Unit 1: Basic Aspects: Definition: Health

1st Semester Nutrition – UNIT 1 [BHM116]
UNIT 1: BASIC ASPECTS
DEFINITION:
Health
Health signifies the ability to deal with physical, biological,
psychological, and social stress.
The World Health Organization (WHO) proposed a definition that
aimed higher: linking health to well-being, in terms of “physical,
mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease
and infirmity”.
Being healthy is way more than just being physically fit or absence of
diseases. We can recognize diseases only when we feel or see any
symptoms. Many of the times we are good to do works and we think
that we are fit or healthy but actually, we are not. Nowadays mental,
physical and social illness is on top.
With nutrients, our surroundings & environment, physical activities,
and self-satisfaction are also contributing to being healthy.
Nutrients
Nutrients are compounds in foods essential to life and health,
providing us with energy, the building blocks for repair and growth
and substances necessary to regulate chemical processes.
A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and
reproduce. Different types of organisms have different essential
nutrients.
IHM Notes Site | Nutrition

Nutrients are classified into two categories:

Macronutrients & Micronutrients
Macronutrients
Macronutrients are consumed in relatively large amounts;
macronutrients are used primarily to generate energy or to
incorporate into tissues for growth and repair.
Macronutrients:
Carbohydrates: pasta, rice, cereals, bread, potatoes, milk, fruit, sugar
Proteins: meat, dairy, legumes, nuts, seafood, and eggs
Fats: oils, butter, margarine, nuts, seeds, avocados and olives, meat
and seafood
Micronutrients
Micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts they have subtle
biochemical and physiological roles in cellular processes, like vascular
functions or nerve conduction.
Micronutrients:
Dietary minerals: calcium, sodium, magnesium, etc.
Vitamins: vitamin A, C, D, K, Thiamine, Riboflavin, etc.

Nutrition
In science and human medicine, nutrition is the science or practice of
consuming and utilizing foods.
Nutrition is how food affects the health of the body. Food is
essential—it provides vital nutrients for survival, and helps the body
function and stay healthy.
Nutrition is about eating a healthy and balanced diet. The food we eat
and drink contains nutrients that provide nutrition to keep us healthy.
Understanding these nutrition terms may make it easier for us to
make better food choices.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition, in every form, presents significant threats to human
health. Malnutrition includes both undernutrition and overweight.
Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one
or more nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that
the diet causes health problems.
Undernutrition:
Not enough nutrients or lack of nutrients in one’s body are called
undernutrition or undernourishment.
Overnutrition:
While too much nutrients consumption caused overnutrition or the
person considered as overweight.

Classification of Nutrients
Based on requirements by body nutrients are classified into two
categories:
• Macronutrients
• Micronutrient
Both are equally important for good health. The amount needed to
ensure good health varies from individual to individual depending on
their age, gender, body size, activity and state of health. ICMR gives
the RDA for Indians.
Macronutrients
Macronutrients are consumed in relatively large amounts;
macronutrients are used primarily to generate energy or to
incorporate into tissues for growth and repair.
Macronutrients:
Carbohydrates: pasta, rice, cereals, bread, potatoes, milk, fruit, sugar
Proteins: meat, dairy, legumes, nuts, seafood, and eggs
Fats: oils, butter, margarine, nuts, seeds, avocados and olives, meat
and seafood
Water: An adult need about 2–3 ltr of water each day.

Micronutrients
Micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts they have subtle
biochemical and physiological roles in cellular processes, like vascular
functions or nerve conduction.
Micronutrients:
Dietary minerals
Minerals are the substances that people need to ensure the health
and correct working of their soft tissues, fluids, and their skeleton.
Examples of minerals include calcium, iron, iodine, fluorine,
phosphorus, potassium, zinc, selenium, and sodium.
Vitamins
Vitamins are also called protective foods.
Vitamins are further classified into two groups:
1. Fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K are soluble in fats
and fat solvents. They are insoluble in water. So these are
utilized only if there is enough fat in the body.
2. Water-soluble vitamins: vitamins B and C, and folic acid are
soluble in water and so they cannot be stored in the body.
Based on chemical nature nutrients are classified as follows:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats
• Minerals
• Vitamins
• Dietary fiber
• Water

UNIT 2: ENERGY
Food is digested, the complex nutrients i.e., carbohydrates, fats,

protein are broken down into monosaccharides, fatty acids & glycerol,
& amino acids, respectively. These simple forms are absorbed into the
blood stream & supplied to the millions of cells in the body to be
oxidized by series of complex steps to released energy.
Human being needs energy for the following:
• Basal metabolism
• Metabolic responses to food – thermo genesis / SDA
• Physical activities
• Growth
• For mothers in special conditions (pregnancy & lactation)
TEE = BMR (45 – 75percent) + Thermo genesis (10 percent) +

Physical activities (15 – 50 percent)

Factors affecting the BMR

BMR is the largest component of the daily energy demand
representing 45 – 70 percent of daily total energy expenditure. It is
highly variable & the cause of this variation include factors such as
• body size & composition,
• age,
• gender,
• environmental condition,
• hormonal status,
• fever/illness/infection / injury,
• specific body conditions of mothers (pregnancy & lactation),
• other factors etc
Thermal effect of food (SDA)

Thermal effect of food (TEF) determined primarily by the amount of
composition of food consumed. For example, is greater after
consumption of carbohydrate & protein than after fat. It varies from
5-10 percent for carbohydrates, 0-5 percent for Fat, & 20 -30 percent
for protein.
Physical Activity
Sedentary workers –persons taking, reading, watching TV, listening
Radio, doing computer works specially sitting activities (teachers,
office workers).
Moderate workers – with some activity’s servants, house cleaners,
rural women, students etc.
Heavy workers – Labour class.

Energy requirement
The amount of food needed to ensure good health will vary from one
individual to another. All people do not require the same amount of
nutrients. Requirement vary depending upon age, gender, body size,
activities, state of health etc. ICMR has prepared Recommended
Dietary Allowances (RDA) for Indians.
Energy balance: Energy output – Energy input
Energy balance is a condition in which the energy provided by food is
nearly equal to energy expenditure by the body resulting in a steady
body weight.
Overweight & underweight both are the abnormalities
Both measured by BMI (body Mass Index)
BMI = Weight in kilograms / height in meters2
W/H2

1st Semester Nutrition – UNIT 3.1 [BHM116]
UNIT 3: MACRO NUTRIENTS
CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates are an important group of nutrients. It is present

in various forms in the foods we cook, processed food which we
purchase and forms the bulk of our diet.
• They are mainly present in food in the form of sugars, starches,
and fibres. They are organic compounds made up of C, H &. O
• They are called carbohydrates because H & O are present in the
same proportion as found in water i.e. 2:1.
• They are processed in plants by the process of photosynthesis.
• Chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs energy from
sunlight and enables plants to build up carbohydrates from CO2
and H20 in plants.
• Glucose cannot be stored on a large scale so it is converted to
starch with the removal of water and is stored in various parts
of the plant. E.g. in cereal grains and potatoes, CHO is stored as
starch.
• In bananas, mango and sugar beets it is stored as sugar.
• However, the reverse is seen in the fruits, immature fruits
contain starch which is converted into sugar as the fruit ripens.
• The various parts of the plant where CHO is stored form the
main source of CHO in the diet.

Definition
The carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon. It is a group of
organic compounds occurring in living tissues and foods in the form of
starch, cellulose, and sugars.
Carbohydrates are also called saccharides which is a Greek word and
it means sugar because almost all the carbohydrates have a sweet
taste.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two categories i.e. simple
carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates.
Simple Carbohydrates vs Complex Carbohydrates:
Simple Carbohydrate Complex Carbohydrate
Simple carbohydrates contain Complex carbohydrates contain
single molecule or smaller chains longer chains of sugar molecules
of sugar. than simple carbohydrates.
Simple carbohydrates are Complex carbohydrates take
quicker to digest than complex longer to digest and are a more
carbohydrates. stable source of energy.
Simple carbohydrates are in Complex carbohydrates are
foods such as table sugar and present in foods such as bread
syrups. and pasta.
Milk and milk products contain
simple carbohydrate. These Complex carbohydrates found in
foods do not contain fiber but whole foods tend to be highly
are rich in protein, calcium, and nutritious.
vitamin D

Classification of carbohydrates on the basis of their structure and

function are:
Monosaccharide
The monosaccharides are the simplest of the carbohydrates since
they contain only one polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit and
cannot be further hydrolysed into simpler units. (Mono: one,
Saccharide: sugar).
There are two major classes of monosaccharides:
1. Aldoses:
Sugars containing an aldehydic group are known as aldoses, e.g.,
Glucose, galactose, mannose, and glycerose.
2. Ketoses:
Sugars containing a ketonic group are known as ketoses. e.g.,
Dihydroxyacetone, fructose, and ribulose.
Disaccharide
Sugars containing two monosaccharides linked through glycosidic
bond are known as disaccharides.
The three most common disaccharides are:
1. Maltose
α-D-glucose + α-D-glucose = Maltose
Also known as malt sugar. It is found in germinating grain (such as
barley) and is formed during the hydrolysis of starch to glucose during
digestion.

2. Lactose
β-D-galactose + α-D-glucose = Lactose
It is present in milk hence, known as milk sugar. Lactose constitutes
5% of cow’s milk and 7% of human milk. It is digested by the enzyme
lactase.
3. Sucrose
α-D-glucose + β-D-fructose = Sucrose
Also known as table sugar. Both anomeric carbons of glucose and
fructose are tied together in the glycosidic linkage. Sucrose is
abundant in sugar cane and sugar beets; maple syrup contains about
65% sucrose, with glucose and fructose present as well; caramel is the
solid residue formed from heating sucrose.
Oligosaccharide
Oligosaccharides contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units.
Oligosaccharides can have many functions including cell recognition
and cell binding.
Raffinose is an example of oligosaccharide.
β-D-galactose + α-D-glucose + β-D-fructose = Raffinose
An oligosaccharide found in peas and beans; largely undigested until
reaching the intestinal flora in the large intestine, releasing hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, and methane).

Polysaccharide
Carbohydrates made up of more than 10 monosaccharide units are
called polysaccharides. They are also known as glycans.
They are further classified as homopolysaccharides and
heteropolysaccharides.
1. Homopolysaccharides:
Those polysaccharides which contain only one kind of
monosaccharide unit are called homopolysaccharides. e.g., starch,
glycogen, cellulose, dextran, inulin, agar, chitin, etc.
Starch: Starch is a polymer consisting of D-glucose units. Starches
(and other glucose polymers) are usually insoluble in water because
of the high molecular weight, but they can form thick colloidal
suspensions with water. It is the chief carbohydrates present in plants
and forms the main source of dietary energy sources to humans.
Glycogen: Glycogen, also known as animal starch, is made up of α-D-
glucose units linked by α-1 → 4 linkages in the linear and α-1 → 6
linkages at the branching points. Glycogen is abundant in the liver and
muscles; on hydrolysis, it forms glucose, which maintains normal
blood sugar level and provides energy.
Cellulose: Cellulose is a polymer consisting of long, unbranched chains
of D-glucose connected by β(1→4) glycosidic linkages. It is the most
abundant carbohydrate in nature. It forms the woods of the plant.
Cellulase enzyme is absent in human being and hence it becomes
non-utilizable.

2. Heteropolysaccharides:
heteropolysaccharides (heteroglycans) contain two or more different
monosaccharide units. Usually, they provide extracellular support for
organisms of all kingdoms: the cell envelope of bacteria, or the matrix
that holds individual cells together in animal tissues, and provides
protection, shape, and support to cells, tissues, and organs.
They include chondroitin sulphate, hyaluronic acid, and heparin.
Other Classification of Carbohydrates

Available Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates that are digested in the
human body and yield energy when they are oxidized in the body are
available carbohydrates. E.g. sugars, starch, glycogen, etc.
Unavailable Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates that cannot be digested
because the human body does not contain the enzymes necessary for
their breakdown are unavailable Carbohydrates. They do not provide
any energy to the body but are necessary as they perform some
important functions in the body such as regular elimination of faecal
waste. E.g. soluble fiber and insoluble fiber.

Dietary Sources of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates Dietary Sources
Fruits, vegetables, and
honey, also derived
MONOSACCHARIDES Fructose
from the digestion of
sucrose
Small amounts are
found in some fruits,
vegetables, and honey,
Glucose manufactured foods,
digestion and
conversion of other
carbohydrates
Galactose Digestion of lactose
from sugar cane and
sugar beet, sweet root
vegetables such as
DISACCHARIDES Sucrose
beetroot and carrots,
table sugar,
manufactured foods
Malted wheat and
Maltose barley, malt extract,
beer
Lactose Milk, Milk products
Mushrooms and edible
Trehalose
fungi
Raffinose, stachyose,
Legumes, onion,
verbascose, inulin,
OLIGOSACCHARIDES artichoke, fennel,
fructose and galacto-
asparagus, Pre-biotics
oligosaccahrides
Cereal foods, potato,
small amounts in other
POLYSACCHARIDES Starch
root vegetables and
unripe fruit
Vegetables, fruit,
Non-starch
wholegrain, cereals,
polysaccharides
pulses

Functions
There are five primary functions of carbohydrates in the human body.
They are energy production, energy storage, building
macromolecules, sparing protein, and assisting in lipid metabolism.
Energy Production
The primary role of carbohydrates is to supply energy to all cells in the
body. Many cells prefer glucose as a source of energy versus other
compounds like fatty acids. Some cells, such as red blood cells, are
only able to produce cellular energy from glucose. The brain is also
highly sensitive to low blood-glucose levels because it uses only
glucose to produce energy and function (unless under extreme
starvation conditions). About 70 percent of the glucose entering the
body from digestion is redistributed (by the liver) back into the blood
for use by other tissues. Cells that require energy remove the glucose
from the blood with a transport protein in their membranes.
Energy Storage
If the body already has enough energy to support its functions, the
excess glucose is stored as glycogen (the majority of which is stored in
the muscles and liver). A molecule of glycogen may contain in excess
of fifty thousand single glucose units and is highly branched, allowing
for the rapid dissemination of glucose when it is needed to make
cellular energy.
The amount of glycogen in the body at any one time is equivalent to
about 4,000 kilocalories—3,000 in muscle tissue and 1,000 in the
liver. Prolonged muscle use (such as exercise for longer than a few
hours) can deplete the glycogen energy reserve.

Building Macromolecules
Although most absorbed glucose is used to make energy, some
glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose, which are essential
building blocks of important macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and
ATP. Glucose is additionally utilized to make the molecule NADPH,
which is important for protection against oxidative stress and is used
in many other chemical reactions in the body. If all of the energy,
glycogen-storing capacity, and building needs of the body are met,
excess glucose can be used to make fat. This is why a diet too high in
carbohydrates and calories can add-on the fat pounds.
Sparing Protein
In a situation where there is not enough glucose to meet the body’s
needs, glucose is synthesized from amino acids. Because there is no
storage molecule of amino acids, this process requires the destruction
of proteins, primarily from muscle tissue. The presence of adequate
glucose basically spares the breakdown of proteins from being used
to make glucose needed by the body.
Lipid Metabolism
As blood-glucose levels rise, the use of lipids as an energy source is
inhibited. Thus, glucose additionally has a “fat-sparing” effect. This is
because an increase in blood glucose stimulates the release of the
hormone insulin, which tells cells to use glucose (instead of lipids) to
make energy. Adequate glucose levels in the blood also prevent the
development of ketosis. Ketosis is a metabolic condition resulting
from an elevation of ketone bodies in the blood. Ketone bodies are an
alternative energy source that cells can use when glucose supply is
insufficient, such as during fasting. Ketone bodies are acidic and high
elevations in the blood can cause it to become too acidic.

Other Functions
• Glucose is indispensable for the maintenance of the integrity of
nervous tissue (some central nervous system areas are able to
use only glucose for energy production) and red blood cells.
• They take part in detoxifying processes. For example, at hepatic
level glucuronic acid, synthesized from glucose, combines with
endogenous substances, like hormones, bilirubin, etc., and
exogenous substances, like chemical or bacterial toxins or drugs,
making them atoxic, increasing their solubility and allowing their
elimination.
• They are also found linked to many proteins and lipids. Within
cells, they act as signals that determine the metabolic fate or
the intracellular localization of the molecules which are bound.
On the cellular surface, their presence is necessary for
identification processes between cells that are involved e.g. in
the recognition between spermatozoon and oocyte during
fertilization, in the return of lymphocytes in the lymph nodes of
provenance or still in the leukocyte adhesion to the lips of the
lesion of a blood vessel.
• Two homopolysaccharides, cellulose and chitin (probably, next
to cellulose, the second most abundant polysaccharide in
nature), serve as structural elements, respectively, in plant cell
walls and exoskeletons of nearly a million species of arthropods
(e.g. insects, lobsters, and crabs).
• Heteropolysaccharides provide extracellular support for
organisms of all kingdoms: in bacteria, the rigid layer of the cell
wall is composed in part of a heteropolysaccharide contained
two alternating monosaccharide units while in animals the
extracellular space is occupied by several types of
heteropolysaccharides, which form a matrix with numerous

functions, as hold individual cells together and provide

protection, support, and shape to cells, tissues, and organs.
Dietary Fibre
Dietary fiber is a type of carbohydrate that cannot be digested by our
bodies’ enzymes. It is found in edible plant foods such as cereals,
fruits, vegetables, dried peas, nuts, lentils, and grains. Fiber is
grouped by its physical properties and is called soluble, insoluble or
resistant starch. All three types of fiber have important roles to play.
Significance of Dietary fiber
Fiber helps to keep our digestive system healthy and helps to prevent
constipation. For example, fiber bulks up stools, make stools softer
and easier to pass and make the waste move through the digestive
tract more quickly.
Cardiovascular disease (heart disease and stroke) and type 2 diabetes:
Foods such as oats and barley contain a type of fiber known as beta-
glucan, which may help to reduce cholesterol levels if you consume
3g or more of it daily, as part of a healthy diet.
Research has increasingly shown how important the bacteria in our
gut may be to our health, and it has been suggested that a fiber-rich
diet can help increase the good bacteria in the gut. Some fiber types
provide a food source for ‘friendly’ gut bacteria helping them to
increase and produce substances that are thought to be protective
such as short-chain fatty acids.
Dietary fiber play role in energy intake control and reduced risk for
the development of obesity. The role of dietary fiber in energy intake
regulation and obesity development is related to its unique physical
and chemical properties that aid in early signals of satiation and
enhanced or prolonged signals of satiety.

Functions Benefits
Adds bulk to the diet, making
May reduce appetite
feel full faster
Attracts water and turns to gel
during digestion, trapping Lowers variance in blood sugar
carbohydrates and slowing levels
absorption of glucose
Lowers total and LDL cholesterol Reduces risk of heart disease
May reduce onset risk or
Regulates blood pressure symptoms of metabolic
syndrome and diabetes
Speeds the passage of foods
Facilitates regularity
through the digestive system
Adds bulk to stool Alleviates constipation
Balances intestinal pH and
stimulates intestinal May reduce risk of colorectal
fermentation production of cancers
short-chain fatty acids
Sources of Dietary Fiber

Fiber-rich foods include:
• Wholegrain breakfast cereals, wholewheat pasta, wholegrain
bread and oats, barley and rye
• Fruit such as berries, pears, melon and oranges
• Vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, and sweetcorn
• Peas, beans, and pulses
• Nuts and seeds
• Potatoes with skin

Fiber Intake
Age (years) Recommended intake of fibre
2-5 15g per day
5-11 20g per day
11-16 25g per day
17 and over 30g per day
Deficiency of carbohydrates
carbohydrate inadequacy results in increased production of organic
compounds called ketones (a condition, known as ketosis), which
imparts a distinctive sweet odour to the breath.
Ketosis and other untoward effects of a very-low-carbohydrate diet
can be prevented by the daily consumption of 50 to 100 grams of
carbohydrate.
Excess of Carbohydrates
Here are some of the harmful effects of too many carbohydrates in
your diet:
Obesity
Carbs are a concentrated source of calories, at 4 calories per gram.
And large servings of carb-heavy dishes like rice, pasta and bread can
contain hundreds of — or in some cases, over a thousand — calories.
If you’re habitually overeating carbohydrates, the excess calories
could lead to Obesity.
Type 2 Diabetes
Type 2 diabetes has been linked to the overconsumption of refined
carbohydrates, which include white bread, pasta, and many packaged

snack foods. These types of carbs digest quickly and cause a rush of
glucose into the blood. This increases the body’s need for insulin and
the pancreas does not produce enough insulin. Insulin’s job is to
move glucose out of the blood, having too little means that blood
sugar is able to linger in our bloodstream and this raises our blood
sugar level causing diabetes.
Atherosclerosis
Excess carbs change into the excess fat of your body. When your body
fat reaches an extreme point, this fat causes the arteries’ walls to
thicken up. Consumption of saturated fat encourages the plaque in
the arteries to build up, thus narrowing the space for blood flow. This
causes a disruption in the bloodstream, thus increasing the chances of
a heart attack or a stroke. This condition is known as atherosclerosis.
Vascular Diseases
Consuming too many carbs increases the number of triglycerides in
your blood, which then raises the risk of developing heart diseases. It
also causes the arteries to swell and blood clots may occur in your
heart and blood. Triglycerides beat the amount of good cholesterol in
the body, potentially giving you numerous vascular diseases

UNIT 4: MICRO NUTRIENTS

VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential for normal health
and growth. They are required in trace amounts and must be
obtained from the diet because they are not synthesized in the body.
• Organic molecules with a wide variety of functions.
• Cofactors for enzymatic reactions
Before vitamins were discovered, it was known that lime juice
prevented the disease scurvy in sailors and that cod liver oil could
prevent rickets. In 1912, scientists found that, in addition to
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, certain other factors called vitamins
must be obtained from the diet.
Why are they good for us?
• Greater need due to worse environment
• Improve immunity
• Prevent illnesses
• Slower aging
Types of Vitamin
Two distinct types:
Water-soluble
water-soluble vitamin is one that dissolves in water and as a result, is
easily absorbed into the tissues of the body and metabolized more
quickly than fat-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble
The fat-soluble vitamins are soluble in lipids (fats). These vitamins are
usually absorbed in fat globules that travel through the lymphatic
system of the small intestines and into the general blood circulation
within the body.
Water Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin Alternative Names/Forms
thiamine vitamin B1
riboflavin vitamin B2
niacin nicotinic acid, nicotinamide
pyridoxine, pyridoxal,
vitamin B6
pyridoxamine
folate, folacin, pteroylglutamic
folic acid
acid
vitamin B12 cobalamin, cyanocobalamin
pantothenic acid
biotin
vitamin C ascorbic acid
• Soluble in aqueous solutions

• Water soluble vitamins Used as cofactors by many enzymes
• Not stored in the body

Thiamine (vitamin B1)

• Function: It helps to convert food into energy. Needed for
healthy skin, hair, muscles, and brain and is critical for nerve
function.
• Food Sources: Pork chops, brown rice, ham, soymilk,
watermelons, acorn squash
• Deficiency: Deficiency of thiamine results in beriberi and its
symptoms are fatigue, weight loss, and nerve degeneration.
Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
• Function: It helps to convert food into energy. Needed for
healthy skin, hair, blood, and brain.
• Food Sources: Milk, eggs, yogurt, cheese, meats, green leafy
vegetables, whole, and enriched grains and cereals
• Deficiency: riboflavin deficiency also known as ariboflavinosis,
include skin disorders, hyperaemia (excess blood) and edema of
the mouth and throat, angular stomatitis (lesions at the corners
of the mouth), cheilosis (swollen, cracked lips), hair loss,
reproductive problems, sore throat, itchy and red eyes, and
degeneration of the liver and nervous system.
Niacin (vitamin B3, nicotinic acid)
• Function: It helps to convert food into energy. Essential for
healthy skin, blood cells, brain, and nervous system.
• Food Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, fortified and whole grains,
mushrooms, potatoes, peanut butter
• Deficiency: Deficiency of niacin can result in dermatitis, muscle
fatigue and loss of appetite.

Pantothenic Acid (vitamin B5)

• Function: It helps to convert food into energy. It helps in making
lipids (fats), neurotransmitters, steroid hormones, and
haemoglobin.
• Food Sources: Wide variety of nutritious foods, including
chicken, egg yolk, whole grains, broccoli, mushrooms, avocados,
tomato products.
• Deficiency: Its deficiency may cause fatigue, retarded growth,
insomnia, depression.
Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
• Function: Aids in lowering homocysteine levels and may reduce
the risk of heart disease. It helps in converting tryptophan to
niacin and serotonin, a neurotransmitter that plays key roles in
sleep, appetite, and moods. Helps in making red blood cells
Influence cognitive abilities and immune function.
• Food Sources: Meat, fish, poultry, legumes, tofu and other soy
products, potatoes, noncitrus fruits such as bananas and
watermelons
• Deficiency: Vitamin B6 deficiency can result in microcytic
anaemia, electroencephalographic abnormalities, dermatitis
with cheilosis (scaling on the lips and cracks at the corners of
the mouth) and glossitis (swollen tongue).
Cobalamin (vitamin B12)
• Function: Aids in lowering homocysteine levels and may lower
the risk of heart disease. Assists in making new cells and
breaking down some fatty acids and amino acids. Protects nerve
cells and encourages their normal growth Helps make red blood
cells and DNA.

• Food Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, milk, cheese, eggs, fortified

cereals, fortified soymilk
• Deficiency: The deficiency of cobalamin leads to pernicious
anaemia and nerve damage.
Biotin
• Function: It helps to convert food into energy and synthesize
glucose. It helps in making and breaking down some fatty acids.
Needed for healthy bones and hair.
• Food Sources: Many foods, including whole grains, organ meats,
egg yolks, soybeans, and fish
• Deficiency: Biotin deficiency includes hair loss (alopecia) and a
scaly red rash around the eyes, nose, mouth, and genital area.
Neurologic symptoms in adults have included depression,
lethargy, hallucinations, numbness, and tingling of the
extremities, ataxia, and seizures.
Ascorbic Acid (vitamin C)
• Function: Foods rich in vitamin C may lower the risk for some
cancers, including those of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
and breast. Long-term use of supplemental vitamin C may
protect against cataracts. It helps to make collagen, a
connective tissue that knits together wounds and supports
blood vessel walls. It also helps to make the neurotransmitters
serotonin and norepinephrine Acts as an antioxidant,
neutralizing unstable molecules that can damage cells. Bolsters
the immune system.
• Food Sources: Fruits and fruit juices (especially citrus), potatoes,
broccoli, bell peppers, spinach, strawberries, tomatoes, Brussels
sprouts
• Deficiency: Vitamin C deficiency called Scurvy.
Excess of Vitamin C can cause Diarrhoea, Nausea, Vomiting.

Folic Acid (vitamin B9)

• Function: It is vital for new cell creation, helps to prevent brain
and spine birth defects when taken early in pregnancy; it should
be taken regularly by all women of child-bearing age since
women may not know they are pregnant in the first weeks of
pregnancy. Can lower levels of homocysteine and may reduce
heart disease risk May reduce the risk for colon cancer. Offsets
breast cancer risk among women who consume alcohol.
• Food Sources: Fortified grains and cereals, asparagus, okra,
spinach, turnip greens, broccoli, legumes like black-eyed peas
and chickpeas, orange juice, tomato juice
• Deficiency: It causes Folate-deficiency anaemia. Folate-
deficiency anaemia is the lack of folic acid in the blood.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin Alternative Names/Forms
retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, beta-carotene (plant
vitamin A
version)
calciferol, calatriol (1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D1 or
vitamin D vitamin D hormone), cholecalciferol (D3; plant
version), ergocalciferol (D2; animal version)
vitamin E alpha-tocopherol, tocopherol, tocotrienol
phylloquinone, menaquinone, menadione,
vitamin K
naphthoquinone
• Soluble in lipids, but not in aqueous solutions

• Important in vision, bone formation, antioxidants, and blood
clotting
• Stored in the body

Vitamin A
vitamin A; includes retinol, retinal, retinyl esters, and retinoic acid and
is also referred to as “preformed” vitamin A. Beta carotene can easily
be converted to vitamin A as needed.
• Function: Essential for vision Lycopene may lower prostate
cancer risk. Keeps tissues and skin healthy. Plays an important
role in bone growth and the immune system. Diets rich in the
carotenoid’s alpha-carotene and lycopene seem to lower lung
cancer risk. Carotenoids act as antioxidants. Foods rich in the
carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin may protect against cataracts.
• Food Sources: Sources of retinoids: beef liver, eggs, shrimp, fish,
fortified milk, butter, cheddar cheese, Swiss cheese
• Sources of beta carotene: sweet potatoes, carrots, pumpkins,
squash, spinach, mangoes, turnip greens, and almost all green
vegetables.
• Deficiency: Deficiency of Vitamin A called Night Blindness.
Calciferol (vitamin D)
• Function: It helps to maintain normal blood levels of calcium
and phosphorus, which strengthens bones. It helps in the
formation of teeth and bones. Supplements can reduce the
number of non-spinal fractures.
• Food Sources: Fortified milk or margarine, fortified cereals, fatty
fish
• Deficiency: Deficiency can result in weakened bones.
Alpha-Tocopherol (vitamin E)
• Function: Acts as an antioxidant, neutralizing unstable molecule
that can damage cells. Protects vitamin A and certain lipids from

damage. Diets rich in vitamin E may help prevent Alzheimer’s

disease. Cures muscle, heart and skin diseases, burns.
• Food Sources: Wide variety of foods, including vegetable oils,
salad dressings, and margarine made with vegetable oils, wheat
germ, leafy green vegetables, whole grains, nuts
• Deficiency: Muscle weakness, Coordination, and walking
difficulties, Vision deterioration
Phylloquinone, Menadione (vitamin K)
• Function: Activates proteins and calcium essential to blood
clotting. May help prevent hip fractures. Vitamin K1 in plants
has a saturated side chain. Vitamin K2 in animals has a long
unsaturated side chain. Vitamin K2 is needed for the synthesis
of zymogens for blood clotting. Higher need by new-borns,
people with liver diseases, or fat malabsorption.
• Food Sources: Cabbage, liver, eggs, milk, spinach, broccoli,
sprouts, kale, collards, and other green vegetables
• Deficiency: Vitamin K deficiency is much more common in
infants. In infants, the condition is called VKDB, for vitamin K
deficiency bleeding.

Vitamins and Its Recommended Daily Values

Humans need a certain daily intake of vitamins. This table summarizes
recommended daily values of some water- & fat-soluble vitamins.
Vitamin Daily values [mg]
A (retinol) 1-3
B1 (thiamine) 30 – 200
B2 (riboflavin) 25 – 200
B3 (niacin) 30 – 100
B5 (Pantothenic acid) 20 – 500
B6 (pyridoxine) 10 – 15
B12 (Cobalamin) 5-8
H (Biotin) 300 – 5000
C (Ascorbic acid) 2 – 12 g
D (cholecalciferol) 10
E (tocopherol) 400 – 2000
K 80

UNIT 5: WATER
An important nutrient 75 to 80 percent of our total body is water.

The total body fluid is distributed among two major components
• Extracellular fluid: contain sodium
• Intercellular fluid: contain potassium
Hydrogen & Oxygen in the ratio 2:1 form water
Sources: Visible & Invisible water.
• Visible water that we can see are- plain water, fruit juices, tea,
milk, coffee, etc
• Invisible water that is inside the food s & metabolic water.
Function
• Water quenched our thirst and is the most refreshing & cooling
of all liquids.
• It is a structural component of all cells.
• Water is a medium in which all chemical reaction takes place.
• It is an essential component of all body fluid such as blood,
cerebrospinal fluid, bile, digestive fluid, urine.
• It acts as a lubricant & helps us in swallowing food or to digest
food.
• It acts as a solvent for the products of digestion & helps in
transporting this product in different parts of the body.
• It regulates body temperature.
• It helps to throw the waste product from the body.

Water Balance
In a normal individual, the maintenance of water balance is archived
by adjusting both water intake & excretion as needed.
The major inputs of water are:
• Fluids that we consume as beverages, including water
depending on climatic conditions & habits.
• Different types of foods & fruits that we take in solid form.
• Metabolic water.
Output or loss of water from the body:
• Renal loss: Kidneys excrete about 1-2 litre of water daily
• Skin: The water loss from the skin is through perspiration.
• Intestine: A small quantity of water is normally losses in faeces.
• Lungs: The air expired from the lungs also contains water.
• Sweat: It depends on physical activity & environmental
conditions.
Daily intake & output of water
Intake ml/day Output ml/day
The fluid we
2,200 Skin 350
take
From
200 Lungs 350
metabolism
Sweat 100
Faeces 100
Urine 1,500
Total 2,400 2,400

Dehydration
It is defined as an excessive loss of body water. It may occur because
of inadequate intake of, or abnormal loss of body water or a
combination of both.
The symptoms of dehydration are:
• Thirst
• Loss of appetite
• Decreased urination
• Nausea
• Impaired temperature regulation
• Muscular spasms
• Increased pulse rate
Symptoms of severe dehydration appear when Fluid level falls by
more than 10%. A 20% loss of fluid from the body can be fatal.
A dehydrated person is usually managed by Oral Rehydration Therapy
(ORT). The WHO recommended ORS (Oral Rehydration Salt) that are
to be dissolved in 1 litre of water & make an Oral Rehydration
Solution & have to be finished within 24 hours. He also can take HAF.
(Home Available Fluid)
Home Available Fluid

Normally we prepared in home 1 glass of water + 2 spoon sugar + a
pinch of salt + few drops of lime juice (lime juice contained potassium
& salt contain sodium which helps to maintain the equilibriums
among intracellular & extracellular fluid.)
ORS (WHO) for 1 litre

Content Amount in gm
Glucose 20.0
Sodium Chloride (salt) 3.5
Sodium bicarbonate (baking
1.5
soda)
Potassium chloride 1.5
A minimum of +8 glass of water is recommended daily.

Excess of water causes oedema. (Swelling of the skin)

UNIT 6: BALANCED DIET
When the diet can meet all the needs of an individual and also it
provides an extra allowance for minor stresses and strains, the
individual is said to be in a state of optimum nutrition.
Optimum Nutrition:
Optimum Nutrition is also known as adequate nutrition or good
nutrition.
Good Nutrition:
Good Nutrition thus provides all essential nutrients in correct balance
which are further utilized to promote the highest level of physical and
mental health. Such a state of nutrition can be attained through
balanced diets.
Balanced Diet:
Balanced Diet can be defined as one which contains different types of
foods (from all food group) in such quantities and proportions that
needs for all the nutrients are adequately met and a small extra
allowance is made as a margin of safety.
Safety Margin:
Safety Margin is taken into account due to individual variations, losses
during cooking and processing and also minor illnesses.
Thus, a balanced diet along with the inclusion of various food groups
focuses on the RDA for various nutrients.

RDA:
RDA is defined as the estimates of intakes nutrients which individuals
in a population group need to consume to ensure that the
physiological needs of all subjects in that population are met.
RDA varies with age, sex, physiological state, etc.
Factors affecting RDA

This nutritional requirement is influenced by:
• age
• growth
• gender
• pregnancy
• breastfeeding
• illness
• psychological and emotional stress
• activity level
• smoking
• drinking.
Importance of Balanced Diet

• It includes a variety of food items from all the food groups.
• It meets the RDA for all nutrients
• It provides safety allowances to withstand the short duration of
illness.
• To maintain a state of positive health and optimal performance.
• Prevents deficiency diseases.
• Promotes and preserves health.

• Promotes optimum nutrition thus maintains acceptable body

dimensions.
Digestion, Absorption, And Metabolism

Digestion:
Mechanical and chemical process in which food is broken down in the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract, releasing nutrients in forms the body can
use
Absorption:
Process in which released nutrients are taken into the cells lining the
GI tract
Metabolism:
The sum of the body processes involved in converting food necessary
for energy, tissue building, and metabolic controls
Digestion: Basic Principles
Principle of Change
• The body cannot use food as it is eaten
• Food must be changed into simpler substances to be absorbed
and then used by cells to sustain life
Principle of Wholeness
• The parts of the digestive process comprise a continuous whole.
• Food components travel through the gastrointestinal (GI)
system until they are delivered to cells or excreted
The Gastrointestinal System
• A long muscular tube that begins with the mouth and ends with
the anus (also called the alimentary canal or digestive tract)

Food Groups
Three Food Group System:
• energy giving food,
• bodybuilding food,
• protective foods
Five Food Group System:
• cereals and grain products,
• pulses or legumes,
• milk, egg, and flesh
• fruits and vegetables
• fats and sugars

UNIT 7: MENU PLANNING
Planning of Nutritionally Balanced Menu

Meal planning involves planning a balanced meal that is colourful,
attractive, appetizing, and palatable and within the economic means
of the individuals concerned. A balanced diet is one that provides all
the nutrients in the amount and proportion required according to
one’s age, sex, and activity.
Meal planning is defined as a simple process which involves the
application of the knowledge of food, nutrient, food habits, likes and
dislikes to plan wholesome and attractive meals.
• Meal planning involves decision making regarding what to eat
how much to eat each day at each meal.
• The meals planned should not only ensure that nutrients are
adequately met but also be flexible enough to take advantage of
availability and lower prices of seasonal foods and meet the
needs and choices of family members.
As the health of an individual or a family depends on how well they
are fed within the given resources, effective meal planning is a great
challenge to every meal manager.
Aims
• To meet the nutritional needs of an individual who will be
consuming the food.
• Plan meals within the food cost.
• Simplify the purchase, preparation, and storage of meals.
• Provide attractive, appetizing meals.
• Save time and money.

Essentials of Meal Planning

The major objective of planning meals is to achieve nutritional
adequacy along with the consideration of food availability, food
habits, food preferences, purchasing power, and many other factors.
Nutritional Adequacy
The first prerequisite of a good meal plan is to meet the nutritional
needs of the individual and the family as a whole. No single food can
meet all the nutrient requirements. A combination of different foods
needs to be included in the diet.
For convenience in meal panning, different foods have to be been
grouped under three food groups based on their function and major
nutrient contributions.
Energy Giving Foods, Bodybuilding and Protective Foods
Energy Giving Foods
• This group includes foods rich in carbohydrates like cereals and
their products, starchy roots and tubers and sugar and those
rich in fat like nuts, fats, and oils. Therefore, the energy in our
diet is mainly contributed by this group.
• Cereals and nuts in addition to energy, contribute a significant
amount of proteins, minerals and B group vitamins.
• Fats sugars besides being energy-dense and palatability to the
diet.
Bodybuilding Foods
• This group includes food which provides proteins that are
important for tissue building and maintenance.
• Foods of animal origin like milk and its product, eggs, meat, fish,
provide proteins of good quality.

• Plant protein foods like pulses, legumes nuts, and oilseeds have
a relatively inferior quality of protein.
• The foods of this group in addition to protein also contribute
energy, vitamin A, vitamins of B groups and minerals.
Protective Foods
• This group includes foods that provide an ample amount of
vitamins and minerals for the protective regulatory function of
the body.
• All vegetables and fruits (except starchy roots and tubers) and
fruits comprise this group.
• Amongst vegetables, most of the GLV’s are a good source of
iron, calcium, beta carotene, vitamin C and dietary fibre.
• Deep yellow and orange-coloured fruits and vegetables are
particularly rich in beta carotene and citrus fruits in vitamin C.
Hence, the selection and inclusion of some foods from each of these
food groups in every meal are important to provide all the essential
nutrients for various body functions and to make the diet well
balanced.
The nutrient needs of each member of the family depend upon age,
sex, activity, physiological stress, etc. Modification is done in the same
meal for different individuals.

Food Cost and Economy

One must plan meals and buy food wisely to achieve maximum
nutrition from the spent. E.g. As a source of protein pulses as
compared to animal foods are relatively cheaper.
For economizing in meal planning, the following characteristics are
important:
• Compare the prices of food items to make the best buy of
money spent.
• As far as possible buy food from fair price shops etc.
• Buy only non-perishable foods in bulk.
• Use seasonal foods as they are not only economical but
nutritious also.
• Cook the right amount to minimize wastage.
• Go for economic substitutes within the same food groups. E.g.
Choosing cereals and millets instead of bread and pasta.
• Make proper use of leftovers.
Acceptability of Meals
Acceptability of meals is as important as meeting nutritional needs
and keeping the food cost within the budget. To make meals
acceptable, the following considerations are important during
planning,
Likes and Dislikes: While planning meals it is very important to keep in
mind the likes and dislikes of family/people.
Variety: The meals should have variety in colour, texture, and flavour
for better acceptability.
Variety can be achieved by:
• Selecting different foods from each food group.

• Avoiding the repetition of the same food from a particular food

group.
• Including a variety of vegetables in meals to incorporate colour.
• Using different methods of cooking such as baking, boiling,
frying, etc. to bring about variety in texture.
• Using attractive garnishes, toppings, and accompaniments such
as papad, pickles, and relishes.
Satiety Value: The meals planned should provide adequate satiety to
prevent hunger until it is time for the next meal. Sufficient amounts of
proteins, dietary fibre and fat help to provide satiety in the meals.
Time and Convenience: Selection of dishes should be done according
to the availability of time.
Food Habits and Religious Beliefs
Food Availability and Seasonal Variation: As far as possible seasonal
and locally available food should be made use of. Vegetables and
fruits in seasonal not only cheaper but have the highest content and
best flavour.
Guidelines
• Include at least one or a minimum number of servings from
each food group in each meal.
• Make suitable combinations for vegetarians, to improve the
overall protein quality of the diet.
• Include uncooked vegetables and fruits in the meals.
• Include at least one serving of milk to ensure the supply of
calcium and other vital nutrients.

Factors Influencing Meal Planning

Many factors influence the acceptability of a meal. Customers select
what appeals most to them from a menu card based on individual
likes and dislikes, budget, the popularity of items, etc.
However, while planning meals the following factors need to be
considered:
Nutritional Adequacy
The most important consideration in menu planning is to ensure that
the meal fulfils the nutrient needs of the individual consuming the
meal. For example, if the meal is planned for industrial workers, it
must meet the RDAs for that age group. Foods from all basic food
groups should be included in each meal so that the meal is balanced
and nutritionally adequate. Nutrient needs may be modified for
hospital diets (therapeutic diets).
Economic Considerations
The spending power of the clientele has to be kept in mind and meals
have to be planned within the budget. Low-cost nutritious substitutes
should be included in the menu to keep the costs low. The food cost
should be maintained if the organization has to run profitably.
Food Service
Menus should be planned concerning the type of food service,
whether it is a cafeteria, seated service, buffet, etc.
Equipment and Work Space
The menu should be planned, keeping the available equipment and
workspace in mind. Deep freezers, refrigerators, grinders, dough
kneaders, deep fat fryers, boilers, etc. should be adequate.

Leftover Food
An effective manager should consider as to how leftovers could be
rotated to obtain maximum profit. Adequate storage space and
hygienic standards should be ensured to minimize the risk of
contamination and spoilage of food.
Food Habits
Food habits of the customer is another important criterion which
need to be considered as food served has to be acceptable to the
customer. Special attention should be paid when a particular type of
community is catered to. Religious considerations should be known to
the meal planner.
Availability
Some fruits and vegetables are seasonal. During the season the cost is
reasonable and quality is better. Today, practically all fruits and
vegetables are available throughout the year because of advanced
preservation technology. However, seasonal fruits and vegetables
should be given preference. Regional availability influences menu
planning. For example, fish and seafood are fresh and cheaper in
coastal areas.
Meal Frequency and Pattern
The meal timings and number of meals consumed in a day, whether
meals are packed or served at the table, also influences the selection
of food items on the menu. The age, activity level, physiological state,
work schedule, and economic factors need to be known before
planning meals for institutional catering.

Variety
This is one of the most important considerations while planning
meals. A variety of foods from different food groups should be
included.
The term variety means:
• Variety in food ingredients
• Variety in recipe
• Method of cooking
• Colour, texture, and flavour
• Variety in presentation and garnish.
A meal should look attractive and be appetizing. A judicious blend of
flavours, attractive colour combinations, and different textures make
food enjoyable and interesting. The method of cooking used for
different items on the menu should vary.
For example, two deep-fried items would make the meal heavy.
Simple processes such as fermentation and sprouting not only
contribute to improved flavour and digestibility but also enhance the
nutritive value of the meal.
A well-planned meal that is nutritionally adequate would have a good
satiety value and prevent the occurrence of hunger-pangs before it is
time for the next meal. The nutritional adequacy of a meal in an ala
carte service depends on the food choices made by the customer. The
caterer must offer adequate, nutrient-dense foods to the clients, to
choose from.

UNIT 8: MASS FOOD PRODUCTION
Effect of Cooking on Nutritive Value of Food (QFP)

Almost all foods consumed need some form of cooking and
processing for making it fit for consumption. The nutrients we receive
from the meals depend largely on the extent of cooking practices
used. Some of the nutrients are lost during cooking. Cooking also has
its benefits like:
• It increases palatability
• It makes food easily digestible
• Pathogenic micro-organisms are destroyed, thus safe.
• The appearance of food improves
Food prepared in large quantities in institutional kitchens or food
processing plants is more prone to loss of nutrients if adequate care is
not taken to preserve its nutrients. In the initial stages of cooking the
soaking of food in water leads to leaching of vitamins and minerals.
These losses can be minimized by washing the uncut fruits and
vegetables and not soaking them in water.
Various effects seen on the nutrients are primarily because of the
HEAT, ALKALI, and ACID.
Effect of Heat on The Nutrients
• In carbohydrates, cooking has a beneficial effect as it leads to
gelatinization of starch and caramelization of sugar which gives
colour and flavour to food.
• Proteins get denatured thus access to enzymes and digestibility
increases.
• Moist heating of pulses improves protein quality.

• Chemical reactions take place when oil is continuously heated.

Reactions like hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization of the
oil. Oil becomes dark and foamy, such an oil should not be used
for consumption
• Blanching inactivates certain enzymes that lead to undesirable
browning.
• Heat labile vitamins are lost.
• Fat-soluble vitamins are lost during fat frying if a product is not
coated properly.
Effect of Alkali on Nutrients
• Alkali is used during cooking and processing to soften
vegetables. Pinch of sodium bicarbonate added to green
vegetables helps in brightening the green colour.
• B complex vitamins and Vitamin C are destroyed in an alkaline
medium.
• Excessive cooking in the alkaline medium not only destroys
vitamins but makes the texture mushy and gives a soapy taste to
the product.
Effect of Acid on Nutrients
• An acidic medium while cooking helps to preserve water-soluble
vitamins and retards enzymatic browning of certain fruits and
vegetables.
• Vegetables and pulses take a longer time to cook in an acidic
medium as acids precipitate pectin and harden vegetables.
• Vegetables lose their colour, so to overcome this allow the
volatile acids to escape first, hence greens should be cooked
without lid for the first few minutes.

Guidelines for Preserving Nutrients

• Wash vegetables, fruits and rice in just a sufficient amount of
water. It is advisable either to cook in a minimum amount of
water or to use the cooking water in soups and gravies.
• Cutting vegetables to small pieces and exposing them to air
before cooking leads to loss of vitamins particularly vitamin C.
Thus, it is advisable to cut large pieces and cook for a shorter
period.
• The 3 R’s of cooking to conserve nutrients are:
1. Reduce the amount of water
2. Reduce the length of the cooking period
3. Reduce the amount of surface area exposed
• Oil heated repeatedly should not be consumed as repeated
heating during frying leads to the production of toxic substances
due to pre-oxidation and rancidity.

UNIT 9: NEWER TRENDS IN FOOD SERVICE

INDUSTRY
Eating out has become a way of life. In the past, people eat in a
restaurant to celebrate a special occasion or it was a weary traveller
on the lookout of bed and board. Today, practically everybody who
steps out of the house for work, education, or business has at least
one main meal away from home. Many food joints to shoot every
stratum of society have mushroomed in towns and cities. Many of
these places are unlicensed, with the food handler having little or no
knowledge about nutrients and nutrition, health and diseases.
Need for Serving Nutritional and Health-Specific Meals
Foods provided by residential institutions, such as boarding schools,
college hostels, hospitals and old- age homes, are probably the one
source of nutrition for the residents and must be adequate. The list of
residential institutes is long, and it is the responsibility and moral
obligation of the caterer to provide a nutritionally adequate meal to
the resident. Sample menu based on the principles of meal planning
and recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) should be provided to
the caterer to ensure that the meal is balanced as well as attractive,
appetizing, & affordable.
While selecting commodities, fruits and vegetables at the proper
stage of maturity, which are fresh and intact, should be purchased. If
convenience foods are to be purchased, their costs should be
considered. The food standards laid down by the govt. of various
commodities should be checked especially for compulsory standards.
For example, the fruit product order for processed fruit and vegetable
products such as tomato sauce, pineapple slices in syrup, etc.

Just planning a balanced meal is not sufficient. The nutrients present

in the food should be conserved while preparing food, and cooking
practices that enhance nutrients should be observed.
To make quick money, hygienic practices are ignored or sufficient
investments in proper storage and cooking equipment are not made,
leading to the vicious cycle of diseases and malnutrition affecting
work efficiency and productivity.
Some Common Practices Which Reduce the Nutritional Value
• Buying poor quality fruits and vegetables in bulk because of the
lower rate.
• Improper storage leading to further loss of nutrition.
• Faulty cooking practices such as using excess water and then
evaporating it to get correct constituency, washing vegetables
after cutting.
• Overcooking and discarding cooking water (for liquor)
• Soaking vegetables in water
• Cooking in an open pan
• Keeping hot food over the extended service period.
• Repeated reheating of entire food instead of reheating quantity
required.
• Adding alkali to speed up the softening of pulses and vegetables
and to preserve the green colour.
• Using Ajinomoto (MSG) in all preparations to bring out the
flavour of food. Ajinomoto is used in soups in place of stock
permitted level in food is 1%.

Nutritive Value of Fast Food and Junk Food

The fast-food industry is growing rapidly all over the world to provide
a quick meal to the customer at an unaffordable cost and in very little
time. In India, the fast-food industry comprises mainly of south Indian,
Punjabi snacks and popular MNCs like KFC, MC’D, Pizza hut, etc. Many
products have been modified to suit the Indian palate and respect
religious sentiments. Many of these providers take away or drive-thru
services as well as a sitting area to eat food on the premises. Modern
commercial fast food is often highly processed & prepared &
industrial fashion. Most items on the menu are prepared at the
central supply facility & then shipped to individual outlets where they
are reheated/cooked or assembled in a short time. The central
kitchen ensures consistency in product quality & ability to deliver the
order quickly to the customer eliminating labour & equipment cost in
the individual restaurant.
Nutritional Evaluation of Newly Launched Products
A wide variety of convenience foods are available and new products
and attractive packages are being launched every day to meet the
growing demands of working women, single families, the elderly and
commercial establishment who are too busy to invest valuable time
and labour in pre-preparation.
The newly launched products in the market can be categorized under
5 heads namely:
1. Basic product: needs some preparation before cooking e.g.
shelled green peas
2. Ready to cook products: needs no further preparation before
cooking e.g. frozen green peas
3. Ready to use products: must be prepared and heated e.g.
instant tomato soup powder

4. Pre-cooked products: a prepared dish which needs heating

before consumption e.g. paneer makhanvala
5. Table ready products: packet can be opened and eaten e.g.
potato chips
Many products launched in the market make health claims which at
times could be misleading. Convenience is not the main criterion, but
meting the days’ nutritional needs should be checked. Some newly
launched products based on soy proteins, flax seeds, carotene, and
vitamin E rich oils have distinct benefits while other foods such as
non-diary creams have both advantages because of no cholesterol
and disadvantages because of fatty acids composition of vegetables,
oils seeds.
Antioxidants
They are compounds that prevent oxidation. Oxidation is the process
that turns newspaper yellow and cut apples into brown. Oxidation
leads to degenerative changes in our bodies. Antioxidants such as
vitamin C, Vitamin E, beta-carotene and selenium help protect against
free radical damage. They scavenge free radicals and protect body
cells against cancer. They prevent atherosclerosis and coronary artery
diseases (CAD).
The sources of antioxidants are listed below:
• Vitamin E soya oil, sunflower oil., almond, spinach, and mint
• Vitamin C amla, guava, green leafy vegetables, and all citrus fruit
• Beta-carotene all green leafy vegetables, and all yellow-orange
and red fruits and vegetables.
• Selenium whole grain, pulses, green leafy vegetables and
cauliflower
• Non- nutrient antioxidant phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and
isoflavones present in beans, cloves oats, tea, coffee, etc.

We need to consume much more than the RDA for the antioxidant
effect.
Significance of Nutritional Labelling
Nutrition facts labels tell you about the nutrition of a particular
product. This information includes serving size, the number of
servings in the package, calories per serving and the amount of
various nutrients contained in the product. Once you understand the
labels, they can help you follow a healthy diet and make it easier to
choose the most nutritious foods.
Maintaining a Healthy Weight – Reading nutrition labels can help you
make the right food choices when you are trying to lose weight or
prevent weight gain. In a study published in the “Journal of the
American Dietetic Association” in April 2000, people told by their
doctors to lose weight for health reasons who used nutrition labels
consumed fewer calories, more fiber and less saturated fat, sugar,
and carbohydrates than the people who didn’t use nutrition labels.
Nutrient Consumption – Many Americans don’t consume enough
fiber, iron, calcium, and vitamins A and C, so these are always
included on nutrition labels. You can use the percent daily values
listed on the label to give you a good idea of which foods are high or
low in these essential nutrients. Foods that contain at least 10
percent of the daily value for a nutrient are good sources of that
nutrient, and foods that contain 20 percent of the daily value for a
nutrient are considered high in that nutrient.
Considerations – While nutrition facts labels can be helpful, not
everyone understands the information included or the importance of
it. A study published in the “American Journal of Preventive
Medicine” in November 2006 found that people who had low levels
of literacy and numeracy often didn’t understand these labels and
that even some people who were more literate sometimes had
trouble interpreting nutrition facts labels. Doctors and other health

providers need to provide education to their patients on how to use

these labels when making dietary recommendations.
Prebiotic and Probiotic Food
Probiotics:
These are “good” bacteria that help keep your digestive system
healthy by controlling the growth of harmful bacteria.
Prebiotics:
These are carbohydrates that cannot be digested by the human body.
They are food for probiotics.
The primary benefit of probiotics and prebiotics appears to be helping
you maintain a healthy digestive system.
Good Sources of Probiotics:
One of the best sources of probiotics is yogurt. It has good bacteria
like lactobacillus or bifidobacterial. Look for “live or active cultures”
on the label to be sure your favourite brand of yogurt is a rich source
of probiotics. Other good food sources are sauerkraut, miso soup,
fermented, soft cheeses (like Gouda), and even sourdough bread. The
common feature of all these foods is fermentation, a process that
produces probiotics.
Good Sources of Prebiotics:
To help maintain a healthy level of prebiotics, you can feed them with
the foods you eat. Foods rich in prebiotics include asparagus,
Jerusalem artichokes, bananas, oatmeal, and legumes.

Nutraceuticals
Nutraceutical, the words “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical”, is a food
or food product that provides health and medical benefits, including
the prevention and treatment of disease.
“A nutraceutical is a product isolated or purified from foods that are
generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with food. A
nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or
provide protection against chronic disease.”
Such products may range from isolated nutrients, dietary
supplements and specific diets to genetically engineered foods,
herbal products, and processed foods such as cereals, soups, and
beverages.
Critical Evaluation of Fast Foods

• Fast food refers to those kinds of food that are prepared and
ready to be eaten within the shortest time possible.
• Additionally, fast food constitutes foodstuffs that are available
for sale in restaurants and stores made up of ingredients that
can be preheated or precooked without any problem and
served in a takeaway form.

• Fast foods are characterized by high-fat content, high calories,

high cholesterol, and quick, convenient and high sodium
concentration.
• Similarly, it is inexpensively made from ingredients that are
cheap such as fat meat and refined grains. These kinds of foods
are not only available in restaurants but also in vending
equipment as well as 24-hour expediency stores.
• Examples of fast food include the following, sandwiches, hot
dogs, pitas, fried chicken, French fries, chicken nuggets, tacos,
pizza, hamburgers, fish and chips and ice cream to mention but
a few.
Merits of Fast Food

Saves time:
The most notable argument brought forth in support of fast food is
that it saves time as well as convenience. On the same note, fast food
saves time in the context that one will not engage in all those
activities of buying, cleaning such foodstuffs, cooking as well as
washing dishes. It is also true that when one gets home after a
tiresome day thus very tired and bored, the efforts needed to cook
can be substituted with having fast food.
Saves money:
Similarly, fast foods are cheaper. This is because they are made from
cheaper ingredients such as refined grains, meat with a lot of fat
among others instead of ingredients that are expensive and nutritious
such as vegetables, lean meat, and fresh fruits. On the same note
considering people who live alone, the expenses of cooking are much
higher compared to when buying fast food.

Health advantage:
Even though those opposing fast food claim that it results in various
problems in human health, it is worth noting that fast foods have
contributed to taller and individuals with higher life expectancy.
Sharing and convenience:
Fast foods are usually packed in a way that it can be taken out of the
restaurant and eaten from anywhere, be it in the car, office, at the
bus station. Additionally, unlike other kinds of food, fast food comes
with the absolute advantage of splitting and sharing between or even
amongst individuals.
Reliability:
A study carried out asking “why individuals bought fast food”
established that the reliability of such kinds of food is what propels
them to buy. Fast foods are easy to obtain, are in plenty, varied and
readily available.
Nutritional information:
Most of the fast-food joints have adopted a culture of making
available the information concerning nutrients of their food. It is
worth mentioning that with such kind of information as well as many
foodstuff varieties, one has a chance to choose the best kind of food
that suits them.

Demerits of Fast Food

Health issues:
It has been brought forth that fast foods are characterized by high-fat
content, high calories, high cholesterol, and quick, high sodium
concentration and made from ingredients that are cheap such as fat
meat and refined grains. All these pose a greater risk to human
health. Too much eating of fast food with such health problems as
obesity, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disorders, and liver
problems.
Heart attack:
Fast foods are prepared using Trans-fat which is an artery-clogging
fat. Food prepared using this fat includes French fries as well as
chicken nuggets to mention but a few.
Increased high blood pressure:
Fast food contains a good deal of sodium concentration, this
aggravates the risk of high blood pressure.
Obesity:
Continual eating of such kinds of food means that we accumulate a
lot of calories in our body that are not useful leading to individuals
being obese.
Liver problem:
Since the liver is responsible for purification/filtering of harmful
substances as well as producing substances that help breakdown fats,
when fast foods are consumed every now and then, the liver will be
overloaded and damaged. This, in turn, leads to very serious health
problems that can be fatal.

Addiction:
It has been documented that fast food is addictive. What this means
is that individuals who are used to eating such foods cannot go for
long without having a bit of such food.
Family bond:
The issue of fast food has been brought forth as another factor that
jeopardizes family bonds. This is because no or very minimal time is
used in preparing food together, leave alone eating together. Young
people are spending more of their time in having a meal with their
fellow friends other than their family members.
Psychologists hold that mealtime is a family meeting where every
member is in a position to share their thought, ideas, problems as
well as feelings. This usually helps in strengthening the bond between
and among family members. This is in jeopardy during this era of
growth in fast food industries.
Lower nutritional content:
Fast food has been linked and it is a fact that most of them apart from
pizza lack dietary fiber as well as essential micro-nutrients such as
vitamins and minerals. It is worth mentioning that food that lacks
fiber brings with it several stomach complications such as
constipation.
Expensive:
Although previously it was stated that fast food is inexpensive, that
was only true when considering an individual buying such kind of food
cooking at home. It is important to note that a family visiting or
buying fast food once in a while is not that expensive, but when this is
done more often, then the amount of money spent can be quite
much more as compared to if the family could just buy the food in
supermarket, take the time to prepare it and enjoy a dinner or lunch
together as a family

Conclusion
We should not advocate for doing away with fast food due to its
various disadvantages, but that we should not fight the industry and
bring it down to its knees but rather champion for further
improvement of fast food that will bring out high quality and healthy
food. This will indeed ensure that people consume healthy foods and
at the same time cushioning those that depend on the industry for
their daily bread from economic uncertainty of doing away with the
sector.

Unit 1: Basic Aspects: Definition: Health

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1st Semester Nutrition – UNIT 1 [BHM116]

UNIT 1: BASIC ASPECTS

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Nutrients are classified into two categories:

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Food is digested, the complex nutrients i.e., carbohydrates, fats,

TEE = BMR (45 – 75percent) + Thermo genesis (10 percent) +

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Factors affecting the BMR

Thermal effect of food (SDA)

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UNIT 3: MACRO NUTRIENTS

• Carbohydrates are an important group of nutrients. It is present

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Classification of carbohydrates on the basis of their structure and

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Other Classification of Carbohydrates

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Dietary Sources of Carbohydrates

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functions, as hold individual cells together and provide

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Sources of Dietary Fiber

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UNIT 4: MICRO NUTRIENTS

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Water Soluble Vitamins

• Soluble in aqueous solutions

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Thiamine (vitamin B1)

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Pantothenic Acid (vitamin B5)

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• Food Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, milk, cheese, eggs, fortified

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Folic Acid (vitamin B9)

• Soluble in lipids, but not in aqueous solutions

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damage. Diets rich in vitamin E may help prevent Alzheimer’s

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Vitamins and Its Recommended Daily Values

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An important nutrient 75 to 80 percent of our total body is water.

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Home Available Fluid

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A minimum of +8 glass of water is recommended daily.

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