some of Rivera's murals are displayed at the Mexican
National Palace and the Palace of Fine Arts.

Some of the most outstanding painters in the late 20th century and early 21st
century: Francisco Toledo was a Mexican Zapotec painter, sculptor, and graphic
artist. In a career that spanned seven decades, Toledo produced thousands of works
of art and became widely regarded as one of Mexico's most important contemporary
artists. Verónica Ruiz de Velasco is a neofigurative painter and muralist. Both
Verónica Ruiz de Velasco and Francisco Toledo were students of Rufino Tamayo.
Gilberto Aceves Navarro is also considered an important contemporary artist.

Throughout history several prominent painters of different nationalities have

expressed in their works the face of Mexico. Among the most outstanding we can
mention are Claudio Linati, Daniel Thomas Egerton, Carl Nebel, Thomas Moran, and
Leonora Carrington.

Sculpture
Main article: Sculpture in Mexico

View of the Apotheosis sculptural group at the Angel of Independence

Sculpture was an integral part of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations,
(Mayans, Olmecs, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Aztecs), and others, usually religious in
nature. From the Spanish conquest in 1521, civil and religious sculpture was
created by indigenous artists, with guidance from Spaniards, so some pre-Columbian
features are evident. Since the 17th century, white and mestizo sculptors have
created works with a marked influence of European classicism. After independence in
1821, sculpture was influenced by Romanticism, which tended to break the strict
norms and models of classicism, while it pursued ideas influenced by realism and
nationalism. Religious sculpture was reduced to a sporadic imagery, while the
secular sculpture continued in portraits and monumental art of a civic nature.
Between 1820 and 1880 the predominant themes were, successively: religious images,
biblical scenes, allegories to the symbols of the independence insurgency, scenes
and personages of pre-Columbian history, and busts of the old aristocracy, of the
nascent bourgeoisie and commanders of the pre-revolution. During the 20th century,
some important exponents of Mexican sculpture are Juan Soriano, José Luis Cuevas,
and Enrique Carbajal (also known as Sebastián).[citation needed]
Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Mexico

Teotihuacán, State of Mexico

The presence of the humans in the Mexican territory has left important
archaeological findings of great importance for the explanation of the habitat of
primitive man and contemporary man. The Mesoamerican civilizations managed to have
great stylistic development and proportion on the human and urban scale, the form
was evolving from simplicity to aesthetic complexity; in the north of the country
the adobe and stone architecture is manifested, the multifamily housing as we can
see in Casas Grandes; and the troglodyte dwelling in caves of the Sierra Madre
Occidental. Urbanism had a great development in pre-Columbian cultures, where we
can see the magnitude of the cities of Teotihuacán, Tollan-Xicocotitlan and México-
Tenochtitlan, within the environmentalist urbanism highlight the Mayan cities to be
incorporated into the monumentality of its buildings with the thickness of the
jungle and complex networks of roads called sakbés. Mesoamerican architecture is
noted for its pyramids which are the largest such structures outside of Ancient
Egypt.[citation needed]

Spanish Colonial architecture is marked by the contrast between the simple, solid
construction demanded by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported
from Spain. Mexico, as the center of New Spain has some of the most renowned
buildings built in this style. With the arrival of the Spaniards, architectural
theories of the Greco-Roman order with Arab influences were introduced. Due to the
process of evangelization, when the first monastic temples and monasteries were
built, their own models were projected, such as the mendicant monasteries, unique
in their type in architecture. The interaction between Spaniards and natives gave
rise to artistic styles such as the so-called tequitqui (from Nahuatl: worker).
Years later the baroque and mannerism were imposed in large cathedrals and civil
buildings, while rural areas are built haciendas or stately farms with Mozarabic
tendencies.[citation needed]

Museo Soumaya in Mexico City building

In the 19th century the neoclassical movement arose as a response to the objectives
of the republican nation, one of its examples are the Hospicio Cabañas where the
strict plastic of the classical orders are represented in their architectural
elements, new religious buildings also arise, civilian and military that
demonstrate the presence of neoclassicism. Romanticists from a past seen through
archeology show images of medieval Europe, Islamic and pre-Columbian Mexico in the
form of architectural elements in the construction of international exhibition
pavilions looking for an identity typical of the national culture. The art nouveau,
and the art deco were styles introduced into the design of the Palacio de Bellas
Artes to mark the identity of the Mexican nation with Greek-Roman and pre-Columbian
symbols.[citation needed]

Modern architecture in Mexico has an important development in the plasticity of

form and space, José Villagrán García develops a theory of form that sets the
pattern of teaching in many schools of architecture in the country within
functionalism. The emergence of the new Mexican architecture was born as a formal
order of the policies of a nationalist state that sought modernity and the
differentiation of other nations. The development of a Mexican modernist
architecture was perhaps mostly fully manifested in the mid-1950s construction of
the Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, the main campus of the National Autonomous
University of Mexico. Designed by the most prestigious architects of the era,
including Mario Pani, Eugenio Peschard, and Enrique del Moral, the buildings
feature murals by artists Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Chávez
Morado. It has since been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[445]
Juan O'Gorman was one of the first environmental architects in Mexico, developing
the "organic" theory, trying to integrate the building with the landscape within
the same approaches of Frank Lloyd Wright.[446] In the search for a new
architecture that does not resemble the styles of the past, it achieves a joint
manifestation with the mural painting and the landscaping.

The Jalisco School was a proposal of those socio-political movements that the
country demanded. Luis Barragán combined the shape of the space with forms of rural
vernacular architecture of Mexico and Mediterranean countries (Spain-Morocco),
integrating an impressive color that handles light and shade in different tones and
opens a look at the international minimalism. He won the 1980 Pritzker Prize, the
highest award in architecture.[447]

Mexican architecture is a cultural phenomenon born of the ideology of nationalist

governments of the 20th century, which was shaping the identity image by its
colorful and variegated ornamental elements inherited from ancestral cultures,
classical and monumental forms and, subsequently, the incorporation of modernism
and cutting-edge international trends.[citation needed]

Photography
Further information: Mexican art § Photography in Mexico

David Alfaro Siqueiros by Héctor García Cobo at Lecumberri prison, Mexico City,
1960.
Mexico has been photographed since the nineteenth century, when the technology was
first developed. During the Porfiriato, Díaz realized the importance of photography
in shaping the understanding of his regime and its accomplishments. The government
hired Guillermo Kahlo (father of painter Frida Kahlo) to create photographic images
of Mexico's new industrial structures as well as its pre-Columbian and colonial
past. Photographer Hugo Brehme specialized in images of "picturesque" Mexico, with
images of Mexican places and often rural people. During the Mexican Revolution,
photographers chronicled the conflict, usually in the aftermath of a battle, since
large and heavy equipment did not permit action shots. Agustín Victor Casasola is
the most famous of photographer of the revolutionary era, and he collected other
photographers' images in the Casasola Archive; his vast collection was purchased by
the Mexican government and is now part of the government photographic repository,
the Fototeca.[448][449] After the revolution, Mexican photographers created
photographs as art images.[450] Among others, notable Mexican photographers include
Manuel Álvarez Bravo, Héctor García Cobo, and Graciela Iturbide.

Literature
Main articles: Mexican literature, Mesoamerican literature, and Kalimán

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, "The Tenth Muse." Posthmous portrait Juan Cabrera
Mexican literature has its antecedents in the literature of the indigenous
settlements of Mesoamerica. Poetry had a rich cultural tradition in pre-Columbian
Mexico, being divided into two broad categories—secular and religious. Aztec poetry
was sung, chanted, or spoken, often to the accompaniment of a drum or a harp. While
Tenochtitlan was the political capital, Texcoco was the cultural center; the
Texcocan language was considered the most melodious and refined. The best well-
known pre-Columbian poet is Nezahualcoyotl.[451]

Literature during the 16th century consisted largely of histories of Spanish

conquests, and most of the writers at this time were from Spain. Bernal Díaz del
Castillo's True History of the Conquest of Mexico is still widely read today.
Spanish-born poet Bernardo de Balbuena extolled the virtues of Mexico in Grandeza
mexicana (Mexican grandeur) (1604); Francisco de Terrazas was the first Mexican-
born poet to attain renown.[452] Baroque literature flourished in the 17th century;
the most notable writers of this period were Juan Ruiz de Alarcón and Juana Inés de
la Cruz. Sor Juana was famous in her own time, called the "Ten Muse."[452] The 18th
and early 19th centuries gave us José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, whose The Mangy
Parrot ("El Periquillo Sarniento"), is said to be the first Latin American novel.
Several Jesuit humanists wrote at this time, and they were among the first to call
for independence from Spain.[452]

Other writers include Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Octavio Paz (Nobel Laureate),
Carlos Fuentes, Alfonso Reyes, Renato Leduc, Carlos Monsiváis, Elena Poniatowska,
Mariano Azuela (Los de abajo) and Juan Rulfo (Pedro Páramo). Bruno Traven wrote
Canasta de cuentos mexicano (A basket of Mexican tales) and El tesoro de la Sierra
Madre (Treasure of the Sierra Madre), Luis Spota, Jaime Sabines, Martín Luis
Guzmán, Nellie Campobello, (Cartucho), and Valeria Luiselli (Faces in the Crowd)
are also noteworthy.[453]

Cinema
Main article: Cinema of Mexico

Actress Dolores del Río, Hollywood star in the 1920s and 1930s and prominent figure
of the Golden Age of Mexican cinema in the 1940s and 1950s
Mexican films from the Golden Age in the 1940s and 1950s are the greatest examples
of Latin American cinema, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywood of those
years. Mexican films were exported and exhibited in all of Latin America and
Europe. María Candelaria (1943) by Emilio Fernández, was one of the first films
awarded a Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1946, the first time the event
was held after World War II. The famous Spanish-born director Luis Buñuel realized
in Mexico between 1947 and 1965 some of his masterpieces like Los Olvidados (1949)
and Viridiana (1961). Famous actors and actresses from this period include María
Félix, Pedro Infante, Dolores del Río, Jorge Negrete and the comedian Cantinflas.

More recently, films such as Como agua para chocolate (1992), Sex, Shame, and Tears
(1999), Y tu mamá también (2001), and The Crime of Father Amaro (2002) have been
successful in creating universal stories about contemporary subjects, and were
internationally recognized. Mexican directors Alejandro González Iñárritu (Amores
perros, Babel, Birdman, The Revenant), Alfonso Cuarón (A Little Princess, Harry
Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Gravity, Roma), Guillermo del Toro (Hellboy,
Pan's Labyrinth, Crimson Peak, The Shape of Water), screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga
and photographer Emmanuel Lubezki are some of the most known present-day film
makers. Numerous Mexican actors have achieved recognition as Hollywood stars.[454]

Media
Further information: Mexican television and List of newspapers in Mexico

Geraldine Chaplin and Salah Zulfikar in Nefertiti y Aquenatos, a Mexican short film
(1973)
There are three major television companies in Mexico that own the primary networks
and broadcast covering all nation, Televisa, TV Azteca and Imagen Television.
Televisa is also the largest producer of Spanish-language content in the world and
also the world's largest Spanish-language media network.[455] Media company Grupo
Imagen is another national coverage television broadcaster in Mexico, that also
owns the newspaper Excélsior. Grupo Multimedios is another media conglomerate with
Spanish-language broadcasting in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The
telenovelas are very traditional in Mexico and are translated to many languages and
seen all over the world with renowned names like Verónica Castro, Victoria Ruffo
and Lucero.

Cuisine
Main article: Mexican cuisine
See also: Mexican wine
Mole sauce, which has dozens of varieties across the Republic, is seen as a symbol
of Mexicanidad[456] and is considered Mexico's national dish.[456]
The origin of the current Mexican cuisine was established during the Spanish
colonial era, a mixture of the foods of Spain with native indigenous ingredients.
[457] Foods indigenous to Mexico include corn, pepper vegetables, calabazas,
avocados, sweet potato, turkey, many beans, and other fruits and spices. Similarly,
some cooking techniques used today are inherited from pre-Columbian peoples, such
as the nixtamalization of corn, the cooking of food in ovens at ground level,
grinding in molcajete and metate. With the Spaniards came the pork, beef and
chicken meats; peppercorn, sugar, milk and all its derivatives, wheat and rice,
citrus fruits and another constellation of ingredients that are part of the daily
diet of Mexicans.

From this meeting of millennia old two culinary traditions, were born pozole, mole
sauce, barbacoa and tamale is in its current forms, the chocolate, a large range of
breads, tacos, and the broad repertoire of Mexican street foods. Beverages such as
atole, champurrado, milk chocolate and aguas frescas were born; desserts such as
acitrón and the full range of crystallized sweets, rompope, cajeta, jericaya and
the wide repertoire of delights created in the convents of nuns in all parts of the
country.

In 2005, Mexico presented the candidature of its gastronomy for World Heritage Site
of UNESCO, the first time a country had presented its gastronomic tradition for
this purpose.[458] The result was negative, because the committee did not place the
proper emphasis on the importance of corn in Mexican cuisine.[459] On 16 November
2010 Mexican gastronomy was recognized as Intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO.
[460] In addition, Daniela Soto-Innes was named the best female chef in the world
by The World's Best 50 Restaurants in April 2019.[461]

Music
Main article: Music of Mexico
A black and white portrait of a middle aged man wearing a dark suit, glasses and
looking down.
Portrait of Carlos Chávez by Carl van Vechten (1937)
Mexico has a long tradition of classical music, as far back as the 16th century,
when it was a Spanish colony. Music of New Spain, especially that of Juan Gutiérrez
de Padilla and Hernando Franco, is increasingly recognized as a significant
contribution to New World culture.[citation needed]

Although the traditions of European opera and especially Italian opera had
initially dominated the Mexican music conservatories and strongly influenced native
opera composers (in both style and subject matter), elements of Mexican nationalism
had already appeared by the latter part of the 19th century with operas such as
Aniceto Ortega del Villar's 1871 Guatimotzin, a romanticised account of the defense
of Mexico by its last Aztec ruler, Cuauhtémoc. Ángela Peralta was an operatic
soprano of international fame, known in Europe as "The Mexican Nightingale", who
sang in the premieres of operas by Paniagua, Morales, and Ortega del Villar.
[citation needed]

Natalia Lafourcade has the most Latin Grammys won by a Mexican female artist.
[citation needed]
Mexican society enjoys a vast array of music genres, showing the diversity of
Mexican culture. Traditional music includes mariachi, banda, norteño, ranchera and
corridos; on an everyday basis most Mexicans listen to contemporary music such as
pop, rock, etc. in both English and Spanish. Mexico has the largest media industry
in Latin America, producing Mexican artists who are famous in Central and South
America and parts of the United States and Europe, especially Spain. Elements from
the Indigenous peoples of Mexico music have deeply influenced Mexico's music at
large, distinguishing it from European and Asian traditions[citation needed].

The Bolero, Cha-cha-cha and Mambo invade the radio of the 40s and 50s mimicking the
idiosyncrasy of the Mexican. Known as Agustín Lara, the Mexican composer was and
interpreter of songs and boleros, most popular songwriter of his era.[citation
needed]

César Costa and Angélica María in the 1970s performed cover versions of songs and
their own as most of the pop music produced in Mexico consisted on Spanish-language
versions of English-language rock-and-roll hits.[citation needed] Grupera music
became definitely popular in the 1990s to collectively refer to what is now
referred to as regional Mexican music. Relatively recent American creations jazz,
techno, and house music have crossed over.[citation needed]

Sports
Main article: Sport in Mexico

Estadio Azteca

Mesoamerican ballgame
Mexico's most popular sport is association football. It is commonly believed that
football was introduced in Mexico by Cornish miners at the end of the 19th century.
By 1902 a five-team league had emerged with a strong British influence.[462][463]
Mexico's top clubs are América with 12 championships, Guadalajara with 11, and
Toluca with 10.[464] Antonio Carbajal was the first player to appear in five World
Cups,[465] and Hugo Sánchez was named best CONCACAF player of the 20th century by
IFFHS.[466] Rafael Márquez is the only Mexican to have won the Champions League.
[467]

The Mexican professional baseball league is named the Liga Mexicana de Beisbol.
While usually not as strong as the United States, the Caribbean countries and
Japan, Mexico has nonetheless achieved several international baseball titles.[468]
[469] Mexican teams have won the Caribbean Series nine times. Mexico has had
several players signed by Major League teams, the most famous of them being Dodgers
pitcher Fernando Valenzuela.[467]

Mexico City hosted the XIX Olympic Games in 1968, making it the first Latin
American city to do so.[470] The country has also hosted the FIFA World Cup twice,
in 1970 and 1986.[471]

In 2013, Mexico's basketball team won the Americas Basketball Championship and
qualified for the 2014 Basketball World Cup where it reached the playoffs. Because
of these achievements the country earned the hosting rights for the 2015 FIBA
Americas Championship.[472]

Bullfighting (Spanish: corrida de toros) came to Mexico 500 years ago with the
arrival of the Spanish. Despite efforts by animal rights activists to outlaw it,
bullfighting remains a popular sport in the country, and almost all large cities
have bullrings. Plaza México in Mexico City, which seats 45,000 people, is the
largest bullring in the world.[473]

Mexico is an international power in professional boxing.[467] Thirteen Olympic

boxing medals have been won by Mexico.[474]

Professional wrestling (or Lucha libre in Spanish) is a major crowd draw with
national promotions such as AAA, CMLL and others.[467]

See also
flag Mexico portal
Index of Mexico-related articles
Outline of Mexico
Notes
Spanish: México or Méjico, both pronounced [ˈmexiko] (listen); Nahuatl: Mēxihco
Usually, in Spanish, the name of the county is spelled as México, however, in the
Peninsular Spanish, spelling variant Méjico, is also used alongside the usual
version. According to the Diccionario panhispánico de dudas by Royal Spanish
Academy and Association of Academies of the Spanish Language, the spelling version
with J is correct, however, the spelling with X is recommended, as it is the one
that is used in Mexican Spanish.[10]
Estados Unidos Mexicanos, [esˈtaðos uˈniðoz mexiˈkanos] (listen), (lit.: United
Mexican States), abriviation: EUM; Nahuatl: Mēxihcatl Tlacetilīlli Tlahtohcāyōtl
Defined as persons who live in a household where an indigenous language is spoken
by one of the adult family members or people who self-identified as indigenous
("Criteria del hogar: De esta manera, se establece, que los hogares indígenas son
aquellos en donde el jefe y/o el cónyuge y/o padre o madre del jefe y/o suegro o
suegra del jefe hablan una lengua indígena y también aquellos que declararon
pertenecer a un grupo indígena."[368]) AND persons who speak an indigenous language
but who do not live in such a household ("Por lo antes mencionado, la Comisión
Nacional Para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de México (CDI) considera
población indígena (PI) a todas las personas que forman parte de un hogar indígena,
donde el jefe(a) del hogar, su cónyuge y/o alguno de los ascendientes (madre o
padre, madrastra o padrastro, abuelo(a), bisabuelo(a), tatarabuelo(a), suegro(a))
declaro ser hablante de lengua indígena. Además, también incluye a personas que
declararon hablar alguna lengua indígena y que no forman parte de estos
hogares."[369])
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