Professional Documents
Culture Documents
NORTHCENTRAL UNIVERSITY
ASSIGNMENT COVER SHEET
Deborah L. Popovici
Northcentral University
March 3, 2011
Abstract
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 3
Activity 8
Section 3: Lower Order Concerns (LOC) in Writing
While HOC require your attention first, lower order concerns (LOC) are also important. The
higher/lower designation does not mean one is more important than the other; instead, it shows
the order in which they should be addressed. The next two activities will help you place the
needed focus on LOC in a systematic order while using your Personal Academic Writing
Checklist.
Required Reading:
Wilson (2008)
Lack of critical reflection or questioning where they get their ideas can also sabotage doctoral
Learners. Academic writing guidelines require that you not only support your claims but that you
also describe how you arrived at those claims. Keeping in the mind the rhetorical strategies you
learned in Activities 5 and 6, you can choose a specific strategy to facilitate your explanation
which describes your critical reflection. For example, with the Order of Complexity strategy, you
can describe how you moved from a simple idea to more complex aspects which will also show
your critical reflection.
Submit the assignment in the Course Work area at the bottom of the Activity screen.
Learning Outcomes: 8, 9
Writing Tip
Add critical reflection to your Personal Academic Writing Checklist. As you are conducting
library searches, reading through the literature and making notes check to ensure that you have
given yourself ample time and attention to critical reflection. Note any particular issues you have
with unfounded opinions creeping into your writing and add to your checklist.
Assignment Outcomes
Develop a scholarly voice in academic writing.
Compose a succinct evaluative summary in a professional manner.
Course Work
Although the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA),
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 4
which is an international consortium of research institutions in more than forty countries, has
worked over fifty years on improving student achievement globally, the continuing decline in the
USs educational ranking in past years is problematic culturally and competitively speaking.
Declining achievements in math and science speak of the failure of America's educational
contained herein addresses areas of recent governmental, researchers', and academic leaders'
thoughts and efforts to improve students' educational achievements in America and globally.
signify portals of academic excellence, may provide solutions for not only improving student
achievement in America but also in other countries who have reported declining learning
achievement. Identifying factors that have enabled other nations to excel in academic
economic harm, which has been manifesting for many years. No easy answer exists. Without a
global cooperative effort, and utmost dedication toward implementing solutions, there remains
solutions for America's educational and government leaders who need to address America's
falling academic performance to remain globally competitive. The following literature reviews
provide insight into possible answers as to why other countries' academic performance has
exceeded America's performance. Identifying factors that have enabled other nations to
exceed in academic performance can provide solutions to turning the tide on America's
Literature Review
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 5
Mohrman (2008) investigated China who is "dealing with a new set of values (primarily
from the West) emphasizing economic efficiency, privatization, individual autonomy, and
globalization" (p. 30). Mohrman (2008) remarked that China's new set of values demonstrates a
response to changes in higher education and society related to China's adoption of the Emerging
pushing for rapid enrollment growth, instituting new governance structures, and seeking to build
world-class universities" (Mohrman, 2008, p. 30), promising information may provide examples
and answers for other struggling nations. Mohrman (2008) notes that China is leading the world
so forth. Mohrman's (2008) findings indicated that "Chinese academics…are quick to say that
their universities have a long way to go before they can honestly claim world-class status" (p.
46). However, in less than 30 years, China progressed from no schools to rapid advancement in
global competition in higher education (Mohrman, 2008). Due to the article's analysis and
findings being based upon 100 interviews of staff from Chinese universities and government
agencies, it is apparent that Mohrman (2008) reported logically and accurately on the
aforementioned findings.
Lang and Zha (2004) provided an analysis of the "theories and methods with respect to a
specific form of university comparison, peer selection, in Western higher education literature,
then focuses on a case study of the peer selection practice of the University of Toronto in
Canada, and attempts to depict the implications for Chinese universities" (p. 340) as a means to
answer the question, "what is a world-class university?" (p. 340). "Peer comparisons can provide
a basis for the rational evaluation of differences and of similarities among institutions, and of
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 6
identifying relative strengths, weaknesses, and possible opportunities or niches" (Lang, et al.,
2004, p. 341). Establishing standardized criteria for measuring educational quality among
Lang (et al, 2004) reported that "there was a peer selection problem that made the
benchmarks problematic" (p. 341), which could understandably result in an irrational evaluation
of the differences and similarities among institutions. Lang (et al, 2004) found that "university
comparison or peer selection exercises should start from program comparison…(however) very
few league tables and rankings function at the program level" (p. 352). Achieving reliable and
valid data for comparing universities' programs and peer selection would be enhanced if China
adopted the CUDEC and AAUDE databases as used by Toronto (Lang, et al, 2004). "Only with
sufficient data, the comparative analysis concerning Chinese universities’ strength and identity in
the world university community can be valid" (Lang, et al, 2004, p. 353). Lang and Zha (2004)
provided logical results in the article, and their conclusions provided sound advice not only for
China but for all nations. Assessing the quality of universities worldwide in order to identify
how universities may improve relies upon accuracy when comparing data.
Adler and Harzing (2009) appropriately identified their research topic by quoting
Einstein who said, "Not everything that can be counted counts, and not everything that counts
can be counted” (p. 72). Adler's (et al, 2009) research focused upon "the problematic nature of
(the) academic ranking systems and question if such assessments are drawing scholarship away
from its fundamental purpose" (p. 72). In addition, based upon Adler's (et al, 2009) findings, the
authors call for a "temporary moratorium on rankings (which) may be appropriate until more
valid and reliable ways to assess scholarly contributions can be developed" (p. 72).
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 7
Indeed, Adler (et al, 2009) asked if universities remember "that their primary role is to
support scholarship that addresses the complex questions that matter most to society?" (p. 72). A
dangerous trend in ranking individuals and universities relies upon reviewing a particular subset
of journals, which are also written only in English (Adler, et al, 2009). "Academia needs to stop
measuring success by where scientists publish and [to] use different criteria, such as whether the
work has turned out to be original, illuminating and correct” (Adler, et al, 2008, p. 78). “What is
our scholarship actually contributing?” asks Adler (et al, 2008, p. 92). Whether using metrics for
counting publications or citations, the question remains: “Has the scholar asked an important
question and investigated it in such a way that it has the potential to advance societal
understanding and well-being?” (p. 92). The authors pose several important questions regarding
Aguillo, Ortega, and Fernandez (2008) reported on how the worldwide web proliferation
has resulted in the development of web indicators, which are used to construct universities'
rankings. In particular, Aguillo (et al, 2008) presents the "Webometric Ranking of World
Universities which is built using a combined indicator called WR that takes into account the
number of published web pages…the number of rich files, those in pdf, ps, doc and ppt format"
(p. 233), and so forth. The Webometric Ranking shows that "there is a larger than expected
academic digital divide (Chart A) between higher education institutions in the United States and
those in the European Union" (Aguillo, et al, 2008, p. 233) because, surprisingly, "many
scholars' web presence is not related to their academy duties and they are ignoring requests to
Chart A
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 8
Aguillo, Ortega, and Fernandez (2008) concluded that "web indicators should be used to
measure universities’ performance in conjunction with more traditional academic indicators" (p.
233). New web indicators are solving issues related to the "instability of search engine results
and the artefacts produced by the Web Impact Factor" (Aguillo, et al, 2008, p. 234). Aguillo (et
al, 2008) reported that "Compared to other rankings results, the number and positions of the US
universities are far bigger and better than their European counterparts, even considering British
institutions" (p. 243), which has not been empirically tested. "There are prestigious universities
insufficient motivations regarding their web policy" (Aguillo, et al, 2008, p. 243). Aguillo (et al,
2008) presented several charts revealing worldwide universities' web presence; therefore, based
upon empirical data, the conclusions by Aguillo (et al, 2008) appear to be well formulated,
Williams (2008) reported upon "University rankings (that) are having a profound effect
on both higher education systems and individual universities, discuss(es) the desirable
emphasis on the two main international rankings (Shanghai Jiao Tong and THES-QS)" (p. 51).
Williams (2008) wrote that "A university should be ranked highly if it is very good at what it
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 9
does" (p. 52) but that whole-of-institution rankings must "recognise institutional differences
(that) should either be conducted separately for different types of institutions or be obtained by
aggregation of rankings at a sub-institutional level" (p. 52). While "national research funding
agencies may rate research groups, this requires too much detailed information for international
measures of learning and teaching, which adds additional relevance to his research. Reflecting
CEOs from leading international research universities, adds credibility to Williams' (2008)
article. Williams (2008) supplied a recent report on global universities' ranking (Chart B), which
overrides other research reporting that America ranks 30th in the world. Such information is
invaluable in investigating not only how to improve America's educational performance level,
Chart B
Williams (2008) remarked that "There is a need…for an ongoing ratings research group,
at arms length from the universities and government, perhaps as a component of some form of
tertiary education council" (p. 57). When universities and governments introduce financial
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 10
incentives or wish to gauge performance, "whether in monitoring and fostering research, good
teaching, evaluation of disciplines, and so on" (Williams, 2008, p. 57), the tertiary education
council could provide the required methodologies (Williams, 2008). Williams (2008) provides
helpful detail on how universities may determine ranking based upon performance measures, and
(i) "a high concentration of talent (faculty and students), (ii) abundant
whether "test-based rewards and sanctions create incentives that improve student performance,
or hurdles that increase dropout and pushout rates from schools" (p. 1). England's accountability
reforms, which increased stress associated with students' test-taking, changed ranking systems
within schools, and other changes may contribute to student expulsion and suspension (Rustique-
between the pressures of national policies and the unintended consequences on schools’
organizational and teachers’ instructional capacities" (p. 1). Designing accountability systems
especially in the United States must include consideration of any inherent pressures, which may
or may not affect the ability of schools and teachers to address the learning needs of lower-
"that England’s high-stakes approach to accountability, combined with the dynamics of school
choice and other curriculum and testing pressures led to a narrowing of the curriculum, the
tolerant of students with academic and behavioral difficulties" (p. 1). Approximately 270
teachers at four schools were interviewed, and data were compiled using charts supplied in the
article.
interactions that accountability policies will have with other aspects of a state’s educational
system, especially with regard to policies on testing, graduation, and choice" (p. 32). Rustique-
Forrester's (2005) report on the "dynamics of exclusion…and other mechanisms and measures
used to judge schools" (p. 33), will be helpful in determining associated effects as research
continues on evaluating ranking criteria internationally. The findings and conclusions as stated
by Rustique-Forrester (2005) appear to be logical, unbiased, and sound due to the relevant scope
Baker and Wiseman (2008) compiled a book containing works by several authors such as
Gaele Goastellec who wrote that "Analyzing changes in access to higher education from an
transformations of higher education systems and to identify both quantitative and qualitative
trends, as well as policies and organizational processes" (p. 1). John C. Weidman and Adiya
Enkhjargal (Baker, et al, 2008) disclosed that "Regardless of increasing success, fighting
corruption on a global scale has become ever more necessary. More than 20 percent of loans
Furthermore, Baker and Wiseman (2008) included research by Philip Altbach and Patti
McGill Peterson who presented an assessment that there is a "neglected element of higher
education worldwide – the potential and reality of its contribution to the ‘soft power’
(encompassing the nexus of influences in world affairs that relate to culture, science, technology,
and other subtle forces of nations)" (p. 314). Altbach and Patterson (Baker, et al, 2008) also
recognize that "institutions of higher education are central to a country’s national as well as
international aspirations" (p. 313). Altbach and Patterson (Baker, et al, 2008) wrote that "US
academic and research systems remain the strongest in the world" (p. 323). Although agreeing
with Altbach and Patterson's (Baker, et al, 2008) previous statement above, plainly they need to
relook at their opinion that the US academic system is the world's strongest; much research
proves otherwise.
Altbach and Patterson (Baker and Patterson, 2008) noted that "Other regions are
successfully competing with the United States for foreign students" (p. 325), which could foretell
a reason for America's declining global educational positioning. In fact, Altbach and Patterson
(Baker, et al, 2008) report that "A poll of 22 countries by the BBC World Service revealed that
China is viewed as playing a more positive role in the world than the United States" (p. 325).
Transnational effects and influences affecting global reorganization of foreign students needs
the research objectives. Kovaleva (2010) reports that the TIMSS study was "conducted by the
Center for the Evaluation of the Quality of Education in the Institute for the Content and
of the Russian Federation, the Federal Service for Oversight in the Sphere of Education and
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 13
Science" (p. 73) and other administrative educational groups located in the participating
whether the TIMSS study as discussed by Kovaleva (2010) was a collaborative global
strategies is conducted rather than contained within nations. If research findings reveal that the
learning performance on a worldwide scale is inhibited, and is a basis for recommending how to
Kovaleva (2010) provides specific details on how the TIMSS study is conducted. For
example, the TIMSS study evaluates the: (1) comparisons between international groups of
students, (2) distinguishing changes in the quality of teaching, (3) changes in teaching
methodologies, (4) characteristics of the curriculum content, and (5) factors influencing the
quality of teaching. Using the aforementioned categories as guidelines, Kovaleva (2010) reports
on the findings from the TIMSS study. After summarizing the significant results of the study,
Kovaleva (2010) presents several questions for researchers and educators, which underscores the
need for further research. Implementing the key variables disclosed by the study, which could
improve learning on a global scale, enhances the potential for attainment of the study's objectives
Sanchez (2010 ) reports on America's reaction as the "results of the Program for
global pack. The study tested 15-year- olds from 65 Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development member nations in math, science and reading" (para 3) with the United States
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 14
ranking 24th. Reacting to yet another year of falling performance in education, "Britain, France,
Germany and other nations announced plans to study and overhaul their educational systems.
The U.S. pretty much shrugged. And some began searching for faults in the analysis" (Sanchez,
Unwilling to accept the data results, American educators and lawmakers address the
newest PISA figures by adjusting the data. For example, by subtracting "the inconvenient
students (the underachieving minority students)" (Sanchez, 2010, para 6), America's ranking
improves. Sanchez (2010) writes that anyone relishes to "know the biggest problem in the U.S.
education system, it's this: inequality" (para 7). "The highest achieving school systems in the
world were the ones where social class tends not to predict student achievement" Sanchez, 2010,
para 8). The PISA report demonstrated that student achievement is higher when "students from
all social and economic backgrounds are well represented among highest academic achievers"
Sanchez (2010) further reported that in the fifteen years before the 2008 PISA report, "the
U.S. fell from being ranked No. 2 to No. 13 in college graduation rates" (para 10). If America
could reduce class disparities in our education system by "significantly boosting diploma rates in
four years for blacks (46 percent), Hispanics (44 percent) and American Indians (49 percent)"
(para 11). Sanchez (2010) suggested that educational systems in America must be accessible to
all, "globally competitive on quality; provide people from all classes a fair chance to get the right
kind of education to succeed; and achieve all this at a price that the nation can afford" (para 12).
private institutions, and indicates that there are two dominant reasons for this phenomenon: (1)
"social and (2) political or public-sector policies" (p. 1). The goal for reviewing Levy's (2010)
article is that his findings may indicate that a decrease in post-secondary education in private
institutions reflects the tendency for some nations' declining educational performance.
performance.
enrollment trends, and noted that "From 1996 to 2006, Georgian (Eastern Europe) private
higher education fell from 34 to 22 percent of enrollment" (p. 2). Fortunately, there is
"evidence of new initiatives includes reaching out (including internationally) to new kinds of
students, in new modalities" (Levy, 2010, p. 5). "The decline of private higher education
warrants analysis for contemporary dynamics as well as historical and future ones" (Levy,
provides researchers evidence the further investigation is needed to provide answers for
failing private higher education institutional enrollment, which could signify that new in
depth research may help to create recommendations for improving educational performance.
the use of quantitative research methods. In particular, Mahoe's (2004) writing goal for her
dissertation included providing advice and encouraging words to her peers about working on a
dissertation with unrelenting perseverance. Mahoe's (2004) exuberance arose from the practice
gained during her dissertation process that resulted in "one of her most rewarding challenges" (p.
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 16
34). Mahoe's (2004) greatest reward was formulating answers to improve retention of public
Mahoe (2004) identified areas for integrating her dissertation topic's research needs into
her teaching profession. Preliminary investigation of available research gained Mahoe (2004)
few results until expanding the topic's parameters on high school freshmen retention.
question successfully.
network of peers at her high school. In addition, after Mahoe (2004) identified deficiencies in
the sorting standards within the available retention data, a more accurate and decreased retention
percentage was identified, which eliminated discrepancies, and improved reliability and validity
in the data for her study. However, the improvement seen in the retention rate using the data
from her school, which conflicted with Mahoe's (2004) thesis, made her pause and reflect, and
resulted in an ability for Mahoe (2004) to critically evaluate the efficacy of her project. Upon
Furthermore, Mahoe (2004) chose additional subjects to include in her study: "how
school structures and processes serve as supports to students’ academic and social engagement
(for all four years of high school), and their subsequent influence on student persistence" (p. 36).
Whether conducting original data collection or using secondary data, Mahoe (2004) advised that
researchers (1) "should be able to give a plausible explanation for every significant and non-
significant finding based on the pertinent literature" (p. 36), and (2) "use all the members of (the)
dissertation committee" (p. 37). Each committee member (1) should be kept informed, (2) has
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 17
inimitable expertise, and (3) provides a knowledge resource (Mahoe, 2004). While writers have
expertise about their subject matter, the dissertation team promotes writers' efforts to an
multicultural societies. Moore's (2010) topic is relevant to this writer's research because he
suggests that technological tools such as web sites' graphics be as universally recognizable as
countries who are improving in academic ranking may demonstrate that universally recognizable
graphics has enabled some nations to advance faster in academic performance. Therefore,
Moore's (2010) suggestions shed light upon one academic process that could be used in countries
graphics into global academic processes, all nations would receive a similar advantage, and
around the world need to communicate well. Technical writers who are creating the
communication interfaces must provide educators with the ability to have improved
communications. Moore (2010) suggests that a cautious use of graphical designs can reduce
barriers caused by language and cultural differences. Working in "multicultural and international
collaboration teams…is effective and appropriate for our audiences" (Moore, 2010, p. 60).
Boland's (2004) dissertation presented information from several empirical studies, which
included Boland's (2004) study, that tested Intelligence Quotients (IQ). Boland (2004) reported
on how IQ scores from the studies were affected by the "level of education, quality of education,
country of education/residence, and level of acculturation to the majority U.S. culture" (p. 122)
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 18
using two Asian Indian populations living in America and India. Boland (2004) wrote that "it is
not that individuals from certain cultures are lacking in certain cognitive abilities, but rather that
only those abilities that are relevant and useful in a particular cultural context are developed and
expressed" (p. 21). Therefore, while the "cultural environment…has a significant effect on the
intellectual skills that are developed" (p. 20), Boland's (2004) study disclosed that educational
Reviewing Boland's (2004) dissertation aids this writer's investigation into why other
countries' academic performance has exceeded America's performance, and suggests solutions to
for this writer's dissertation research because the data collected by the International Association
for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (2007), which reports each country's educational
performance rank, cannot accurately report the rankings if the IAE (2007) depends partially upon
a student's IQ. IQ should not be considered by the IAE (2007) because students at the fourth and
eighth grade educational levels who are assessed around the world by the IAE (2007) have
closely matched IQs at each grade level, and would not cause disparity.
Consequently, measuring students' IQs would be irrelevant and biased. Once the IAE
(2007) data is reviewed for any remarks on IQ, this writer can determine if there is bias in the
IAE (2007) report. Improving learning performance globally, and identifying why America's
rank has slumped, first depends upon an accurate and unbiased assessment tool for ranking each
country. Assuming that the current assessment tool is unbiased would be seemingly foolish.
Wang and Lin (2005) published dissertation reported on several studies revealing that American
students performed more poorly on international tests when compared to students in Eastern
Asia. Study findings noted significant differences in the development and implementation of
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 19
curriculum policies and materials between America and excelling Eastern Asian countries
(Wang, et al., 2005). In fact, less focused and more repetitious curriculum materials were used
in America, and American "curriculum policy is less authoritative, less specific, and less
Interestingly, although Eastern Asian students overall achieved higher scores than
American students, and exhibited superior computational and routine problem-solving skills,
American students performed the same or better than their Chinese counterparts on "open,
creative problem-solving tasks" (p. 4). Consequently, America should not necessarily duplicate
and Lin, 2004). "Although Chinese students are stronger than U.S. students in abstract
mathematics reasoning and representation, Chinese students do not show stronger performance
in graphing, using tables, and open-process problem solving" (Wang, et al., 2004, p. 6).
Contrasting learner outcomes when no reason is easily identified raises questions about the
efficacy of the survey methodology. Caution is indicated when accepting such survey results,
and further validation is recommended. Noteworthy research reported by Wang and Lin (2004)
indicated that when comparing Chinese and American teachers, the Chinese teachers more
effectively used available teaching time for student learning, developed more organized "whole-
class instruction, and offered more complex explanations and feedback to their students" (p. 7).
In addition, family values and processes added to the degree of variation between Chinese and
American parents. For example, Wang (et al., 2004) reported that Chinese parents establish
family studies relevant to values and processes, set higher challenges for their "children’s
mathematics achievement, engage their children in working more on mathematics at home, and
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 20
use formal and systematic instructional approaches at home" (p. 9). Wang and Lin (2004)
discussed research findings by several peers, and offered several scenarios for future research.
The paper by Wang and Lin (2004) presented some discomfiture as differences between
races were mentioned rather than offering suggestions for mutual growth opportunities globally.
processes, which would minimize the negative aura created by competition and ranking, the
differences and similarities as discussed by Wang (et al., 2004) would diminish as nations learn
3), which "describes and explains differences in student achievement" (p. 3). The IEAs focus is
"to improve the teaching and learning of mathematics (and science) around the world" (Beatty,
1997, p. 3). Beatty (1997) wrote that "international comparative studies (have shown that)
education systems vary substantially" (p. 1). "The content of mathematics and science curricula
and textbooks" including "student attitudes and experiences, teaching practices, and school
resources" (Beatty, 1997, p. 3) are just a few of the IEAs research concentrations. "The heavy
interest on standardized test scores in the United States has distorted both curricula and
expectations for student learning" (Beatty, 1997, p. 22). Science teachers in the United States
"average significantly lower hours per week devoted to both professional reading and
development and to lesson planning than did such higher scoring countries as Japan, Hungary
and Singapore" (Beatty, 1997, p. 25). "No reform ought to be undertaken without a commitment
to three things: provide adequate resources, sustain (reform) it long enough to be sure it has had
time enough to take hold, and evaluate its impact" (Beatty, 1997, p. 30). Further research,
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 21
"dialogue and debate based on the TIMSS results would help decision makers focus their reform
sciences, U.S. 8th grade students are lagging behind other countries" (para 1). Lagging test scores
have increased concerns by lawmakers and educators, and predicts a worsening global economy
for America. Surprisingly, test scores may not represent a complete assessment of how
America's students are faring in math and science. According to The Bent of Tau Beta Pi (2007),
“Students in affluent suburban U.S. school districts score nearly as well as students in Singapore,
the runaway leader in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) math
scores" (p. 13). Due to an observation that the "gap between America’s top-performing schools
and low-performing schools is significantly greater than the gap between America and other
nations…and attention toward what affluent school systems are doing well" (The Bent of Tau
Beta Pi, 2007, p. 14) could replicate those same results across the board. For America to
compete globally requires that more not fewer college graduates become physicians, scientists,
or engineers. Lawmakers state that America does not do an adequate job of preparing
individuals for technological fields, and focusing on the overall positive results of our
The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) (2010) reported
that Korea and Finland top the OECD’s latest Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) survey of a half-million 15-year olds' reading literacy, math, and science in more than 70
economies, which for the first time tested students’ ability to manage digital information. The
OECD (2010) Secretary-General Angel Gurría stated that “Better educational outcomes are a
strong predictor for future economic growth (and) while national income and educational
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 22
achievement are still related, PISA shows that two countries with similar levels of prosperity can
produce very different results" (para 5). Interestingly, "the best school systems were the most
equitable - students do well regardless of their socio-economic background. But schools that
select students based on ability early show the greatest differences in performance by socio-
The OECD (2010) also found that "High performing systems allow schools to design
curricula and establish assessment policies but don’t necessarily allow competition for students"
(para 12). An important goal of the OECD (2010) is to aid countries in seeing "how their school
systems match up globally with regard to their quality, equity and efficiency" (para 17).
Significant gains in improving learning achievement reveals that "the best performing education
systems show what others can aspire to, as well as inspire national efforts to help students to
learn better, teachers to teach better, and school systems to become more effective" (para 17).
Apparently, educators and lawmakers believe that test scores adversely impact future economies.
through education. Secretary Duncan admitted that the United States had not "been compelled to
meet our global neighbors on their own terms, and learn about their histories, values and
viewpoints" (para 7). Only "40% of our 25-34 year olds earn a two-year or four-year college
degree—the same rate as a generation ago" (US Department of Education, 2010, para 12).
Secretary Duncan noted that "on recent international tests of math literacy, our 15-year-olds
scored 24th out of 29 developed nations, and 21st out of 30 nations in science. The U.S. is now
18th out of 24 industrialized nations in high school graduation rates" (US Department of
Education, 2010, para 13). America now has "partnerships with other nations yield(ing) a wide
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 23
range of bilateral education conferences, alliances, and other joint efforts" (US Department of
Education, 2010, para 28). "Such collaboration can inform and strengthen our reform efforts
Cohen, Bloom, and Malin (2006) review research related to primary and secondary
students' academic performance in primary and secondary schools globally. Major topics
included the state of education, "the quality and quantity of available data on education, the
history of education and obstacles to expansion, the means of expanding access and improving
education in developing countries, estimates of the costs, and the potential consequences of
expansion" (Cohen, et al., 2006, p. 2). The book is relevant to the subject under research because
it is reported that educational data from global sources, which is so important to empirical
research, is not completely reliable nor comprehensive. The UNESCO Institute of Statistics in
Montreal, however, contains the world's most accurate information, and could be investigated as
Surprisingly, some challenges facing an international goal of enabling all children with a
good primary and secondary education includes enrolling ninety-seven million primary-school,
and two-hundred and twenty-six million secondary-school age children, which does not even
include the other ninety million five-to-seventeen years old children in the developing countries.
Does enabling educational expansion, which secures societal and political infrastructures,
currently affect educational ranking globally? Cohen, Bloom, and Malin (2006) propose that
improving educational access for their populace are confronted by leaders already over-burdened
by needs to eliminate corruption, improve culture, and decrease political division caused by
differing agendas. Providing inaccurate data on countries' educational systems hinders the
ability for creating an efficient educational policy, which relies on ensuring that politicians and
school leaders are accountable. Difficulties arise when citizens' higher concerns are providing
food, housing, and medical care for their families. Fortunately, international neighbors are
achieving a more interconnected educational system, which supports a global labor market, a
stronger society, and a freedom to learn. These factors and more need examination as the
investigation continues into why other nations have excelled in academic performance.
Smith's (2005) book offers an expose' about academic under-achievement of nations and
schools demonstrated by falling educational standards as a response to ensure that all children
are equitably taught. The implementation of high-stakes testing, and new school accountability
systems are in actuality resulting in schools being labeled as under-achieving due to inaccurate
methods of reporting data. In response to this dilemma, policy makers and teachers condone
Achieving such a goal requires improving the quality of data collection within countries'
educational systems as suggested by Cohen, Bloom, and Malin (2006). Smith's (2005) book
likewise provides insight into reconsidering how educational research is conducted. As the
investigation continues into why other nations have excelled in academic performance, critical
review of research methodologies is essential to finding the answers about why there are
twenty-fifth and thirtieth in the combined math and sciences areas, then the data is not being
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 25
analyzed similarly. Therefore, the reasons that America is doing better or worse than its ranked
position cannot be accurately discerned. Discerning why America is doing better or worse is the
Salmi (2009) discusses how the increased sharing of tertiary educational resources has
prompted institutions worldwide to reassess their goals. Increased and varying reports on
educational rank are affecting nations' growing aspirations to be positioned at or near the top in
and universities increasingly seek to become the best in academic performance globally, reliance
upon comparison data gains in significance for many nations but not for all nations. If achieving
world-class educational standards, which have not been accurately defined nor universally
accepted, reflects upon a nation's successful ability to inwardly improve its infrastructure, then
such achievement may promise a strong future. Salmi's (2009) book provides tools for nations
seeking such a future. Further review of Salmi's (2009) toolbox contents could shed some light
on how America's educational leaders could take advantage of such tools to improve its
educational performance.
Several researchers as noted in the literature review disclosed problems related to the
reports issued on ranking worldwide educational performance. For example, Lang and Zha
(2004) noted there is no standardized criteria for measuring educational quality among
universities. In fact, Adler and Harzing (2009) called for a moratorium on ranking until validity
and reliability of data analysis could be assured. Aguillo, Ortega, and Fernandez (2008)
suggested that web indicators alone suggest that methods to rank academic performance are
vastly incorrect. Williams (2008) and Rustique-Forrester (2005) discussed the desirable
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 26
methodologies. Kovaleva (2010) suggests that the TIMSS performance measures are unreliable.
Sanchez (2010) reported that American educators do not accept the ranking, and readjust the data
according to their performance measures. Moore (2010) suggested that universally accepted
website graphics helped some nations to develop faster academically. Boland (2004) criticized
that the ranking data measured performance based upon specific intelligence quotas. Due to
these researchers, further investigation is warranted since there is a universal recognition of data
reporting inconsistencies.
Research Problem
Nelson Mandela once said, "If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes
to his head. If you talk to him in his own language, that goes to his heart" (US Department of
Education, 2010, para 35). American educators are not yet "teaching our students how to speak
to the hearts of our neighbors around the globe" (US Department of Education, 2010, para 37).
Despite reports that America has started initiatives in improving global alliances, more research
effort is needed to identify how other countries' higher performance in learning can be emulated
in the United States. However, based upon research to date, several factors affect such
identification.
For example, the literature review revealed that researchers involved in educational
performance ranking are discovering areas of unfinished research, data collection inconsistencies,
or data needing to be updated, provides researchers evidence that further investigation is needed
when no reason is easily identified raises questions about the efficacy of the survey methodology.
Caution is indicated when accepting such survey results, and further validation is recommended.
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 27
For example, does enabling educational expansion, which secures societal and political
infrastructures, currently affect educational ranking globally? If so, is this information included
in the data collection? Consistent reporting of how and what affects global ranking in
educational achievement is missing. Educational data from global sources, which is so important
to empirical research, is not completely reliable nor comprehensive but must be examined
closely.
Methodology
Research addressing America's 30th ranking in worldwide education discloses that efforts
to improve America's academic standing seems to be minimal as its position continues to decline.
Investigating and proposing solutions to how and why America's academic position has reached
such a precarious level requires an analysis of global efforts to improve academic performance,
and supports a commitment to affect improved processes to America's educational processes and
educational standards (The Regents of the University of Michigan, 2008). The University of
Michigan (2008) indicates that identifying appropriate and applicable research to contribute
universities, and industries to develop capabilities and production techniques that improve our
living standard" (para 4); and (2) health and social goals, which "addresses public concerns
about school quality, the teaching of mathematics and science, and the improvement of family
ability for creating an efficient educational policy, which relies on ensuring that politicians and
school leaders around the world are accountable. How will this be achieved? A critical review
of research methodologies is essential to finding the answers about why there are differences in
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 28
educational ranking globally, and to correct them. Collecting definitive information from the
when comparing quantitative and qualitative data related to gauging educational performance
must be the first priority in addressing the reliability and validity reporting concerns. Only by
exposing the inconsistencies, and fixing them, can reliability and validity be achieved and
accepted worldwide.
Once a true accounting of data collection is resolved by examining data from collecting
entities, educators can depend upon the ranking information to guide them as they seek to know,
and adapt the practices used by the excelling countries. Correcting the data collection
inconsistencies will enable educators to rely on the information presented in future reports on
learning performance ranking. Providing a viable solution to the issues existing in educational
Conclusion
solutions for America's educational and government leaders who need to address America's
systems may improve its chances to remain globally competitive, and economically more sound.
The findings reported above provide insight into possible answers as to why other countries'
have enabled other nations to exceed in academic performance provide solutions, which may
turn the tide on America's continuing trend toward weakening academic performance and
leadership.
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 29
which would minimize the negative aura created by competition and ranking, the similarities and
differences emulating from educational ranking would diminish, and nations could learn to
results of our educational systems is more important than test scores alone.
POPOVICIDEDU7001-8 Lower Order Concerns in Writing 30
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