English Morphology

CLASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO NUMBER

Individual Nouns: both the SG and the PL numero denoting one object/several
object of the same category: car-cars

● If used in the general sense: the/an/a in SG and zero article in PL: The/A fox is a wild animal. Foxes
are wild animals.
● EXCEPTION: Man and Woman tho are in the SG preceded by an/a/zero article
● If the nouns denote seasons and used generically: zero article
● If the nouns denote meals of the day and used generically: zero article
● In a particularized sense: the (SG and PL) a/an (SG), and determinative adjs (this, that, some)

Defective Individual Nouns: Pluralia Tantum (no sg)

Articles of clothing: shorts, pants

Instruments or tools: scrissors, glasses.

Body parts: bowels, whiskers

The NUMERATIVE "a pair of" is used when we want to reffer to a singular object. When used generically they
have the zero art, in proverbs or general statements: Your body grows, but your clothes do not.
- When used in a particularized sense: the/zero article/de⁶terminative adjs: I can't cut anything with these
scrissors!

Proper Noun-Equivalents

Represent names given to individualized object, that bear the same name as the group they are apart
of. They cannot be used generically, sometimes begin with a  capital letter, but can be particularized
by an/the/demonstrative adjs: a full moon (luna intro anumita faza)

Nouns of material
Denote materials and subtances whose separate parts bear the category name and keep the same
properties: iron, wood, stone, water, snow. Usually only have the SG form except when they reffer to
varities: the oils the gliterring sands
Generically: zero art
Particularized: the/zero/determinative EXCEPT those that imply number: the indefinite art (provided
theres an Attribute there as well): may I have a little salt/the iron was a good choice.

Abstractions
Abstractions and other abstract notions may be grouped as nouns denoting:

▪︎ACTION/STATES: reading,
▪︎QUALITIES: readiness,
▪︎FEELINGS: mercy
▪︎PHILOSOPHICAL and AESTHETICAL categories: the new, the old, the infinite
▪︎DOCTRINES, SCHOOLS, CURRENTS: realism
▪︎OTHER categories: wealth, childhood

Some might be used in PL when:

We refer to varieties: the literatures of the world
As a stylistic device: fears, hopes
EXCEPTION: Some abstract nouns only have PL word even tho theyre used with a verb in the SG:
games (biliards), sciences (politics)
Generically: zero art (besides the ones that come from adj): Billiards is hard/The new is better than
the old!

Collective nouns

They are certain individual or unique abstract nouns denoting collective notions but that arent seen
as wholes, but appear in the mind of the speaker/writer as decomposed into their elements.
Therefore they agree with the verb in the PL: makind, family, team, minority majority.
Generically: when the become individual or abtsract nouns again: A family is a group of ppl that are
related.

Nouns of Multitude

Differ from collective nouns cuz they cannot be used as individual OR unique abstract nouns. They
might be next to numerals representing more than one element, they agree both with the verb
and with the PL form of certain determinatives: ppl, folk, the rich the poor.
Individual nouns of multitude

They differ from nouns of multitude cuz they can also be used as SG forms with all the possible
accompanying words: a deer, a sheep a couple a dozen

Decimal: (zero) point five

Cardinal: one
Fractions: one third three fourths
Percentage: thirty five percent
Distributive: one by one in pairs
Adverbial: once twice
Collective: couple, dozen
Empty: zillion
Negative: minus nine point 2
Indefinite: several a few plenty

Common and Proper nouns

Common nouns: nouns that appear as individuals only as memebrs of a class.
Proper nouns: the identifying names of particular persons places or things.

They're always capitalized in English: Alice, Seattle, the Nile. It may use it tho when it loses its quality as a
proper noun: watt, china. Common ones can also be capitalized in certain situations: Mother will be angry
if you misnehave. A proper noun is mostly treated as a common one, it may used in Plural: a dozen
Shakespeares, meaning a dozen ppl who are comparable to him.

It may be modified by adjs: the younger John.

The def art is necesarry for proper nouns when an IDENTIFYING CLASE follows (The Paris I am thinking
about is) and certain common nouns (river, ocean) is part of the name (it may be used or merely
understood:  The Atlantic). The might become part of the title therefore capitalized too: The New York
Times.

Common and Abstract nouns

Common = refers to a physical object or smth than can be perceived by the senses: heat, water, pillow.
Abstrsct = Quality which physical objects might have, activity or state of being: scent sweetness arrival
notoriety.

Some nouns can be both depending on the context: she is a beauty vs beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
Countable and Uncountable nouns

Countable nouns posses a PL form, may be determined by the indef art and may be used with a quantifier like
many , several (Dollars, drinks, Deity)
Uncountable ones lack the number contrast, may be determined by the zero art and may be used with a
quantifier like little or much. (Luck, music, noise)

Some nouns can be both depending on the context: Theres barely any light in this room/the christmas
lights you brought are wonderful

Types of partitives for Uncountable nouns: 

-measure pound)
-typical: sheet)
-general partitives: piece)

Uncountable nouns can be:

■ Material nouns: gold, silver, fur.
Some nouns can be both depending on the context: he has an air of importance/fresh air)
■ Abstract nouns: nonsense, honesty, honor,
Some nouns can be both depending on the context: my company is famous in the city/be careful of
what kind of company you keep.
■ Sports
■ Edible plants: corn, rice, mint
Some nouns can be both if we are reffering to the edible part of the plant: there is too much onion/I
need two onions.
■ Geographical names: Palestina, London, America

Simple and Compound nouns

(According to composition)

Simple: Formed of a word which cannot be decomposed into parts of speech: guitar, mask
Compund: Formed of two or more words, representing parts of speech: classroom, skateboard.

The logical relationships between the elements can be rlly complex: butterfly is neither made of butter
nor a fly.
When deconstructed they can also give rise to combos with totally different meanings: blackleg (an
impostor) vs black leg (a leg that is black). Noun compounds are highly analyzable because of the genitival
relations they form, with no particular diff in meaning between the compound noun and its analytical
synonym: daybreak (break of the day), sunlight (light of the sun), birthady (the day of the birth)
Substantivization
Adjective Substantivization

The Substantivization of adjectives is a phenomenon happening ever since the earlier stages of the English
language, mostly coming from the use of ellipsis. They might be grouped as follows:

a. Individual nouns (PL and SG form): native, Romanian, reprezentative

b. Only PL form: the English, the poor, sweets
c. Only SG form: the future, red (the color), Romanian (the language)

Phrases and idioms can contain partially Substantivized adjs: in short, in general, to change for the
better, to bring out the best in somebody.

Substantivization of other parts of speech

- The past participial (the gifted, the broken)

short Infinitive  (try, lie) can often become nouns
- Other than the verbs: The ins and outs of a problem.

            VARIABLE NOUNS

REGULAR PLURAL

- The English Numeral system includes a SG (ONE) and a PL (more than one)
- There is a Number Concord between subjects and finite verbs: This car is fast
These cars are fast
Nouns can be invariable and variable (with a SG and PL form, formed by adding S to the SG form.

NUMBER
1. Variable (sg +pl) = The noun changes form according to number
2. Invariable (sg/pl)
Singular invariable noun
Plural invariable noun

THE REGULAR PLURAL = sg+(e)s: dog-dogs, churches.

■ SPELLING:
For the most part we add an s
ADĂUGAM ES WHEN:
- La terminatii cu s,z, d3, t~, ~, x: kisses, quizzes, pieces
- Vowel +  y = s (boy/boys, toy/toys)
- Consonant + y ----> ies (city-cities)
- Consonant + o = es (heroes) except foreign words like magnetos, killos, photos
- Vowel + o = s (radios)
- Letters substantivized numerals, we add an apostrophe: in the 1980's, do your i's
- Doubling occurs in the case of abbrreviations amd certain nouns; pp

■ PRONOUNCIATION
Z after voiced sounds except sibilants (dogZ)
S after voiceless sounds except sibilants (hitS)
IZ after sibilants (glasi:Z)

● PLURAL OF THE COMPOUND NOUN

Most compound nouns form their PL by the addition of S to the final element esp if they contain no
noun or are -FUL compounds/phrasal verbs used as nouns: forget-me-nots, spoonfuls, goers-out.
- The Plural marker at the end: boy friend(S)
- The Plural marker added to the first element: passer(S)by
- The Plural marker to both elements: women drivers
IF noun + preposition + noun = PL on the first noun: brother in low
IF adj + preposition × noun = PL on the last noun: good-for-nothings
IF noun + adjs = 1st element in France/Romania, 2nd in US: attorney generals
Both elements when we have AND betwen two elements: Ins-and-outs Wishkys and sodas

        IRREGULAR PLURAL

CATEGORIES

□ Voicing + s plural:
Some SG nouns that end in a voiceless CONSONANT change it into a voiced
one, if the inflection -S is added.

a) Monosyllabic nouns ending in TH (voiceless) after a VOWEL sound or after a DIPHTONG changed
into a voiced TH: BATHS, EARTHS, YOUTHS. These all are regular plurals.

This is not the case when preceeding the TH there is a short vowel, consonant, or the letter R:
BIRTHS, MONTHS, LENGTHS

Nouns with double form: earths, truths

b) Some nouns ending in f(e) pronounced as F change into V followed by E when S is added
pronounced VZ: WIVES HALVES LIVES, some having double forms: scarfs/scarves, hoofs/hooves,
turfs/turves

Case b doesn't apply to all SG nouns ending in F tho, some forming their PL regularly: Dwarfs, Beliefs,
Roofs

c) House at SG ends with S, which changes into Z at PL: houziz

□ EN PLURAL
Child/children, ox - oxen, brother: brethren
□ Mutation
Appears for 7 nouns, and compounds with these nouns also form their
PL irregularLY
man - men   woman - women
foot - feet     tooth - teeth
louse - lice   goose - geese
mouse – mice

□ZERO plural
Some nouns have the same SG and PL form with no change in their
pronounciation; they are VARIABLE however, as they take BOTH SG AND
PL verb:

A. Some animal names esp when said animals denote human food salmon, deer, sheep, cod, carp
B. Nationality/proper names ending in ESE: Chinese, Japanese, Swiss
C. Nouns denoting measure, quantity, number when theyre preceded by a numeral/indication of
number: a six-mile walk, a five-act play, a two-part story
D. Nouns ending variably in S/ES: means, headquarters, series, species

□ Foreign Plural
Words that retain their og PL form borrowed from other languages.
Some have both their og and english PL, others only take the eng PL
Latin Plurals

1. Nouns with US, ORA, ERA ending have their PL in I: stimulus - stimuli, Ending in A have their PL in
AE (Larva/larvae) Ending in UM have their PL in A (bacterium - bacteria) Ending in IX or EX end with
ICES: appendix - appendixes/appendices

2. Nouns with US and both PL forms: cactus - cactuses/cacti  Nouns with only the eng form:
bonus/bonuses. Nouns with A with both PL forms: retina- retinae/retinas Nouns with only the EG
form: dilemma/dilemmas Nouns with UM with both PL forms: aquarium - aquaria/aquariums. Nouns
with only the EG form: album/albums

Greek Plurals
SG: is ----> PL es: axis/axes, thesis/theses, synopsis/synopses
Some SG is ----> PL ides:
Some SG is ----> PL s: iris – irides/irises
 chrysalis - chrysalides/chrysalises 
Some SG on ----> PL a and also have 2 forms in s: criterion - criteria, phenomenon -
phenomena/phenomenons
SG a ---> PL ata: trauma - traumata/traumas

French Plurals

Eau - X: bureau - bureaux/bureaus, adieu - adieus

Italian Plurals

O/E - I: solo - soli/solos

Some words lose their italian edning in SG but keep both PL forms! Graffiti (Graffitto),
Bandits/Banditti (Bandit)

Hebrew Plurals

With both PL forms: seraph - seraphim/seraphs

INVARIABLE NOUNS

Nouns that have only one form, either for the SG or for the PL

1. Singular Invariable Nouns

A. Concrete uncountable nouns: leather, gold, meat. Some can be reclassified as countable nouns but then
their meaning changes: I got a chocolate from my grandmother. (kind of chocolate).
B. Abstract uncountable nouns: information, trust, stupidity, pity, mercy. Some can be reclassified as
countable nouns but then their meaning changes: I brought with me a piece of evidence.
C. Proper nouns are typically invariable and take a SG verb: Sunday, May, Canada, Denmark, Mary
D. Invariable nouns ending in S:
- news: I've got some news for you.
- certain diseases: measles, rabies, diabetes
- scientific fields or some branches of knowledge (ics): electronics, economics, linguistics
- games: billiards, dominoes; cards
2. Plural Invariable Nouns

Take a plural verb. They can denote:

a. Parts of the body: bowels, whiskers. If used attributively or in compounds they can have a SG form: loin-cloth
b. A state of mind: hysterics, spirits
c. Articles of dress: leggings, jeans, shorts. If used attributively: a suspender belt
d. Tools and instruments: scrissors, glasses. If used attributively; a spectacle case.
e. Proper nouns: the Alps/Carpathians
f. Verbal nouns ending in ING+S: feelings, findings, winnings, surroundings.
g. Other Pluralia Tantum nouns; fireworks, thanks, teens,
h. Substantivized adjs, antics, odds
i. Substantivized adjs denoting a group of ppl: the rich, the dead
j. Unmarked plurals: police military

Semantic problems connected to number

There are nouns whose meanings differ when switching between the SG and PL form, nouns that have two meanings in the
PL etc

1. 2 PLS, 2 meanings: genius - geniuses (persons with great intelect) genii (demons)

1 SG 1 meaning, 1 PL 1 meaning: air(mixture of gases) airs (affected conduct or manner)

1 SG 1 meaning, more PL but 1 meaning that corresponds to the SG meaning: custom - customs (a particular way of
behaving) customs (taxes)

1 PL in S  denoting diff objects, 1 PL that is also a SG with collective meaning: people - peoples (nations) people (persons in
general)

Countable according to 1 PL, uncountable according to the other: hair (uncountable) hairs (uncountable)
                         THE NOUN GENDER

GENDER OF NOUNS
Beings - M, F, common
Things - N

Masculine gender - nouns denoting male beings, which can be replaced by the pronoun he
Man boy brother son monk he-wolf
Feminine gender:  nouns denoting female beings which can be replaced by the pronoun she.
Woman sister daughter nun she wolf
Neuter gender: Inanimate objects (materials, subtances, plants, absrtractions, collective nouns)
Common gender: beings having one form only for both masculine and feminine DUAL GENDER vs
COMMON GENDER (baby)
Cousin, fool, enemy, teacher, names of animals, coumpound nouns build with fellow (school-fellow),
nouns indicating the AGENT (Liar, Sailor, Novelist, Teacher)

● The gender of these nouns is determined by the context (I met your teacher today, she is lovely),
other words that denote the gender (I have several male cousins) or an adjective gender specific:
pregnant

● Sometimes male beings are named by female nouns and vice-versa (tomboy, sissy)

● Some masc nouns serve as general terms (any man can do it!)

A. Means of expressing the gender of animate nouns

1. Ones morphologically unmarked for gender:

Gender might be expressed by diff words, one for M one for F
Boy/girl, horse/stallion/mare, wizard/witch

● Some fem nouns that dont have a male counterpart have negative connotations and are abusive,
either ref to a womans appearence/ moral corruption or behaviour: coquette. The ones that dont
have these connotations usually have sexual overtones: siren, doll, cookie

2. Ones morphologically marked for gender:

A compound + helping gender marke
Distinctixon for words of common gender made by forming a compound with the helping element
that denotes sex
School boy - school girl
Barman - barmaid
Chairman - woman
Male - female

The common noun for:

Mother/father - parent
King, queen - monarch
Cock/hen - fowl

3. Gender can also be marked by suffixes

ESS: added to the M
● With no change to the masc: lion(ess)
● With the omission of the Vowel of the last sylabe of the masc word (SYNCOPE) actor/actress
● With less regular modification of the masc noun: duke-duchess
INE: hero-heroine
A: sultan-sultana
ETE: leader-leaderette
IX: executor-executrix
ER: widow-widower

4. Nouns denoting animals

           generaly NEUTER unless the                                gender is specified: ant,                                       
snake, hen.

● Final gender distinction in the language for the animals that the man is the most connected with.
Animals that are personified big and strong may be considered masc (eagle, lion) and smaller ones
feminine (cat mouse).
When their maternal instinct are reffered to they may be called a she.

5. Colective Nouns

Usually considered NEUTER and are refered to using the pronouns IT or THEY: class, gouvernment,
corporation, army, staff, gang, team, family, the White House.

When they precede a SG verb this stresses the idea of unit, and when they precede a PL verb this
brings forth the personal within the group.

B. Means of expressing the gender of inanimate nouns

Inanimate objects are neuter and substituted by IT. In certain instances such as poetry they might be
personified and therefore ref to as SHE OR HEcq.

The following nouns may become MASC

Natural elements and phenomena: wind, thunder, time
Violent passions: anger, fury, despair
Rivers:the Danube
Mountants:the Alps, the Carpathians

   
The following nouns may become FEM
Gentleness: hope, sympathy, devotion
Natural elements and phenomena that might imply fertility and attachement: earth, moon, sea
"Negative" passions and feelings: jealousy, envy, vanity
Abstractionsliberty, peace, victory
Arts and sciencesart, philosophy
Famous universities: Cambridge/Oxford Uni
Countries viewed as political or economical units:
Romania has increased her exports.
As geographical units such units are treated as neuter:  
Romania lies in the South-East and its capital is Bucharest.
When were talking about a sports team borrowing the name of the country, it turns into a collective
noun and can be replaced with THEY
Romania seem to have improved their chance of taking part in the finals.
Vessels of vehicles towards which an affectionate attitude is expressed: car, bus, mottor
I came by car and before leaving I had her filled up.
CASES

● Nominative ●

□ Subject: The teacher has explained the rules.

□ Subject complement: His cousin was a teacher.
□ Apposition: This is a book by Mihai, the poet.
□ Subject of special constructions:
Nominative with the Infinitive:
The boy was seen to return at 7.
Nominative with the Participle:
The boy was seen sleeping
Absolute infinitival and participial constructions: He paid a part of the sum, the rest to be
sent by post

□ Nominative of adress: Come here, sister!

● Genitive ●
The Possessive Genitive: my friend's sob
The Genitive of Origin: the report of the committee
The Descriptive Genitive: children's clothing, a delay of one hour
The Subjective Genitive: the doctor's arrival
The Objective Genitive:  the loss of the keys
The Appositive Genitive: the month of september
The Partitive Genitive: a slice of bread, five of my books

Synthetical Genitives
'(Apostrophe only): the students' book
Implicit or Juxtaposed Genitives: father's concerns
THE POSSESSIVE MEANING IS NOT MARKED IN ANY WAY
IN NAMES OF ORGANIZATIONS, ASSOCIATIONS, COMPANIES (The Students Ass.)
FOR SCIENTIFIC TERMS: horse-tail, distribution law

The Group Genitive: John and Amy's children

Nouns that may be used with Synthetical Genitives:

- nouns denoting persons
- names of persons
- collective nouns
- nouns denoting beings (no p)
- nouns denoting measurement
- inanimate nouns that are personified: geographical names, abstractions, cars ( Romania's industry )

Analytical Genitive: of + noun:

The novels of Dickens- Dicken's novels
He was a great admiree of Shakespeare.
These written papers of the students are very nice.

The Double Genitive

A pic of my brother's - pic made by him
A pic of my brother - pic containing him

                               DATIVE

Dative without preposition: I told the child a story.

If the Ac is a Prounoun: I told it to the child

Propositions TO and FOR

FUNCTIONS: Indirect object (I gave John a book) Prepositional Indirect Object (I gave a book to John,
brought it for John)

May be governed by:

- verbs: He proposed to her.
- nouns: This is of great help to us.
- adjectives: They were rather cold to her.

🍑Dative of Direction: The child throws the ball TO HIS FRIEND.

🍑Internal Dative: He is nice TO THEM
🍑Dative of Interest: Copy this paper FOR ME please (it's in my interest)
🍑Dative of Reference: TO ME, she seems nice

The Prepositional Dative:

✨Ac+D: Give the book to Ann
✨Emphatic use: For them Jack will go to the store.
✨Vb+ prepositional Indirect object: to accustom to, to appear to, to belong to
✨D is governed by an adj: John is always nice to Ann.
✨D is governed by a noun/pronoun: She was like a mother to the poor girl. What's this to you?

Accusative

(DO/IO/PO/ Direct/Indirect/Prepositional)

I gave THE BOOK to John.

DO+Acc    IO+D
I blame JOHN for my failure.
DO+Acc   PO+Acc
Forgive US OUR MISTAKES
             DO+Acc  DO+Acc
I taught JOHN A POEM.
DO+Acc   DO+Acc

Direct object: He must see the movie

Prepositional object: She doesn't want to talk about her friends
Adverbial: They're at the uni now.
Noun modifier: The young man at the door
is her cousin.

Cognate accusatives: To live a happy life, to smile a pleasant smile

THE DETERMINERS

Category of words that cannot be enriched by the creation of new words, placed before the noun.
Determiners are:
Article (definite, in, zero)
Some pronominal adjectives (dem, poss, interrog, indefinite)
Numeral (cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative, adverbial)
Adj with restrictive meaning

CENTRAL determiners cannot occur before the noun-head: all articles, the possessives (your),
demonstratives (this) indefinite adjs (each, some, any), interrog (which/what+ever OR indefinite
relative pronouns (whatever/whatsoever)

PRE-determiners = precede central ones, and can be combined with them: all, both, half, double,
twice, (multipliers) one third (fractions) etc. Intensifiers that may precede a central det: rather, such,
quite. Words like just, only, merely, also occur before feterminers but they have no relation to the
noun phrase structure as they are mobile in the sentence: I'm only doing it for you...There can also
be 2 words in the pre determiner position (no more of this nonsense)

POST-determiners: ord/card numerals and quantifiers (many few little), adjs (next last),

                            THE ARTICLE

[Definite]               [Indefinite]                 [Zero]

○ Strong form used isolated, to emphasize

○ Weak forms used in normal speech:
DEF: dă ( consonant) di (vowel)
INDEF: a (consonant) an (vowel)

DEFINITE

● For both countable and uncountable nouns.

Functions:
The Demonstrative Function
(when it has a demonstrative meaning): at the moment (this!) at the time(this!) 

Mike injured his foot; under the circumstances, he won't play in the next football match.

The def art used with specific ref (the nouns refers to a specifc object/person, distinct
from all the others of the same category)

● Situational ref: the + nouns whose ref is immidiately understood by the language users/ with nouns
denoting parts of the body: Get up and close the window/It hit me right in the arm!

● Linguistic ref:
■ Anaphoric function (We refer to smth that has already been mentioned): Louise got me a present. The
present got lost somewhere.
■ Cataphoric function: When she arrived, Mary saw that the door was open (Refers to someone
mentioned later in the discourse)

The def art used with generic ref

(the noun it determines is used in the most general sense, aka general function)

a) before a SG countable noun: The horse is my fave animal.

b) before collective generic nouns: The aristocracy has always disgusted me.
c) before PL countable nouns and uncountable nouns (of) : I always loved learning about the
mountains of Romania.
d) before nationality names: For as long as we can remember, we have been at war with the
Germans.
e) before substantivized adjectives denoting abstractions: I still believe in the good of the world.
f) before the names of musical instruments used in general sense: My sis plays the violin.

The distributive/numeral function

(when art is used with a noun demoting a unit for example): He is paid by the hour.

The def art used with nouns that have unique reference
(Many proper names are common nouns with unique ref): The NY times, the BBC, the Moon
Some times one element of said noun might even be dropped: The Pacific (Ocean)

Classes of proper nouns: PL names of persons denoting the WHOLE family, names of persons used as COMON nouns (The Picasso
of the family)n proper nouns pre-modified with an adj (the Mr Smith we know is timid), PL names of countries/islands: The
Bahamas/The USA, desserts, oceans, public institutions (The University), trains, airplanes (the Orient Express), some English
Publications (The Times)

To suggest a superlative meaning: You mean, you met the rockstar?

She is the perfect mother. (When a noun includes all charactetistics we would usually expect from
something or someone)
In set phrases: to tell the truth, to take the lead
With ordinal numerals/adjs, next, last + substantivized cardinal numerals: the third day

INDEFINITE

Used before SG countable nouns + nouns PL in form, SG in meaning. A means of education/A car. But
also with uncountable: She felt a love she couldn't describe.

Functions:

1
The numerical function (used instead of ONE): When I came back, a spoon out of the three was
missing. And with some set phrases: They are all of a size. And part of numerals: a hundred, a million.
And the art is used with the meaning every: once a week

2
Used with specific ref: like when the noun it determines is considered a single specimen of a class :
There is a student outside. This can be illustrated with sentences where the noun is a SUBJECT
COMPLEMEMT or PREDICATIVE or an OBJECT COMPLEMEMT denoting a profession class etc: She
became a teacher. Also in appositions and in prepositional objects as well: as a judge.

● In the example: What a spelndid idea! The art has an anaphoric function cuz its reffering tgt with a
noun to an antecedent.

Used with generic ref: when we assign a person/object to a particular class: A dog can bark.
4
Set phrases with indef art: to put an end to skth, to go for a walk, to make a break for it

5
Used with nouns that have unique ref (ex proper nouns, maybe cuz the person isnt known to the
speaker/a family member/has qualities typical of someone else: A miss Grey wants to see u/ He's a
Diaz./ He thinks he's a Picasso or smth.

6
The Anticipatory function, the anticipatory indef art being either: non selective (a most interesting
sight) or selective (she wanted a yellow skirt.)

                   ZERO ARTICLE

Functions

1) With uncountable nouns + PL countable ones when they have generic function: I like dancing or
cars/Sugar isn't good for you/Life is hard.

2. Nouns denoting family relations with unique ref that behave like proper nouns: Father has left. OR
names of familiar persons: Teacher was pleased.

a. Man/Woman used generically: Man was created before woman.

b. With object and subject complements when they denote professions: He was elected president.

c. With the positive noun denoting title/rank etc; Mister Grey, vice president of our company was
late.

d. Some countable nouns take the zero art in specialized use, in expressions with TO BE/ verbs of
movememt/prepositions like AT, BY, RATHER.

Here we have:
- Names of meals: Very talkative at dinner.
- Nouns like camp, church, college etc, but not used in their concrete meaming: I still haven't left
school.
- Means of transportation + BY
- Nouns denoting the time of the day/night in a general sense: I met him in the afternoon (?)
- Nouns that represent time dividions + NEXT, LAST as long as they Express time relation and not
order: She arrived last night.
- Names of seasons: It's septermber; fall has come.
● Exception: when the noun has specific ref: in the winter of 2003.
- Names of illnesses: appendicitis, diabetes, influenza.
- Nouns of direct speech: Where have you been son?
- SG countable nouns used in interrog sentences preceded by a WH word: What dress will you be
buying?
- Names of languages
- Adverbial phrases: in case of, in spite of

3. With nouns with unique reference

With
□ Names of persons: Johny is absent
□ Names of persons preceded by adjs denoting nicknames: dear Mary
□ Names of persons preceded by titles:  Lady Faraday
□ Geographical names: Europe, Romania, London
□ Names of months, days, festivals: She arrives on Sunday.
□ Compound proper names made up of streets, bridges: Oxford Street
□ Names of magazines or periodicals, (Newsweek) NOT to be mistaken with instances where the art is omitted,
like in news titles (Prison guard is brutally killed), literrary writings etc

THE ADJECTIVE

Gradable (can form a superlative and comparative form): big

Non-gradable (we cannot modify it (cannot use it with very, too etc) or we cannot make a
comparative or superlative from it): daily, dead, unique

● Attributive: generally precede nouns

A tall man
BUT: Attorney General, Governor General, sum total, time immemorial etc

● Predicative: occur after the linking verb (to be YOUNG, to become FAT, to seem NICE, to look FINE
to sound GOOD, to remain LOYAL)
He looks fine.

MODIFYING ADJECTIVES
Qualitative:   denote some quality of an object: beautiful, important, rare. Most have degrees of
comparison except latin comparatives: inferior, superior, minor.
- Relative: shows qualities characterizing an object by reffering to another object: a wooden house, a
silk blouse. They don't have degrees of comparison

DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES
Do not show the quality of an object, they determine it

1. Article-like adjs: some, any

2. Demonstrative: this, the same, the other, another
3. Possesive: my, his, theirs
4. Interogative: used in direct or indirect interrogative sentences: what, which, whose, through what
5. Pronominal relative: what(ever), which(ever),
6. Adverbial: they occur in predicative position ala after the linking verbs: alike, alone, aloof, asleep
7. Numeral: determine nouns in a definite numerical sense: five
8. Indefinite: each, every, both, any, a (little/few), many, several, near, next, former, whole
9. Negative: not one, not a single, neither, no

Quite + Ungradable Words = Absolutely

Quite + Countable Nouns = Noteworthy
Quite +  Uncountable Nouns = Considerable
Quite + Full, Determined, Empty, Finished, Wrong, Ready, Sure, Certain = Completely

It's pretty warm in here (neutral), fairly warm in here (approval), rather warm in here (disapproval).

Determiner, Quality, Size, Age, Shape, Color, Temp, Flavor, Origin, Material, Participle

The Comparison of Adjectives

The comparative of superiority:

For short adjs: adj+ER+ than
For long adjs: more + adjs + than
For the 2 syllabe adjs ending in Y: I+ER
For adjs with irregular comparatives and superlatives: good(better/best) bad(worse/worst) far
(farther/farthest)

The comparative of equality: A is as... as B.

The comparative of inferiority:

A is less + adj + than B
A is not as/so + adj + as B

● LESS AND LEAST can be used in comparative or superlative sentences:

● LEAST can also be found within the expression (not in the least) (not at all)
● When an adj has a single vowel and a single consonant, that consonant will be doubled: hot-
hotter/hottest
● When the adj ends with e, there's only R added: nice-nicer/nicest
● A negative prefix doesn't change any of the rules: unhappy - unhappier/unhappiest. However it
is preffered that we avoid these comparisons and replace them with phrases such as "not as... as"
● As + adj + as = two things are very similar
● Two comparatives joined by AND = the idea of contonuing increase (harder and harder)
● We can qualify comparatives using a bit/a little/a lot/much/far/even/hardly etc
● 2 or more adjs in a list: only add the more to one of them: she is more patient and understanding
than she used to be.
● Elder/eldest can replace older/oldest when talking about ppls ages but they cannot be preceded
by a verb.
● Further/Farther refers to distance but only further can also mean extra.
● Most 1 syllabe adj can also use more/most for the comparative/superlative for a bigger emphasis
● Weaker or stronger comparatives with words like even, very much, considerably, a great deal/a
bit a little slightly
● Superlative: by far, easily, one of (weaker)

PERSONAL PRONOUN

IT can be used as:

■ Preparatory subject: It's pleasant to travel abroad.
■ Preparatory subject: it + adj with verbs like find, believe, consider, declare, discover, estimate,
imagine, feel, mantain, presume
She finds it easy to paint.
He thinks it interesting that she has taken up dancing classes.
■ An introductory: (it is/was + subject + that or who(m): It was Ann who did it!
■ As a demonstrative it: to be + a predicative in N: Who is it? It is me.
■ As a subject of some impersonal vb: It appears
■ After vbs like enjoy, hate, love: I dont like it when you.
■ To replace a whole sentence: The show has been but off, but it doesn't matter.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
She saw herself in the mirror.

EMPHATIC PRONOUNS
He himself checked the engine last month.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS:
The book is yours.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS:
That was her car.

INTERROGATIVE:
What is your name? Whose is that?

RELATIVE:
The boy whom you have just seen.

CONJUCTIVE-RELATIVE
Whoever

RECIPROCAL
Each other, one another

NUMERAL
Five of them have left.

GENERIC
Anybody, anything, everybody

INDEFINITE
Somebody, someone, something, any+ compound, every+ compound, several, either, neither, many,
both, such, enough, the former, the latter, nobody, no one, none

NEGATIVE
No one, none, neither

● Which is more selective.

● That is after words preceeded by the same, after ordinal numerals, after a⁸ superlative, after an
indefinite pronoun, after we refer to both people and events.
Tastes - linking verb, the good cannot do the action
The most minor - minor doeesnt have degrees of comparisons
My friends is in Nominative, subject and links to something of the same kind => I
Afraid - stays in predicative position
That, cuz we have the same as the relative pronoun
Than is a marker for superiority, as is for equality!
Highly has another meaning

THE ADVERB
Part of speech which modifies or adds to the meaning of verbs (like when where and how something happens)

They can modify adjs (very hard)/other adverbs (very nicely)/prepositional phrases (completely out
of order)/nouns (the man over there)/complete sentences (surprisingly enough,...) They can be:

SINGLE: then,soon, here

MADE UP OF 2+ WORDS: soon enough, far behind, back then
MADE UP OF 2 DIFF PARTS OF SPEECH: downstairs, indoors, anywhere
MADE UP OF ADJ/NOUN + ly:

adjs ending in E keep the E + ly: extremely (with the exception of due-dully, true-truly, whole-wholly
adjs ending in LE drop E and add LY: miserably
adjs ending in a vowel + L keep the L and add LY: beautifully
adjs ending in LL just add Y: fully
adjs ending in Y change Y to I and add LY: easily. (Exception: shyly)
POSITION
Depends on the meaning and the word or phrase it is MODIFYING. Some do have fixed positions: pretty good, really well,
quite a surprise (His arrival came as quite a surprise!)

■ Front position (before the subject) have:

A. Interrogative Adverbs: Why were u so late?
B. Adverbs from Exclamatory sentences: There goes the train!
C. Adverbs of Affirmation/of Negation: No,  she is a lawyer.
D. Certain Adverbs in Narrative writing to creatw suspence: Slowley, he opened rhe door.
E. Some adverbs of definite time: Yesterday, I ran.
F. Some viewpoint adverbs: Fortunately, he survived.
G. Some adverbs of definite frequency: Once a year he runs.

■ Mid position (between the subject and predicate)

A. Adverbs of manner: He simply refused.
B. Adverbs of indefinite time: We recentlty found
C. Adverbs of indefinite frequency: We have never been in Paris.
D. Viewpoint adverbs: They are obviously right.
● Simple verb = between the subject and verb
Simple forms of to be: the adverb goes after the verb
● If we want to emphasize an auxiliary verb or a simple form of TO BE, we can put a mid-position adverb before it: She
doesnt really like him (sligh dislike) VS She really doesnt like him (hate)

End position
A. Adverbs of definite time. It ended in 1900.
B. Adverbs of definite frequency: they visit on Fridays.
C. Adverbs of indefinite frequency: She runs on Saturdays Usually.
D. Asvers of manner: It was raining heavily.
E. Of place: They walked in the garden.
F. Of degree: she helped him very much.

CLASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO FORM
Simple: in out often
Derived: asleep weekly perfectly
Compound: however sometimes
Phrasal adverbs: at dirst at least at all
Adverbial constructions: by night, with difficulty

ACCORDING TO MEANING
Of time: already, before, daily, early, soon, later
Of place: away, abroad, behind
Of cause reason or result: consequently, as a result, on purpose
Of frequency and repetition: once twice thrice
Interrogative advebs: how, why, where
Of manner: gracefully, badly, sofltly, carefully
They can be adverbs of quality (nicely, quickly), of amount of degree (about, partly) of
affirmation/probability/negation (indeed, certainly), intensive adverbs (precisely, especially),
restrictive ones (only, just), explanatory (such as, that is), introductory (in any case, consequently)

Inversion after advbs is the case for:

1. Negative adverbs: Never have I cheated at a test
2. Restrictive adverbs: Only now do I get what he was trying to tell me.
3. For stylistic purposes: By her side sat a lovely child.
4. So + adj + that and such
5. After the adverbs here and there.